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Career-specific Parental Behaviors, Career Exploration and Career Adaptabil-ity: A Three-Wave Investigation among Chinese Undergraduates
Yanjun Guan, Fuxi Wang, Haiyang Liu, Yueting Ji, Xiao Jia, ZhengFang, Yumeng Li, Huijuan Hua, Chendi Li
PII: S0001-8791(14)00137-7DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2014.10.007Reference: YJVBE 2843
To appear in: Journal of Vocational Behavior
Received date: 6 September 2014
Please cite this article as: Guan, Y., Wang, F., Liu, H., Ji, Y., Jia, X., Fang, Z., Li,Y., Hua, H. & Li, C., Career-specific Parental Behaviors, Career Exploration and CareerAdaptability: A Three-Wave Investigation among Chinese Undergraduates, Journal ofVocational Behavior (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2014.10.007
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Running head: Parental Behaviors and Career Adaptability
Career-specific Parental Behaviors, Career Exploration and Career Adaptability:
A Three-Wave Investigation among Chinese Undergraduates
Yanjun Guan1,4
*, Fuxi Wang2*, Haiyang Liu
3, Yueting Ji
4, Xiao Jia
4, Zheng Fang
4, Yumeng
Li4, Huijuan Hua
4 and Chendi Li
4
1 University of Surrey, UK
2 Rutgers University, USA
3 Peking University, Beijing, China
4 Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
*Corresponding author: Fuxi Wang ([email protected]), School of Management
and Labor Relations, Rutgers University, USA.
Acknowledgement: This research was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities, and the Research Funds of Renmin University of China (Project
13XNJ018).
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Fuxi Wang <[email protected]>
Rutgers School of Management and Labor Relations
94 Rockafeller Road.
Piscatway, NJ 08854-8054
Phone number: 1-224-848-0692
fax number: 732-445-2830
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Abstract
The current research examined the effects of career-specific parental behaviors
(reported by parents at time 1) on Chinese university students’ career exploration (reported by
students at time 2) and career adaptability (reported by students at time 3). A survey study
was conducted among Chinese university graduates (N = 244) and their parents (N = 244).
The results supported a mediation model such that a high level of parental support and a low
level of parental interference had beneficial effects on Chinese undergraduates’ career
exploration, which in turn positively predicted their career adaptability. Lack of parental
career engagement had a direct negative effect on career adaptability. Significant interaction
effects were also found among these three types of parental behaviors such that at a lower
level of lack of parental career engagement, the positive effects of parental support, as well as
the negative effects of interference on career exploration were stronger. The corresponding
moderated mediation models were also supported. These findings carry implications for
research on career construction theory and career counseling practices.
Key words: career-specific parental behaviors, career exploration, career adaptability
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Career-specific Parental Behaviors, Career Exploration and Career Adaptability:
A Three-Wave Investigation among Chinese Undergraduates
From a developmental perspective, most undergraduate students are in the stage of
emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000), which allows for various exploratory activities to identify
one's future career possibilities, and to develop relevant abilities to cope with diverse
challenges in career development. Faced with many difficulties and uncertainties,
undergraduates still need guidance from external sources, among which the interventions and
suggestions provided by their parents cannot be easily substituted (Bryant, Zvonkovic, &
Reynolds, 2006). Career-specific parental behaviors refer to the concrete actions parents use
to guide the career development of their children (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009). Career-specific
parental behaviors are related to the general aspects of parental practices, such as general
parenting styles (Tracey, Lent, Brown, Soresi, & Nota, 2006) and attachment styles with
children (Blustein, Walbridge, Friedlander, & Palladino, 1991); at the same time, this concept
also captures parents’ specific understandings and interventions for the career development of
their children (Zhao, Lim, & Teo, 2012).
