career adaptability in childhood -...

Career Adaptability in Childhood

Paul J. HärtungErik J. PorfeliFred W. Vondracek

Childhood marks the dawn of vocational development, involving developmental tasks,transitions, and change. Children must acquire the rudiments of career adaptabilityto envision a ñiture, make educational and vocational decisions, explore self andoccupations, and problem solve. The authors situate child vocational developmentwithin human life span and life course development paradigms and career developmenttheory. They then consider the theoretical origins of career adaptability and examineit as a critical construct for construing vocational development. Two models derivedfrom career construction theory offer guides for research and counseling practicedesigned to foster development through work and other social roles.

There is always one moment in childhood when the door opens and lets the future in.—Graham Greene (1940, p. 15)

Childhood signifies the threshold of vocadonal development and involvesan acdve period of preliminary self-engagement in the world of work(Härtung, Porfeli, & Vondracek, 2005). The opportunides and expedencesof childhood typically serve to arouse curiosides, fantasies, interests, andcapacides as children playfully construct future possible selves to be realizedin work and other social roles (Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, & Herma,1951; Mead, 1932; Super, 1990). Although play has long been character-ized as a childhood acdvity, children in today's increasingly complex worldoften find less dme for unstructured play because of escalating pressuresto engage in organized and roudnized school, extracurdcular, and otheracdvides that make childhood less and less a pedod of cultural moratoriuminvolving fi^eedom fi'om work and responsibility (Zinnecker, 1995). Childrenmust learn to imagine, explore, and problem solve in order to construct aviable work future consistent with cultural imperadves reflected in familyand community contexts.

Career counselors who take a developmental perspective realize thatchildren must accrue an array of experiences that promote foundadonalatdtudes, beliefs, and competencies for envisioning a future, making careerdecisions, exploring self and occupations, and shaping their life careers.These attitudes, beliefs, and competencies represent core dimensionsof career adaptability as it has evolved as an important construct in thetheory and pracdce of career construcdon (Savickas, 2002a).

PaulJ. Härtung, Department of Behavioral Sciences, Northeastern Ohio Universi-ties College of Medicine and Pharmacy; ErikJ. Porfeli, Department of EducationalLeadership, University of North Carolina-Charlotte; Fred W. Vondracek, Collegeof Health and Human Development, The Pennsylvania State University. Erik J.Porfeli is now at Department of Behavioral Sciences, Northeastern Ohio UniversitiesCollege of Medicine and Pharmacy. Correspondence concerning this article shouldbe addressed to PaulJ. Hartunß, Department of Behavioral Sciences, NortheasternOhio Universities College of Medicine and Pharmacy, 4209 S.R. 44, Rootstown, OH44272-0095 (e-mail: phartun£[email protected]).

© 2008 by the National Career Development Association. All rights reserved.

The Career Development Quarterly September 2008 • Volume 57 63

Adaptability has become an essential characteristic of workers in themodern worid. Serial careers are becoming the norm in today's rapidlychanging workforce, necessitating ongoing career transitions across thelife span (Porfeli & Vondracek, in press). Recognizing childhood as thedawn of vocational development and the centrality of career adaptabilityacross the life span in the modern world, we assert that the antecedentsof career adaptability are established during the childhood period. Webegin by situating child vocational development within the human lifespan and life course development paradigms and career developmenttheory. Subsequently, we consider the theoretical origins of the careeradaptability construct and demonstrate how it has become a criticalconstruct for construing vocational development within career con-struction theory (Savickas, 2002a, 2005b). We conclude this article byasserting that career construction theory provides a guide for researchand counseling practice that is designed to promote individual develop-ment across the life span through work and other social roles.

Child Vnrat-innal Devdopmenr in ContPYr

Childhood has long been considered within the frameworks of devel-opmental psychology, developmental sociology, and life span vocationalpsychology. These frameworks offer distinct yet interrelated perspectiveson childhood that are useful for comprehending the structure, function,and process of career development in childhood and across the life span.Each of these perspectives contributes to an understanding of careeradaptability as it is rooted in development during childhood.

Life Span DevelopmentContemporary life span developmental psychology conceptualizes hu-man psychosocial development, or ontogenesis, as a lifelong processextending from infancy through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, andolder adulthood (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 1998). Humandevelopment, including vocational development, proceeds continu-ously and in historical and cultural contexts across these age periodsin dynamic, multidimensional, multifunctional, and nonlinear ways(Bakes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999). The life span perspectivecasts human development as a fluid, seamless phenomenon rather thanone characterized by relatively discrete age periods or stages. Althougha prototypical chronology of development can be identified, the inter-action of personal and contextual factors yields significant individualvariability within this chronology. Taking into account this perspective,career adaptability develops at varying rates beginning in childhood andcontinuing across the life span.

