Card oneFeatures of

descriptive texts

A descriptive text is the representation in words of objects, people, behaviour or scenes.Description involves the selection of details.The purpose of the descriptive text is mainly informative.Three basic types of descriptive texts can be identified according to their purpose:

� INFORMATIVE-REFERENTIAL DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS, such as ID cards,encyclopaedia entries, guidebooks, missing person posters, etc.The description is objective, realistic and neutral without any personal opinion expressed.

� PERSUASIVE DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS, such as advertisements, travel brochures, etc.The description is subjective and emphasises the positive aspects of the object/placerepresented in order to draw the reader’s attention to the product/service offered.

� POETICAL DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS, such as literary texts.The description is greatly subjective and it arouses emotions in the reader.It makes large use of figurative language (metaphors, similes, etc.).

When describing people you should take into account several elements: name, age, job, physical appearance,personality, way of dressing, behaviour, hobbies and interests, comments, feelings and final thoughts about theperson described.The inclusion of all or some of these elements depends on the purpose of the description and the place whereit appears (missing person posters, letters, novels, poems, etc.).

Card twoTips for

describing people

PLAN

Introduction - brief information about the person: name, place and time you met/saw him/her;

Main body - physical appearance (height, build, age, facial features, hair, clothes);- personality (character, behaviour, habits), supported with

examples or justifications;- hobbies and interests;

Conclusion - comments, feelings and final thoughts about the person.

A description can be objective (impersonal, detached) or subjective (personal).

■ It is objective when its aim is mainly informative.The objective description gives a realistic clear picture of the person described without the writer providingany comment or personal opinion.In a missing person poster or a police report, for example, the description must be as accurate and impersonalas possible, emphasizing the physical features of the person.

■ It is subjective when its aim is to involve the reader emotionally.Therefore it is coloured with the writer’s impressions and feelings and it makes large use of adjectives whichcan be used connotatively and figurative language (similes, metaphors, etc.).In a letter telling about your new friend, for example, you mainly stress your opinion of him/her, giving detailsabout his/her personality, habits, hobbies and interests.

■ When the description is subjective:• you can follow a spatial order (from head to toe);

• you can follow a logical order (from the general to the particular);

• you can use the flash method emphasizing some details which particularly strike you;

• you should use elaborate adjectives instead of simplistic ones (e.g. “fabulous”, “wonderful”, “good-looking” instead of ” beautiful”, “nice”, etc.).

■ The description of people can be written in a formal or informal register depending on whom it is addressedto and where it appears.

■ In your description join the sentences with connectors to make your composition more interesting. Forexample, instead of: Mary is tall. She has long curly black hair. She has green eyes. She has full lips.write: Mary is a tall blue-eyed girl with green eyes and full lips.

■ Use the following order of adjectives when you put several adjectives before a noun:

Opinion Size/Length Age Shape/Type Colour Noun

handsome slim young man

beautiful short curly fair hair

■ When describing a person, you can characterize him/her in different ways.You can mention:• age, sex, physical appearance (physical description);

• personality and behaviour (psychological characterization);

• education, social class (anthropological characterization);

• human, social, ethical values, outlook on life (ideological characterization).

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE

eyebrows bushy, thin, thick, etc.

eyes big, small, deep-set, slanting, almond-shaped, round, penetrating, etc.

complexion rosy, fair, pale, dark, tanned, etc.

nose big, small, long, broad, upturned, crooked, hooked, aquiline, pointed, flat,straight, etc.

chin double, weak, protuding, etc.

face oval, square, round, freckled, wrinkled, triangular, etc.

hair short, long, shoulder-length, straight, curly, wavy, greasy, frizzy, etc.

lips thin, thick, fleshy, etc.

build well-built, muscular, skinny, overweight, slim, thin, fat, broad-shouldered,chubby, etc.

height tall, short, of medium height, etc.

age young, old, middle-aged, elderly, in his/her teens, etc.

distinguishing features a scar, a mole, a goatee, a beard, a moustache, etc.

clothes trendy, fashionable, casual, formal, shabby, etc.