Dietrich and Kracke (2009) found that parental support (parents encourage youths to
explore their career possibilities and provide advice whenever necessary), parental
interference (parents intend to control their children's career preparation and career
aspirations by imposing their own preferences), as well as the lack of parental career
engagement (parents’ inability or reluctance to get involved in their children's career
development) serve as the basic elements of career-specific parental behaviors. Recent
research has showed that these parental behaviors significantly predicted career exploration
and career decision-making difficulties of adolescents, as well as the career self-efficacy of
university students (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009; Zhao, Lim, & Teo, 2012). In spite of the
progress, there still exist questions related to the roles of these parental practices in the career
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development of university students. First, previous research mainly relied on offspring’s
perceptions to measure career-specific parental behaviors (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009; Zhao,
Lim, & Teo 2012). Although the validity of this operationalization has been supported, there
still exists the need to measure this construct from the perspective of parents, to further
corroborate previous findings (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009; Garcia, Restubog, Toledano,
Tolentino, & Rafferty, 2012). Second, previous research mainly focused on the behavioral
(career exploration) and social-cognitive (career decision-making difficulties and career self-
efficacy) outcomes, but not much work has been done to examine how parental practices
affect undergraduates’ adaptive-abilities related to their career development.
The current research aims to address these gaps through the following ways. First, to
better estimate the effects of these parental practices on undergraduates’ career-related
outcomes, we adopted parents’ self-reports to measure career-specific parental behaviors, and
examined their relations with students’ self-reports of career-related outcomes. In addition,
we measured the key variables at three time points, to reduce the potential common method
variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Second, we also examined the
relations between career-specific parental practices and Chinese undergraduates’ career
adaptability (Savickas, 1997, 2005, 2013). As career adaptability refers to the self-regulatory
resources that help individuals to cope with the challenges and difficulties in their career
transitions (Savickas, 1997), research into the antecedents of career adaptability will carry
great implications in helping individuals to achieve positive career outcomes. To the best of
our knowledge, there exists only one study that reveals a positive relationship between
undergraduates’ perception of parental support and their career adaptability (Tian & Fan,
2014). By using the three-factor framework of parental behaviors and a more direct method
to measure these behaviors, the current research examined parental influence on
undergraduates’ career adaptability in a more comprehensive and rigorous way.
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In addition, the current research also examined the dynamic relations among these
variables by testing the mediating role of career exploration, as well as the interactive effects
of different types of parental behaviors on outcome variables. Based on previous research
(Bartley & Robitschek, 2000; Blustein, 1997; Jordaan, 1963; Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman,
1983), we propose that undergraduates’ career exploration behavior will serve as the proximal
predictor of their career adaptability, and mediate the effects of parental practices on career
adaptability. From a self-determination perspective (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000),
we further propose that as these three types of parental behaviors are closely related to the
need fulfillment of competence, autonomy and relatedness in undergraduates’ career
exploration, therefore career exploration will be positively predicted by parent support, but
negatively predicted by parental interference and lack of parental career engagement. In
addition, this research also examined the interactions among these three types of parental
behaviors, to explore how the combination of different types of parental behaviors affects
undergraduates’ career exploration and adaptability.
Career Exploration and Career Adaptability
According to career construction theory (Savickas, 1997, 2005, 2013), career
adaptability depicts the multiple psychological resources involved in the problem-solving
process in one’s career development, including career concern (the ability of considering
future possibilities and preparing for these possibilities), career control (the ability of making
deliberate decisions and taking conscientious actions), career curiosity (the strength of
exploring various situations and roles) and career confidence (the positive beliefs on one’s
problem-solving skills across different situations). To develop these adaptive-abilities,
individuals need to continuously gain insights of their own characteristics and the complexity
of working environments through various personal experiences (Savickas, 2013). As career
exploration refers to the activities that enable individuals to collect and analyze information
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that is relevant to their career development (Blustein, 1997; Jordaan, 1963; Stumpf, Colarelli,
& Hartman, 1983), we argue that career exploration may serve as a proximal antecedent for
individuals’ career adaptability.