Humans must adapt to survive, and when they fail to adapt they de-cline and die (Ford & Lerner, 1992). The Selective Optimization WithCompensation (Bakes, 1997; Bakes & Bakes, 1990) model of humandevelopment suggests that behavioral selection and optimization frominfancy through the early to midadult years gives way to behavioralcompensation in biological decline in the latter years of life. This modelsuggests that optimization and compensation are manifestations of adapt-ability. Optimization is used to adaptively elaborate capabilities in order to

64 The Career Development Quarterly September 2008 • Volume 57

maximize success in the context of changing opportunities and constraints,whereas compensation is used to adaptively abate the loss of capabilitiesin biopsychosocial decline. Humans adapt across the life span, but thenature of their adaptation changes from optimization to compensationas they age and eventually decline. Likewise, workers must continue toadapt to the changing demands and opportunities in the workforce inorder to remain productive and gainfully employed. Younger workersgenerally adapt by elaborating their behavioral repertoire, whereas olderworkers tend to compensate for their declining capabilities (Porfeli &Vondracek, in press). On both sides of the life span, adaptability is acritical element of work success and will become even more importantin an increasingly changing and competitive workforce.

Life Course DevelopmentLife course developmental sociology (Elder, 1998) contributes the notionof individualized trajectories or pathways of development to an evolvinginterdisciplinary model of human development. These trajectories or pathwaysare both the cause and outcome of human development, which is broadlydefined as a series of age-graded roles (Shanahan, 2000). Social roles canbe defined with respect to time (e.g., the age of the person or historicaleras) and sequence (e.g., normatively as school-work-marriage-parenthood,or nonnormadvely as school-parenthood-work-marriage). The developingperson makes choices and acts within the constraints of social, cultural,and historical circumstances to construct and edit an individual lifecourse trajectory.

Theories from the early to middle part of the 20th century have sug-gested that an increasingly stable self was functional given the predictablerole sequence across the life span (e.g.. Super, 1957). Rapid changes tothe social structure during the 20th century have led to the pluraliza-tion of the life course and career (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Littleton,Arthur, & Rousseau, 2000). The timing of roles and the normativerole sequence from child to spouse to parent to grandparent and fromstudent to worker to retiree has given way to a wide variety of life andcareer pathways. The increasing variability in role sequence and timingsuggests that a stable vocational identity may hinder favorable function-ing; hence, theory has begun to embrace adaptability as a favorablecareer-long characteristic in ongoing career change and transformation(Riverin-Simard, 2000).

Developmental Systems TheoryConsistent with life span theory, life course theory shares commonground with the developmental systems perspective (Elder, 1998),which offers an overarching conceptual framework that comprehendshuman development "as a property of systemic change in the multipleand integrated levels of organization (ranging from biology to cultureand history) comprising human life and its ecology" (Lerner, 1998, p.2). Developmental systems theory suggests that individuals are both theproduct and producer of their own development. In other words, ele-ments of life span and life course theory meet when intentional action andself-regulation interact with the social structure to yield person-contextrelations and propel humans along a developmental trajectory.


Developmental Career PsychologyConsistent with contemporary life span psychology (Baltes et al., 1998),life course sociology (Elder, 1998), and developmental systems theory(Ford & Lerner, 1992; Lerner, Dowling, & Roth, 2003), researchers,in their developmental perspectives on career, have recognized thatvocational development constitutes a lifelong process of adaptationand change beginning in childhood and affected by both personal andcontextual factors (Gottfredson, 2002; Savickas, 2002a; Super, 1957;Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996; Tiedeman & O'Hara, 1963; Vondracek,Lerner, & Schulenberg, 1986). People develop through social roles inwork and other domains during the course of their lives as they interactwith myriad environments in unique familial, cultural, historical, andsocioeconomic circumstances (Super, 1957; Super et al., 1996; Vond-racek et al., 1986). Vocational development is inextricably woven intothe fabric of human development in all its forms, including physical,cognitive, and psychosocial dimensions (Vondracek & Porfeli, 2002).Recognizing this fact, many career theories have incorporated childhoodas a significant age period of vocational development.

r,areer Theory and Child DevelopmentOriginal statements about child vocational development as human de-velopment date to the early 1950s and are found most notably in thework of Ginzberg et al. (1951), Havighurst (1951), and Super (1957).Additionally, Roe (1956) postulated a central role for parent-child re-lationship dynamics in vocational choice, and Erikson (1959) describedthe imperative virtue of industry in child psychosocial development,which involves attaining a sense of being useful and capable in relationto work. The later developmental career theory of Gottfredson (2002)concentrates specifically on childhood in enumerating social/structuralfactors that narrow occupational aspirations and influence the processesof vocational development.