Card threeWord bank for

describing people

PERSONALITY

Adjective Definition

aggressive ready to fight or argue.

benevolent kind, friendly and helpful to others.

boastful talking too proudly about oneself.

calm, quiet not excited, worried or angry.

cheerful happy.

conceited too proud of oneself.

dreamy imaginative but not very practical.

easygoing calm, relaxed and not easily worried.

fair treating each person equally, according to the law or the rules.

fierce angry or ready to attack, looking very frightening.

friendly behaving in a kind and open way.

hardworking working hard and with energy.

helpful ready to give help.

humble not thinking oneself better or more important than the others.

impatient not able to wait for someone/something calmly.

inflexible not able to bend easily.

mean not generous.

narrow-minded not willing to accept new ideas.

optimistic believing that what happens in the future will be good.

outgoing interested in meeting and talking to new people.

pessimistic always thinking that what is going to happen will be bad.

practical good at dealing with problems.

reserved shy and unwilling to show one’s feelings.

rude not polite.

self-confident feeling sure about one’s own value and abilities.

sensible having or showing good judgement.

sensitive showing that one understands someone’s problems, feelings.

shy nervous and embarrassed about meeting and speaking to other people.

strict demanding that rules, especially rules about behaviour, should be obeyed.

tactless not careful about saying things that could offend the others.

trustworthy that one can trust.

understanding showing sympathy towards someone.

baseball cap t-shirt

sweatshirt

top

trainerszip-up boots

checked shirt

lace dress beaded top

suit

evening dress

tieblouse

shirt

long gypsy skirt

CLOTHES ON DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

worn-out jeans

VERBS DESCRIBING APPEARANCE

Look, seem, appear are used when we want to describe people’s appearance or people’s feelings.

e.g. John looks/seems/appears smart.Mary looks/seems/appears bored.Susan looks like her mother (= they are alike).She is very tired. She looks as if she has been running for hours.

VERBS DESCRIBING PEOPLE’S CLOTHES

When describing people’s clothes you can use the verbs: wear, dress, be dressed, have on, put on.

e.g. She’s wearing a blue pullover.He dresses elegantly (= chooses elegant clothes).He was dressed in a white T-shirt and blue jeans (= he was wearing a white…).She has got a white dress on.It’s cold! Put on your jacket!

casualclothesribbed polo shirt tracksuit

elegantclotheshigh-heeled shoes jacket

When describing places you should take into account several elements: name, exact location, details, comments,feelings and final thoughts about the place.The inclusion of all or some of these elements depends on the purpose of the description and the place whereit appears. (travel brochures, guidebooks, letters, etc).

Card fourTips for

describing places

PLANIntroduction - brief information about the place: name, exact location.

Main body - overall look and details.

Conclusion - comments, feelings and final thoughts about the place.

A description can be objective (impersonal, detached) or subjective (personal).

■ It is objective when its aim is mainly informative.The objective description gives a realistic clear picture of the place described without the writer providing anycomment or personal opinion.In a guidebook, for example, the description must be objective, concise, linear and clear. It does not conveythe writer’s emotions and sensations.The tone is neutral and informative and the language is formal.

■ It is subjective when its aim is to involve the reader emotionally.Therefore it is coloured with the writer’s impressions and feelings and it makes large use of adjectives, sensorialand figurative language (similes, metaphors, etc.).In a travel brochure, for example, the description must emphasize the positive features of the place using awide range of adjectives and a flamboyant language.

■ When the description is subjective:• you can follow a spatial order (from top to bottom);• you can follow a logical order (from the general to the particular);• you can use the flash method emphasizing some details which particularly strike you;• you can use the senses: hearing, sight, smell, taste, touch (e.g. salty air, sweet-scented flowers, etc.);• you should use elaborate adjectives instead of simplistic ones (e.g. “wonderful” instead of “beautiful”,

“spacious” instead of “big”, etc.).

■ The description of places can be written in a formal or informal register depending on whom it is addressedto and where it appears.

■ In your description join the sentences with connectors to make your composition more interesting.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Card fiveWord bank for

describing places

Positive features

busy, bustling, quiet, peaceful, idyllic, unpolluted, safe,exciting, quaint, colourful, friendly, lively, popular,spectacular, welcoming, interesting, panoramic,wonderful, attractive, charming, magnificent, fabulous,breathtaking, impressive, unique, modern, ancient,traditional, historic, populated, etc.