Career exploration includes self-exploration and environmental exploration (Stumpf
et al., 1983). Through self-exploration, individuals can thoroughly examine their own
interests, values, and experiences and thus form a clear image about who they are and how
these internal attributes shape their future careers (Blustein, 1989; Flum & Blustein, 2000;
Stumpf et al., 1983). Environmental exploration enables individuals to make more informed
career decisions by collecting information on jobs, organizations and occupations (Blustein,
1992, 1997; Neimeyer, 1988; Super & Hall, 1978; Werbel, 2000). It has been established that
both self-exploration and environment-exploration activities play important roles in helping
individuals to identify suitable job opportunities, achieve better employment and cope with
the difficulties and challenges in their career transitions (Zikic & Klehe, 2006; Werbel, 2000).
In this study, we propose that the continuing course of career exploration behaviors
may contribute to the development of career adaptability. First of all, career exploration
promotes the search for valuable information related to self-appraisal or adjustment to
different jobs and occupations (Blustein, 1992, 1997; Super & Hall, 1978), which yields
useful insights that advance a person to a gratifying career choice, therefore career
exploration is likely to promote students’ strength in exploring various situations and
potential roles (career curiosity). As previous research has showed that career exploration
correlates positively with future-oriented mental process, such as goal-directedness (Blustein,
1989), personal growth initiative (Robitschek & Cook, 1999) and the formation of ego
identity (Blustein, Devenis, & Kidney, 1989), we thus propose that by collecting and
processing relevant information, career exploration also motivates individuals to seriously
consider their future career possibilities and prepare for these possibilities (career concern).
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In addition, previous research also suggest that the activities involved in career exploration
also promote students’ abilities of making deliberate decisions and taking conscientious
actions (Blustein & Phillips, 1988), therefore career exploration is very likely to strengthen
the abilities of career control. The engagement of these exploration activities can also
promote the self-efficacious beliefs in their problem-solving skills during their career
development (Blustein, 1989; Lent & Hackett, 1987), therefore we propose that career
exploration will also promote students’ career confidence. Based on the above discussion, we
propose that:
Hypothesis 1: Career exploration will be positively related to career adaptability.
The Roles of Parental Career-specific Behaviors
From the perspective of career construction theory (Savickas, 1997, 2005, 2013),
career is a process motivated by individuals’ willingness to gain insights for their future
career development and life meanings, therefore individuals’ intrinsic motivation plays an
important role in their career exploration and career adaptability development. Consistently,
self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) also emphasizes the role of intrinsic
motivation in driving individuals’ behavior across different life domains. It is also argued that
by fulfilling individuals’ need for autonomy, competence and relatedness, contextual factors
can promote individuals’ intrinsic motivation and proactive behaviors (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
In this study, we propose that the three types of parental behaviors are closely related to the
need fulfillment of competence, autonomy and relatedness in undergraduates’ career activities,
therefore they will serve as significant predictors for undergraduates’ career exploration.
The first factor, parental support, emphasizes parents’ supporting behaviors in
encouraging youths’ exploration activities (e.g., seeking information, getting apprenticeship
opportunities) and giving suggestions on their career development when needed. From the
perspective of self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000), these
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supportive behaviors help youths explore valuable information and experiences to gain their
insights for future career development, therefore undergraduates’ sense of competence will be
improved by parental supportive behaviors. As a result, they will be motivated to initiate
career exploration activities. Consistently, previous research has showed the positive effects
of parental support on career exploration across different research samples (Dietrich &
Kracke, 2009; Neuenschwander & Kracke, 1997; Phillips et al., 2001; Phillips et al., 2002;
Schultheiss et al., 2001).
The second factor, parental career interference, refers to parents’ controlling behavior
in offspring’s career development, such as implementing their own ideas in offspring’s career
choices or interfering too much on their career preparation. When parents try to enforce their
own ideas on their offspring’s career development, these practices are likely to inhibit youths'
sense of autonomy and erode their intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci,
2000). Accordingly, previous research has found that youths under over-controlling parental
practices are more passive in their career preparation, and displayed a high level of
behavioral inhibition and lack of exploration activities (Grotevant & Cooper, 1988; Young et
al., 2001). Therefore, in current research we also propose that parental career interference will
be negatively related to career exploration, and will also has a negative effect on career
adaptability.