Super (1957), more than any other theorist, elaborated on devel-opmental conceptualizations of career, in part by merging the stagemodel of Ginzberg et al. (1951) and Havighurst's (1951) notion ofdevelopmental tasks in a subsequent life span model of vocationaldevelopment. Super (1957) also positioned childhood at the onset ofthis process and denoted it as the Growth stage, with its concomitantdevelopmental tasks (substages) of fantasy, interest, and capacity. Thesedevelopmental tasks encompass childhood and the years of birth to age14 and essentially mirror the stages of child vocational developmentdelineated by Ginzberg et al.

The seeds of the career adaptability construct are found in Super's(1957) original model, with early childhood fantasy—involving role playto explore the meanings and possibilities of work—eventually givingway in later childhood to interests and capacities that guide aspirations,activity selection, and career planning. Always innovative. Super and hiscolleagues (Super et al., 1996) updated the Growth stage to comprisea period spanning ages 4 to 13 years, typified by four revised substagesnamed Concern (developing a fiiture orientation). Control (gaining mas-tery over one's life). Conviction (believing in one's ability to achieve),


and Competence (acquiring proficient work habits and attitudes). Thesesubstages form the basis of career adaptability, which extends Super's(1974) structural model of career maturity and incorporates Erikson's(1959) developmental stages (Savickas, 2002a). The update includednature orientadon, autonomy, and self-esteem elements from Super's(1957) original model of child vocadonal development to transform itfrom a "structural model into a truly developmental one characterizedby a sequence of tasks" (Super et al., 1996, p. 132).Although the developmental perspecdve most deliberately and clearly

sets childhood as the onset of vocational development, practically allother established and emerging career theories, to some extent, considerat least mendoning the formative nature ofthe childhood period reladveto vocational choice, development, and adjustment. For example, Dawis(1996), in his theory of work adjustment, describes career developmentas "the unfoldinß of capabilides and requirements in the course of aperson's interaction with environments of various kinds (home, school,play, work) across the life span" (p. 94). Similarly, the theory of voca-tional personalides and work environments asserts the importance ofchildhood experiences and that "a person's career or development overthe life span can be visualized as the long series of person-environmentinteracdons and their outcomes that all people experience as they growup and age" (Holland, 1997, p. 55).

Despite the seemingly ubiquitous attention career choice and develop-ment theories have paid to childhood processes, researchers and prac-ddoners have been rightly cridcized for their relative disregard of thisdevelopmental age period. Accordingly, one group of scholars assertedthat "the serious business of career development... is often character-ized, at least tacidy by neglecting the first 12 years of life, as beginningafter childhood" (Trice, Hughes, Odom, Woods, & McClellan, 1995,p. 308). Nevertheless, empirical research, scattered across many decadesand muldple disciplines, has produced an impressive body of research thatsheds light on children's developing vocadonal exploradon, awareness,aspiradons, interests, and maturity/adaptability (Härtung et al., 2005;Watson & McMahon, 2005). This body of hterature clearly indicatesthat vocational development begins during childhood. The constructof career adaptability, to which we now attend in full, provides a usefiillens and conceptual framework for the systemadc study and advance-ment of child vocational development, which in turn has implicadons forvocadonal development across the life span and over the life course.

Career Adapl-ahility

From Maturity to AdaptabilityAs the principal element of child and adolescent vocadonal developmentand forerunner of career adaptability, career maturity refers to possessingthe atdtudinal and cognidve readiness to make educadonal and vocadonalchoices. Career maturity results from a dynamic interacdon betweenperson and environment. The atdtudinal dimension of career maturityrelates to the child's and adolescent's development of an appropriaterepertoire of planning and exploratory behaviors that promote effec-dve career decision making (Crites, 1971). Cognidve career maturity


involves acquiring knowledge about the content and process of careerdecision making and about the world of work (Westbrook, Elrod, &Wynne, 1996).