Negative features

noisy, polluted, dangerous, boring, crowded,impersonal, ugly, isolated, gloomy, unpopulated,deserted, humid, dirty, unattractive, ruined, desolate,etc.

BUILDINGS

Positive features

spacious, large, huge, luxurious, decorated, attractive,historic, modern, ancient, impressive, etc.

Negative features

ugly, gloomy, unpleasant, humid, dirty, ruined, bleak,unattractive, shabby, etc.

ROOMS

Positive features

comfortable, cosy, spacious, large, huge, charming,tastefully decorated, attractively furnished, quiet,bright, elegant, etc.

Negative features

tiny, dark, gloomy, stuffy, dusty, etc.

crashing waves

blazing heatof the sun

delicious aromaof seafood

brightly colouredbeach umbrellas

fragrant pine trees

salty air

cries ofseabirds

white sandy bays

smell offried food

honking horns police sirens wailingin the distance

red metalroad signs

colourfulbustilingstreets

bright flashing lightsbrightly decoratedshop windows

sound of excitedcrowds

SENSORIAL DESCRIPTION

cheerful birds’chirping

bees buzzingall around

fresh scentof lavender

leaves rustling in the breeze

fresh secludedsitting-out areas

the howling wind

brightly colouredfeathered birds

strong fragranceof flowers

the smell ofstagnant water

the screeching of birds

big multicolouredflowers

the strong scent of flowers

impenetrabledarkness

massive dark green treesloud waterfalls

seasidenoisy activities ofthe busy port

sweet-scentedfreesias

citysound ofpop music

unpleasant smell ofexhaust fumes

jungle warm, thick and heavy airdeep silence

dense growth of bushes

countrysidegolden plaincries of happychildren

When describing objects you should take into account several elements: size, shape, colour, pattern, material, mainfunctions of the object described.The inclusion of all or some of these elements depends on the purpose of the description and the place whereit appears (catalogues, encyclopaedia, letters, etc.).In any case you should give an accurate picture of the object.

A description can be objective (impersonal, detached) or subjective (personal).

■ It is objective when its aim is mainly informative.The objective description gives a realistic clear picture of the object described without the writer providingany comment or personal opinion.In an encyclopaedia, for example, the description is accurate and impersonal.

■ It is subjective when its aim is to involve the reader emotionally.Therefore it is coloured with the writer’s impressions and feelings and it makes large use of adjectives andfigurative language (similes, metaphors...).In an advertisement, for example, you mainly stress the positive features of a product, using plenty ofadjectives, hyperboles and other linguistic devices to involve the reader emotionally.In a letter or a poem you could mention the memories, the feelings the object evokes.

■ In a subjective description• you should use both factual adjectives (e.g. wide, long, etc.) and opinion adjectives (e.g. wonderful,

excellent, etc.);• you should use elaborate adjectives instead of simplistic ones (e.g. “fabulous”, “wonderful”, “good-

looking” instead of ” beautiful”, “nice”, etc.).

■ The description of objects can be written in a formal or informal register depending on whom it isaddressed to and where it appears.

■ Use the following order of adjectives when you put several adjectives before a noun:

Card sixTips for

describing objects

Opinion Size/Weigt Age Shape Colour Pattern Origin Material Noun

beautiful large old oval black plain French wooden table

Card sevenWord bank for

describing objects

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Size and weight small, tiny, minute, big, large, medium-sized, huge, gigantic, enormous, heavy, light, easy to carry,etc.

Shape square, rectangular, oval, round, round-faced, circular, triangular, etc.

Pattern striped, checked, flowered, spotted, plain, etc.

Material The object is made of metal, lead, gold, silver, wood, plaster, nylon, plastic, glass, aluminium, steel,iron, paper, cardboard, leather, cotton, silk, velvet, natural fibres, fur, rubber, brick, concrete, etc.