Lack of parental career engagement refers to the low level of parents’ involvement in
youths’ career preparation. This lack of parental career engagement may be due to low
importance attributed to youths’ career issues, or because parents may not be capable of
helping youths to cope with the challenges in their career development (Mortimer et al.,
2002). From a self-determination perspective, undergraduates who lack the parental
engagement not only perceive a high level of difficulty in solving the problems in their career
exploration, but also experience a low level of social relatedness with parents when exploring
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their future career possibilities. Existing literature shows that neglectful parental practices
have negative effects on adolescents’ career exploration (Vignoli, Croity-Belz, Chapeland,
Fillipis, & Garcia, 2005). Therefore, in the present study, lack of parental career engagement
is hypothesized to be negatively related to undergraduates’ career exploration, which in turn
predicts career adaptability.
Hypothesis 2: Undergraduates’ career adaptability will be positively predicted by
parental support and negatively predicted by parental interference and lack of parental career
engagement, with these relations mediated by undergraduates’ career exploration.
In addition to the main effects discussed above, previous research also suggests that
the three types of parental behaviors also interplay with each in predicting career exploration
and career decision-making difficulties (Dietrich & Kracke, 2009). The current research also
explored these possibilities by examining how these parental behaviors interact with each
other in predicting career exploration and career adaptability. Based on the self-determination
theory, we propose that as a high level of parent support leads to a high sense of competence,
a low level of interference leads to a high level of autonomy, and a low level of lack of
parental career engagement promotes the feeling of relatedness; the combination of a high
level of parental support, a low level of interference, and a low level of lack of parental career
engagement may produce the optimal effect on undergraduates’ career exploration behavior,
as well as the their career adaptability.
Hypothesis 3: The positive effects of parental support on career exploration and career
adaptability will be stronger when parents display a higher level of engagement (H3a); the
negative effects of interference on career exploration and career adaptability will be stronger
when parents display a higher level of engagement (H3b); the positive effects of parental
support on career exploration and career adaptability will be stronger when parents display a
lower level of interference (H3b).
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Method
Participants and procedure
Data were collected from a university in North China and participants were recruited
by the career center of this university by sending advertisement through emails and phone
messages. Participants were informed that the data will be only used for research purpose and
their personal information will be kept confidential. At the first wave (June 2013), each
participant was required to contact his/her father or mother to complete the survey on career-
specific parental behaviors. The completed questionnaires were mailed back to the career
center by postage prepaid envelope service. Parents were asked to sign consent forms before
completing the questionnaires. The second wave of data collection was completed in
September 2013 in a big classroom and participants completed the questionnaires on career
exploration. The third wave of data collection was completed in October 2013 in the same
classroom and participants completed the questionnaires on career adaptability. To reduce the
attrition rate, participants who provided valid responses for all the three waves of
questionnaires were rewarded a gift worth 10 RMB (around $2 US). Each participant
received a debriefing report after completing the third-wave questionnaires.
Two hundred and forty-four full data sets were obtained. The mean age of
undergraduate participants (60% females) was 21.11 (SD = 1.29). 34.8% of participants
indicated their majors as “natural sciences”, 15.6% indicated “social sciences”, 13.5%
indicated “arts or humanities”, and 36.1% indicated “interdisciplinary or others”. Their
average annual family income was 36,658 (around $ 6100 US) RMB (SD = 33,669). For
family economic status, 2.9% of participants indicated their family economic status as “very
poor”, 24.9% indicated “poor”, 30.7% indicated “below the average”, 36.9% indicated
“average”, 4.1% indicated “above the average”, 0.4% indicated “rich” and no participants
indicated “very rich”. For the parents (52.5% mothers), their average age was 47.07 (SD =
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5.33). For parents’ education, 19.3% were primary school level or below, 36.9% were junior
middle school, 24.2% were senior middle school, 10.2% had an associate degree, 9.0% had a
bachelor’s degree, 0.4% had a master’s degree or higher.