Recent renovation of the life span, life space perspective on careershas reemphasized childhood as a critical period of career maturity/adaptability development, and distinct lines of research have investigatedthese factors in childhood (Savickas, 2002a; Savickas & Super, 1993;Super et al., 1996), Theory refinement has also led to the replacementof the biologically derived construct of career maturity with the morepsychosocially derived construct of career adaptability, which specificallydenotes the person's "readiness to cope with the predictable tasks ofpreparing for and participating in the work role and with the unpredict-able adjustments prompted by changes in work and working conditions"(Savickas, 1997, p, 254).As initially defined (Super & Knasel, 1981) and more recendy articulated

(Savickas, 1997,2001), career adaptability attends to developmental tasksand role transitions that individuals confront and the coping strategiesthat they use to deal with these changes. Developmental career stagesand tasks constitute societal expectations that individuals experience ascareer concerns about growing self-awareness, exploring occupationsand making decisions, establishing stable commitments, managing roles,and disengaging from roles (Savickas, 2005a).

Degree and Rate of AdaptabilityAs career maturity has evolved and been replaced by career adaptability,it becomes usefiil to consider career maturity/adaptability in terms ofdegree and rate of development, Crites (1961) and Savickas (1984)made conceptual distinctions between degree and rate of career devel-opment to indicate, respectively, the number of developmental taskscompleted and the extent to which a person has satisfactorily completedor coped with those tasks. Location along the vocational developmenttask continuum, marked by the tasks an individual has completed andthose now faced, characterizes degree of vocational development. Howan individual's coping behavior compares over time with that of othersin a reference group (such as a childhood age cohort) dealing with thesame developmental tasks defines rate of vocational development.

Adaptability can be defined both in terms of degree and rate of change.Degree of change suggests the boundary of adaptability, whereas rate ofchange reflects the responsiveness of adaptability. As indicated in Figure1, we propose that rate and degree dimensions lead to four potentialadaptability categories: advancing, constricting, delaying, and thwart-ing. Advancing adaptability denotes completion of a broad range ofdevelopmental tasks and at a rate higher than that of a reference group.Constricting adaptability indicates a narrow range of developmental taskscompleted but, for those tasks, at a rate higher than that of a referencegroup. Delaying adaptability denotes completion of a broad range ofdevelopmental tasks but at a rate slower than that of a reference group.Thwarting adaptability indicates a narrow range of tasks completed andat a rate slower than that of a reference group.

Extensive literature has accumulated to advance knowledge aboutindividual differences in and correlates of career maturity/adaptability.


Degree of AdaptabilityBroad Narrow

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cc .g Slow

Advancing

Delaying

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Configurations of Rate and Degree of AdaptabilityVirtually all extant studies have addressed degree of development ratherthan rate of development over time. Research has also concentratedmostly on studying career maturity/adaptability in adolescent samplesbecause the construct emerged from Super's (1974) structural modelof adolescent vocational development, which includes five dimensions:planñalness, exploration, information, decision-making knowledge, andrealism. However, critical antecedents of career maturity/adaptability,such as autonomy, self-esteem, and future time orientation, are thoughtto develop in childhood and consolidate in adolescence (Savickas, 1996).In sum, whereas degree of development has been studied widely, researchusing longitudinal designs is needed to examine the rate of develop-ment (Härtung, 1997; Savickas, 2002b). Such research could use theadaptability model outlined earlier to identify patterns of developmentand factors associated with these patterns that either promote or thwartprogress in adapting to changes in self and environment and to theattendant developmental task demands of childhood and subsequentcareer development periods.

Developmental Lines and Career StagesCareer construction, which offers a contemporary advancement of thedevelopmental perspective on vocational behavior and a comprehensivecareer assessment and counseling approach, identifies four basic dimensionsof career adaptability. This conceptual refinement indicates developmentallines rooted in childhood wherein children must establish a foundationof (a) concern about the future, (b) control over their lives, (c) curios-ity about occupational careers, and (d) confidence to construct a futureand deal with career barriers (Savickas, 2002a, 2005b). The rudimentsof looking ahead to envision the future, taking authorship of one's ownlife career decisions to construct the future, looking around to exploreopportunities, and building self-efficacy to solve problems form criticaldimensions of life span vocational development that normatively firstemerge during childhood.

The four developmental lines of career adaptability (i.e., concern, control,curiosity, and confidence) extend through the traditional developmentalcareer stages of Growth, Exploration, Establishment, Management (for-merly Maintenance; see Savickas, 2002a), and Disengagement and the tasksassociated with these stages. Development of career adaptability acrossthese stages entails forming distinct attitudes, beliefs, and competencies(referred to as the ABCs of career construction) related to career planning,choice, and adjustment. These ABCs inñuence the strategies individualsuse to solve problems and the behaviors they use to align their vocationalself-concepts with work roles over the life course (Savickas, 2005a).