Card eight

AdvertisingThe aim of a descriptive text for advertising is mainly persuasive.An ad persuades people to visit a place or induces the reader to buy a product or to use a service.Therefore the language must strike the potential visitor/customer by praising the good qualities of a product ora service.Recurring features in advertising are:

■ extensive use of adjectives, possibly with a superlative meaning such as magnificent, incredible, etc. (e.g. JellySkin combines the incredible lightness of... with total transparency);

■ use of hyperboles achieved through the use of superlatives orprefixes like super, ultra etc. (e.g. super-slimSkin models);

■ repetition of words;

■ use of compound words such as shock-resistant, waterproof, etc;

■ direct appeal to the reader through the use of the imperative and the personal pronoun “you”;

■ presence of figurative language (similes, metaphors, personifications, etc);

■ use of sound devices such as alliteration, assonance, etc.

An ad consists of:

Headline = a catchy title used to emphasise the qualities of the product;

Bodycopy = the text;

Visual = any photograph or picture present in the ad;

Logotype = product brand name set in a particular typographical format. It becomes the symbol in which the reader of the ad identifies the marketing image of a firm or a product.

Card nineFeatures of

narrative texts

A narrative text involves events, characters and what the characters say and do.Whereas descriptive texts locate people and objects in space, narrative texts locate them intime.

A narrative text can be either non-literary or literary.

� NON-LITERARY texts include news reports, articles, letters, etc.These types of narrative texts report real current events, personal anecdotes orexperiences.When the purpose of a narrative text is to inform, such as in news reports, the narrationof events is quite objective, realistic and neutral.On the contrary, when the purpose of a narrative text is mainly to arouse emotions in thereader, such as in articles from magazines, the narration is greatly subjective.

� LITERARY texts include short stories, tales, novels, etc.These types of narrative texts narrate fictional events, that is events which want toreproduce reality but are actually imaginary.Their purpose is not to inform but to entertain the reader and convey emotions andfeelings.

News reports, which can be found in newspapers and magazines, describe current eventsdealing with topics* of common interest, such as natural disasters, accidents, criminal acts,political events, sports events, social events...The aim of a news report is to inform the reader.

When writing a news report or a factual article you should follow a plan:

Introduction • brief introduction:- who are the protagonists?- what is/are the event/s?- where does/do the event/s take place?- when does/do the event/s take place?- why does/do the event/s take place?

Main body (usually one or more paragraphs) • description of the event/s in detail

Conclusion • people’s comments on the event/s

REMEMBER

1. Write short and clear eye-catching headlines.The headline must not contain articles, possessive adj/pron., auxiliary verbs, punctuation.

2. Give all necessary information accurately and unemotionally. Include only facts!

3. Do not mention your feelings or personal opinion. Be objective and neutral!

4. Use short sentences.

5. Reduce the use of adjectives and adverbs.

6. Use passive voice and direct or reported speech to report people’s comments and to make your newsreport impersonal.

7. Use a formal language register*.

8. Use mainly past tenses.

Card tenTips for writing

news reports andfactual articles

Stories are the narration of a sequence of events which are selected so as to suggest a cause-effect relationship.Stories may be imaginary or true. They usually involve some characters and settings. The aim is to conveyemotions. Every story is told by a narrator*, the speaking voice, who gives the point of view* from which thestory is told.When writing a story you should follow a plan:

Introduction • brief introduction:- where is the story set? (describe the background - scene to the story)- who are the protagonists?- what is/are the event/s?- when does the story take place?

Main body (usually two or more paragraphs) • description of how the story started and developed

Conclusion • end of the story• consequences, people’s comments or reactions

REMEMBER1. Plan the story before writing: decide on characters and main events.

2. Narrate the story using the first or the third person.

3. Start a new paragraph for each part of the story.

4. Begin or end your story in an interesting way so as to impress the reader.You can use different techniques:• creating mystery or suspense; • asking a rhetorical question;• describing the writer’s feelings; • using direct speech;• addressing the reader directly; • using sensorial description.

5. Use mainly past tenses:• Past simple - to describe the main events;• Past progressive - to describe the background scenes to the story;• Past perfect - to talk about events which happened before the main events.

6. Use time linkers to make the time sequence clear : when, while, after, before, as soon as, meanwhile,immediately, at last, etc.

7. Use questions or exclamations, a wide variety of adjectives and adverbs to emphasise feelings.Your story will sound more interesting!