Measures
Career adaptability. Undergraduates’ career adaptability was measured by the
Chinese version of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (Hou et al., 2012), which consists of 24
items that are divided equally into four subscales measuring the adaptive resources of
concern, control, curiosity and confidence. Participants responded to each item on a scale
from 1 (not strong) to 5 (strongest). For the global indicator, the Cronbach alpha was .95. For
each dimension, Cronbach's alpha was .87 for career concern, .90 for career control, .85 for
career curiosity and .90 for career confidence.
Career-specific parental behaviors. Career career-specific parental behaviors were
measured by the scale developed by Dietrich and Kracke (2009). The items were modified to
fit the perspective of parents. For example, the original item “my parents talk to me about my
vocational interests and abilities” was changed to “I talk to my child about his/her vocational
interests and abilities”. (“1” = completely disagree, 5 = completely agree). Cronbach's alpha
was .84 for lack of parental career engagement, .89 for parental support, and .90 for parental
interference.
Career exploration. Career exploration was assessed by the scale developed by
Stumpf et al. (1983), which consist of 5 items on self exploration and 6 items on environment
exploration. As these two sub-scales were highly correlated with each other (r = .69, p
< .001), in the current study we calculated the average score of these 11 items to represent
undergraduates’ career exploration. Cronbach's alpha was .92.
Control variables. In this study, we measured and controlled student`s gender, age,
grade and major (dummy coded, “natural sciences” as reference group), parents’ gender, age,
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education, socio-economic status, and family income (Ln transformed to correct skewed
distribution).
Results
Descriptive and correlations
The descriptive statistics and inter-correlations among parental support, parental
interference, lack of parental career engagement, undergraduates’ career exploration and
career adapt-ability were presented in Table 1. Career adaptability correlated positively with
career exploration (r =.32, p < .001), parental support (r = .21, p < .01) and correlated
negatively with lack of parental career engagement (r = -.27, p < .001), but not correlated
with parental interference (r = -.12, ns). Career exploration correlated positively with parental
support (r = .41, p < .001), negatively with lack of parental career engagement (r = -.19, p
< .01) and parental interference (r = -.19, p < .01). At the dimension level, career exploration
correlated most closely with career curiosity (r = .35, p < .001).
----------------------------------
Insert Table 1 here.
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Testing for mediation effects
We examined the mediation role of career exploration with the procedure developed
by Preacher and Hayes (2008). Prior to the analyses, all continuous predictors were mean
centered (Aiken & West, 1991). The results showed that after controlling for the effects of
students’ age, grade, gender, major, family income, socio-economic status, parents’ age,
education and gender, family career support (β = .36, p < .001) and family career interference
(β = -.13, p < .01) were significantly related to undergraduates’ career exploration, while the
effect of lack of parental career engagement was not significant (β = .04, ns). The positive
relationship between career exploration and career adaptability was also significant after
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controlling for the effects of career-specific parental behaviors and control variables (β = .19,
p < .001). In addition, lack of parental career engagement had a direct negative relationship
with career adaptability (β = -.11, p < .05) after controlling for other parental behaviors and
career exploration. The bootstrapping results indicated that the indirect effect of parent career
support on career adaptability through career exploration was significant, with a 95% CI not
containing zero ([.03, .12]); the indirect effect of parent career interference was also
significant, with a 95% CI not containing zero ([-.05, -.01]). The results of bootstrapping also
showed that lack of parental career engagement had a direct effect on career adaptability,
with a 95% CI not containing zero ([-.20, -.03]). In sum, career exploration fully mediated the
effects of parental support and interference on career adaptability, but lack of parental career
engagement had a direct effect on career adaptability.
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Insert Table 2 here.