Fostering Career AdaptabilityTable 1 delineates a model of career adaptability along its four dimensionsor developmental lines (Savickas, 2005a). The model explicates these linesin terms of (a) overarching career question to answer, (b) attitude andbelief to acquire, (c) competency to acquire, (d) potential career problemto resolve, (e) coping behavior to use, (^ relationship perspective to adopt,and (g) career intervention to foster development. The Career AdaptabilityModel described herein and detailed elsewhere by its originator (Savickas,2002a) offers vocational researchers and career counselors a blueprint forinvestigating, comprehending, and intervening to promote career adaptabilitybeginning in childhood and throughout the life course. Each developmentalline and its attendant characteristics are considered in turn.

Career concern. Career concern deals with issues of orienting to thefuture and feeling optimistic about it. Experiences, opportunities, andactivities afford children a growing sense of hopefulness and a planfulattitude about the future. Children must initially develop a dependenceon parents, caretakers, teachers, and others for support as they developthe ability to chart and prepare for the future. The lack of career concernleads to a problem of indifference toward and pessimism about the fiature.Insufficient attention to or hope for the nature ofben precipitates nega-tive emotions and troublesome behaviors. Career counselors in schoolsand other settings use time perspective interventions to increase careerconcern by heightening awareness, fostering optimism, and increasingfuture planning orientation and behaviors (Savickas, 1991).

Career control. Career control involves increasing self-regulation throughcareer decision making and taking responsibility for the future. The securityof a child's relationship with responsible adults permits a growing sense ofself-direction and personal ownership of the future along with a decisiveattitude and an ability to make decisions about educational and vocationalpursuits. Assertive behavior and willful acts nurture the child's autonomyand self-reliance. Underdeveloped career control creates a problem of indeci-sion, wavering, and uncertainty about die future. Career counselors use deci-sion-making interventions to increase career control by clarifying self-concept,decreasing anxiety, and empowering clients to deal with opposition from parentsand significant others (e.g.. Brown & Brooks, 1991; Savickas, 1995).

Career curiosity. Career curiosity reflects an inquisitive attitude thatleads to productive career exploration, which permits an adolescent torealistically explore educational and vocational options and approachthe future realistically (Blustein, 1992; Flum & Blustein, 2000; Patton& Porfeli, 2007). Risk-taking and inquiring behaviors foster the child'sdevelopment of a foundational sense of inquisitiveness and interest in theworld of work. Lack of career curiosity limits exploration and promptsunrealism and unrealistic aspirations and expectations about the future.Career counselors use reality testing and information-based interventionsto prompt and reinforce exploration and ultimately increase knowledgeabout the world of work and foster exploratory behavior.

Career confidence. Career confidence deals with acquiring problem-solving ability and self-efficacy beliefs. The child develops an efficaciousattitude and an ability to solve problems and effectively navigate obstaclesto constructing the ftiture. Persistence and industrious behavior nurturethe child's sense of self-assurance and equality in relation to others. The


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lack of career confidence leads to inhibition, self-consciousness, and ti-midity in approaching the future. Career counselors use role play, socialmodeling, and cognitive-behavioral interventions to increase self-efficacybeliefs and foster self-esteem.

Conrlnsion

Curiosity fuels the exploration of possible selves and occupations, ca-reer concern prompts the establishment of possible futures, confidenceempowers individuals to construct a preferred future and overcomeobstacles, and career control affords individuals ownership of theirchosen future. Career construction counseling has as a primary aimto increase an individual's level of career adaptability so that they canmore effectively produce their own development in changing opportuni-ties and constraints (Savickas, 2002a). The Career AdaptabiUty Model(Savickas, 2002a) offers a solid conceptual framework for conductingcareer interventions and investigating their effectiveness. Additionally,the four adaptability dimensions provide a guide for scale constructionand development that could equip counselors and researchers with aready aid for appraising both rate and degree of adaptability. Measure-ment development could not only focus on the manifestations of careeradaptability (e.g., career optimization and compensation) but also seekto identify the core features of adaptability that underlie the variousmanifestations across the Hfe span. Such scales could serve to identifythe nature, timing, rate, and degree of adaptability and inform devel-opmentally sensitive career interventions.

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