8. Use descriptive techniques.

Card elevenTips for writing

stories

Card twelveTips for writing

letters

a. INFORMAL LETTERS

An informal letter is always written for a known reader and is usually intended to interest the reader,describe experiences and express feelings or personal opinions.

Layout

• Use set phrases for the opening paragraph such as thank you for your letter, I'm writing to tell you about.etc.

• Use an informal register.

• Use informal expressions such as as you know, actually, by the way, you see etc.

• Use exclamation marks and questions to express your emotions and personal feelings.

• Use linking words to join sentences and paragraphs.

• Use set phrases for the closing paragraph such as write soon; see you soon; well, that's all for now; I'm

looking forward to hearing from you etc.

Your address Date

Dear John,....................................................................

...................................................................................

...................................................................................

...................................................................................

Signature

b. FORMAL LETTERS: LETTERS OF APPLICATION

When applying for a job you usually send a covering letter explaining why you are applying for thatparticular job and a c.v. or curriculum vitae which is a short and schematic account of your personaldata, education and past employment.

Layout

• Use set phrases for the opening paragraph such as I am writing to apply for...; I should be glad if youwould kindly consider me for the post of...

• Use a formal register.

• Use set phrases for the closing paragraph such as I hope that you will take my application intoconsideration; I hope you will call me for an interview.

PAR. 1 Give reasons for writing and mention the source of information about the job.

PAR. 2 Introduce yourself giving your personal data, school curriculum and qualifications.

PAR. 3 Say why you are interested in the job.

PAR. 4 Illustrate your previous experience (if any).

PAR. 5 Give reasons for leaving your previous job.

PAR. 6 Refer to any documents you enclose with your letter and express the hope you will be granted an

interview.

The curriculum vitae usually includes your:

• personal data: name, surname, address, date and place of birth, marital status

• school curriculum and qualifications

• employment record

Your address Date

Address of the company you are writing to

Dear Sir or Madam,.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Yours faithfully,

Your signature Your full name clearly written

In literature the term "fiction", which comes from the Latin word "fingere", refers to narrative textswhich "tell a story", such as short stories and novels.

"Telling a story" means creating a fictional world involving events and characters.

This fictional world is created through narration, description or dialogue.

A narrative consists of:

• a story (the mere sequence of events in time)• a setting (place and time)• events• characters

In a short story or a novel events are usually connected to each other by a cause and effectrelationship and arranged in such a way as to achieve particular emotional effects; this organization ofevents is called the plot of a story.

The narrative voice which tells the story is called the narrator.

The choice of the type of narrator (first person/third person) determines the point of viewfrom which the story is told, that is the angle from which events are seen.

The fictional world built up by the author shows the message which the writer wants to convey tothe readers, that is the theme of a narrative text.

Card thirteen

Fiction

Features of a short story

A short story is a short, compact and carefully built work of prose fiction.It is usually centred around a single event and a few characters.

The well-made plot consists of:

• Introduction (presentation of characters/situations)

• Middle (the story starts and the conflict is presented and developed reaching the culminatingmoment of the action - climax)

• Conclusion (the conflict is resolved and the initial situation is re-established, maintained or changed)

However there may be a plot:

• without introduction (in medias res beginning);

• or a plot without resolution (open ending);

• a plot may also have a surprise ending when there is an unexpected resolution to the conflict.

Features of a novel

A novel is an extended narrative.

• it is longer than a short story;

• its plot is more complex;

• there is a greater variety of characters;

• there is a wider and deeper exploration of characters and motives;

• events usually take place over a longer period of time.

A fairy tale is a tale which deals with magic, witches, giants and other supernatural agents, in theircontacts with the world of ordinary people.

Main features of a fairy tale:

• indefinite time setting and place setting• unreal events and people• characters are only good or bad and are described superficially• recurring features: a quality of a character, the recurring presence of an object...

• recurring actions: the violation of orders, the kidnapping of someone...

• presentation of the same episode three times with a few variations

• repetition of words• Iarge use of direct speech• presence of nursery rhymes and magical formulae

The fairy tale usually opens with the departure of a character who goes on a journey or on business.Before leaving, he gives the hero orders or prohibitions.

The hero usually disobeys; his disobedience creates a conflict which is solved at the end of the fairytale, where good prevails against evil.