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To further examine these relations at the dimensional level of career adaptability, we
conducted hierarchical regression analyses by using the four dimensions of career
adaptability as the outcome variable. The bootstrapping results indicated that parental career
support had significant indirect effects on career curiosity (Effect size = .08, 95% CI =
[.04, .15]), career confidence (Effect size = .08, 95% CI = [.04, .13]) and career concern
(Effect size = .06, 95% CI = [.01, .12]), but not on career control (Effect size = .04, 95% CI =
[-.004, .11]). The indirect effects of parental career interference on career curiosity (Effect
size = -.03, 95% CI = [-.06, -.01]), career confidence (Effect size = -.03, 95% CI = [-.06, -
.01]), and career concern (Effect size = -.02, 95% CI = [-.05, -.01]) were significant, but the
indirect effect on career control was non-significant (Effect size = -.02, 95% CI = [-.04, .001]).
Testing for moderation effects
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We first tested whether there existed three-way interaction among these parental
behaviors in predicting career exploration and the results showed that this interaction was
non-significant (β = .001, ns). We then examined the two-way interactions among these
parental behaviors and found a significant interaction between parental support and lack of
parental career engagement (β = -.09, p < .05), and an interaction between parental
interference and lack of parental career engagement (β = .08, p < .01). As showed in Figure 1,
when lack of parental career engagement is higher (one SD above the mean), parental support
was positively related to career exploration (β = .21, p < .01); when lack of parental career
engagement is lower (one SD below the mean), this relationship was stronger (β = .44, p
< .001). Figure 2 showed that when lack of parental career engagement is higher (one SD
above the mean), parental interference was not related to career exploration (β = -.001, ns);
when lack of parental career engagement is lower (one SD below the mean), this relationship
was significant (β = -.19, p < .001).
----------------------------------
Insert Figure 1 and Figure 2 here.
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We further examined whether lack of parental career engagement also moderated the
indirect effects of the other two parental behaviors on career adaptability by using the
procedure outlined by Hayes & Scharkow (2013). Hayes & Scharkow (2013) recommended
bootstrapping techniques to assess the significance of conditional indirect effects.
Researchers may examine the magnitude of the indirect effect (via the mediator) of the
independent variable on the dependent variable, at a range of values of the moderator
(typically, one standard deviation above and below the mean). Researchers can use
bootstrapping techniques to generate confidence intervals for the magnitude of the indirect
effects and assess significance via these confidence intervals. The results of bootstrapping
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showed that when lack of parental career engagement is higher (one SD above the mean), the
indirect effect from parental support to career adaptability through career exploration was
significant, with a 95% CI of [.01, .09]; when lack of parental career engagement is lower
(one SD below the mean), the indirect effect is significant and larger, with a with a 95% CI of
[.04, .15]. At the same time, the moderated mediation index (95% CI = [-.05, -.003]) showed
that lack of parental career engagement significantly moderated the indirect effect of parental
support on career adaptability. The results of bootstrapping showed that when lack of parental
career engagement is higher (one SD above the mean), the indirect effect from parental
interference to career adaptability through career exploration was non-significant, with a 95%
CI of [-.03, .02]; when lack of parental career engagement is lower (one SD below the mean),
the indirect effect is significant, with a with a 95% CI of [-.06, -.01]. At the same time, the
moderated mediation index (95% CI = [.004, .03]) showed that lack of parental career
engagement significantly moderated the indirect effect of parental interference on career
adaptability.
Discussion
The current research examined the effects of career-specific parental behaviors on
university students’ career exploration and career adaptability. Based on a three-wave survey,
the results supported a mediation model such that a high level of parental support and a low
level of parental interference had beneficial effects on Chinese undergraduates’ career
exploration, which in turn positively predicted their career adaptability. Lack of parental
career engagement had a direct negative effect on career adaptability. Significant interaction
effects were also found among these three types of parental behaviors such that at a lower
level of lack of parental career engagement, the positive effects of parental support, as well as
the negative effects of interference on career exploration were stronger. The corresponding
moderated mediation models were also supported. These findings carry implications for
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research on career construction theory and career counseling practices.
Theoretical Implications
The results showed that all the three types of parental behaviors had significant direct
or indirect effects on undergraduates’ career adaptability. Although the positive effects of
career adaptability in individuals’ career development have been established in recent studies
(e.g., Guan, Deng, Sun, Wang, Cai, Ye, et al., 2013; Guan, Guo, Bond, Cai, Zhou, Xu, et al.,
2014; Johnston, Luciano, Maggiori, Ruch, & Rossier, 2013; Tolentino, Garcia, Restubog,
Bordia, & Tang, 2013), not much work has been done to examine the effects of parental
behaviors on career adaptability (Tian & Fan, 2014). The current research addressed this gap
by testing the roles of career-specific parental behaviors in shaping the career adaptability of
Chinese undergraduate students. As we hypothesized, undergraduates’ career adaptability was
positively predicted by parents’ supportive behaviors, but negatively predicted by parental
interference and lack of parental career engagement. As previous research was mainly
adopted perceptions of offspring to measure parental behaviors, the current findings provide
direct evidence on the effects of parental behaviors in undergraduates’ career development.
As this study was conducted in a Chinese context, which is characterized by the collectivistic
values (Hofstede, 2001), therefore future research should continue to examine whether these
findings could be replicated in other cultural settings. In addition, these results also suggest
that career adaptability is likely to mediate the effects of parental influences on other
important career outcomes, such as long-term career success. These important questions
remain to be discovered in future research.
This study also showed that undergraduates’ career exploration mediated the effects of
parental support and parental interference on career adaptability. From the perspective of self-
termination theory, as parental support strengthens undergraduates’ sense of competence and
parental interference reduces their autonomy, these parental behaviors may directly affect
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undergraduates’ motivation to get involved in career exploration (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan
& Deci, 2000). Career exploration in turn enables individuals to explore valuable
information and opportunities, and prepare themselves for various career challenges. As a
result, career exploration serves as the key explanatory link between these two parental
behaviors and career adaptability.
At the dimension level, career exploration was most closely related to career curiosity,
which highlights the importance of self-exploration and environment exploration in
strengthening undergraduates’ ability of collecting and analyzing career-related information.
Career exploration had a relatively weaker relationship with career control and these results
suggest that there exist other relevant proximal predictors for career control, which remain to
be discovered. On the other hand, the results also showed that lack of parental career
engagement had a direct effect on career adaptability, which was not mediated by career
exploration. Future research may continue to examine other important mediators in this
process. For example, from the perspective of theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), the
lack of parental career engagement may decreases undergraduates’ career adaptability
through a normative pressure, as the lack of parental career engagement may result in the
perception that parents don’t regard career development as an important issue. This perceived
family norm may inhibit undergraduates’ intention to develop their adaptive-abilities.
The interactions among these three types of parental behaviors further demonstrate
the dynamic process through which parental behaviors affect undergraduates’ career
exploration and adaptability. The results suggest that when parents are highly engaged in
undergraduates’ career development, they could engender both positive and negative effects,
depending on the level of supportive behavior and interfering behavior. For example, when
parents are engaged in undergraduates’ career development and can provide supportive
resources, undergraduates are more likely to initiate exploration behavior; however, if parents
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are engaged in undergraduates’ career development but cannot provide supportive resources,
undergraduates tend to reduce their career exploration behavior. On the other hand, when
parents are engaged in undergraduates’ career development but try to impose their thoughts
into this process, undergraduates are also less likely to initiate exploration behavior. From the
perspective of self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000), these
results further emphasize the importance of sustaining undergraduates’ sense of competence
and autonomy in helping them to develop adaptive abilities in their career development.
Future research may continue to examine how these parental behaviors interplay with each
other in predicting offspring’s long-term career outcomes.
Practical Implications
These results carry important implications in developing undergraduates’ adaptive
career abilities. As the three types of parental behaviors serve as significant predictors for
undergraduates’ career adaptability, they can be used as important tools for parents to
diagnose their dysfunctional behaviors, in order to facilitate the career development of their
offspring. The significant interaction effects among parental behaviors further suggest that the
combination of a high level of parental support, a low level of interference, and a low level of
lack of parental career engagement will lead to positive results in undergraduates’ career
exploration and adaptability. On the other hand, the current findings also suggest that
individuals’ career exploration serves as important proximal predictor for their career
adaptability, therefore educators and counselors should help undergraduates involved in more
exploratory activities, as a way to promote their career adaptability.
Limitations
Despite the theoretical and practical implications discussed above, the current
research has several possible limitations. First, although we collected the data from different
sources and time points, career exploration and career adaptability may be reciprocally
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related to each other rather than one causing the other. On the one hand,
Second, as the current research was conducted
among a sample of students from a university in China, whether the findings discussed above
could be generalized to other Chinese undergraduates remains to be examined in future
research.
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Table 1
Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Parental support 5.18 1.07 .89
2. Parental interference 3.48 1.38 -.01 .90
3. Lack of parental career
engagement 2.85 1.19 -.44
*** .32
*** .84
4. Career exploration 4.8 0.89 .42***
-.19**
-.19**
.92
5. Career concern 3.34 .79 .15* -.11 -.22** .25*** .87
6. Career control 3.85 .78 .10 -.14* -.25*** .19**
.63***
.90
7. Career curiosity 3.45 .75 .26*** -.09 -.24*** .35***
.66*** .64***
.85
8. Career confidence 3.64 .74 .21** -.09 -.24*** .32***
.65*** .74*** .75***
.90
9. Career adaptability 3.57 0.66 .21**
-.12 -.27***
.32***
.85*** .87*** .87*** .90*** .95
*p < .05, **p <.01, ***p < .001.
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Table 2 Hierarchical regression analysis of career exploration and career adaptability
Career exploration Career adaptability
Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6
Constant 6.40*** 5.20** 5.22** 4.22** 3.67** 2.99*
Age -.11 -.05 -.08 -.06 -.03 -.03
Grade .31** .23* .27** .05 .02 -.02
Gender .20 .11 .10 .04 -.02 -.05
Major: Social
Sciences -.16 -.09 -.12 -.13 -.13 -.13
Major: Arts &
Humanities .14 .07 .03 .12 .12 .11
Major: Others -.17 -.16 -.18 -.04 -.07 -.01
Ln family income -.07 -.05 -.04 .00 .01 .01
Family SES -.02 .00 .02 -.03 -.01 -.02
Parent age .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 .01
Parent education .06 .04 .01 .00 -.01 -.02
Parent gender .09 .09 .09 -.11 -.10 -.11
Parent support (PS)
.36*** .33***
.06 .03
Parent
interference(PI) -.13** -.09*
-.04 -.04
Lack of parental
career engagement
(LE)
.04 .00
-.11* -.06
PS × PI
.01
.00
PS × LE
-.09*
-.05
PI × LE
.08**
-.06*
Career exploration
.21***
R Square .08* .27*** .31*** .04 .12* .20***
R Square change
.19*** .04*
.08*** .08**
N =244. Results were reported after controlling for student age, grade, gender, family income,
majors, Socio-economic status, family age, family education and family gender.
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Figure 1 Moderation effects of lack of parental career engagement (LE) on the relationship
between parent support and career exploration
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.3
5.5
5.7
Low career support High career support
Car
eer
explo
rati
on
Low LE
High LE
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Figure 2 Moderation effect of lack of parental career engagement (LE) on the relationship
between parental interference and career exploration
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.3
5.5
5.7
Low career interference High career interference
Ca
reer e
xp
lora
tio
n
Low LE
High LE
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Highlights
We examined effects of career-specific parental behaviors on career adaptability.
Parental support positively predicts career adaptability.
Interference and lack of engagement negatively predict career adaptability.
Career exploration mediates effects of parental behaviors on career adaptability.