In every fairy tale the characters have a role.The main roles are the following:

• protagonist = the hero

• antagonist = the character who opposes to the hero

• helper = the character who helps the hero

Card fourteenTips for recognizing

the structure of afairy tale

Poetry is a term referring to literary compositions which are not in prose.The visual form that a poemtakes on a page is called lay-out.The lines in a poem may be grouped together or not.The grouping of lines in a poem set off by a space in the printed text is called stanza.

Stanzas can vary in length:• two-line stanzas are called couplets;• three-line stanzas tercets;• four-line stanzas quatrains;• six-line stanzas sestets, and so on.

When the lines are not grouped together the technique called free verse has been used.The musical quality of poems is created through various devices such as rhyme and rhythm whichdepends on the number of its stressed and unstressed syllables.

In poetry two forms have often been used: the sonnet and the ballad.

Features of a sonnetSonnet: a lyric poem made up of fourteen iambic pentameter lines organised according to severalintricate schemes.The sonnet originated in Italy in the 13th century and was developed by the 14th century Italian poetPetrarch; it was imported into England in the 14th century.

The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet consists of fourteen lines divided into an octave (composed of twofour-line stanzas) and a sestet rhyming abba abba cdc cdc.The Elizabethan poets changed it into a new form, called English or Shakespearean sonnet, consistingof three quatrains and a concluding couplet rhyming abab cdcd efef gg.

In a typical English sonnet the three quatrains present a problem or a situation and the final coupletusually provides a resolution or a comment on the previous ten lines.

Card fifteen

Poetry

Features of a ballad

Ballad: a short, anonymous, narrative poem made up of four-line stanzas.Ballads flourished in Britain in the Middle Ages.

They were oral compositions, usually sung, which had been transmitted from singer to singer forcenturies and in the process are remade by the singer at every performance.

Therefore there are many variant versions of the same story.

Features:

• simple story line which starts "in medias res"

• tragic story dealing with universal themes like love, death, jealousy, revenge.

In some ballads there is the presence of the supernatural.

• subject-matter taken from the everyday life of common people

• mixture of narration and dialogue

• impersonal narration

• presence of questions and answers

• simple and regular structure: four-line stanzas

• regular rhyme scheme

• presence of a refrain (= words or lines repeated in the course

of a poem, recurring at intervals sometimes with a slight variation)

• presence of repetition to increase the memorability of the text

• presence of incremental repetition: repetition of a previous line

with a slight variation which advances the story by small additions

• musical quality of the language mainly produced by the presence

of repetition and alliteration.

Dramatic texts tell invented stories in the form of plays.A play is a dramatic composition designed for performance in the theatre.The actors perform a play on a stage in front of the audience and follow the playwright's stagedirections that is the instructions for the play's production about the setting, movements, gestures,physical appearance, personality and mood of the characters.A play develops through direct speech in the form of dialogues, soliloquies/monologues and asides.

Soliloquy: the theatrical convention by which a character, usually alone on the stage, talks to himself/herself aloud conveying the audience his/her state of mind, innermost feelings,thoughts and motives.

Monologue: a long solo speech in which a character reveals his/her feelings. It may take place in thepresence of other characters.

Soliloquy and monologue are useful devices to convey:• the character's thoughts and innermost feelings;• the character's plan for the future;• the character's explanations of the play;• the character's comments on other characters and events.

Aside: short comments made for the audience alone to draw the listener's attention to theimportance of what has just been said. An aside is, by convention, inaudible to the othercharacters on the stage.

A play is usually subdivided into acts and scenes.When a play is not divided into scenes it is called one-act play (She Tells Her Daughter).Comedy and tragedy are the two basic types of drama.

Comedy is characterised by a light or comic theme.The plot begins with misfortunes but it has a happy ending.The characters are ordinary people whoamuse the audience with what they say or do. Humour is the main ingredient of a comedy.

Tragedy, on the other hand, is characterised by a series of misfortunes which lead the tragichero/heroine to his/her tragic downfall. The characters are usually of noble birth with great personalqualities but with a tragic flaw (a weakness) which eventually causes their fall.

Card sixteen

Drama

Card seventeenFeatures of

argumentativetexts

An argumentative text sets out ideas or views (thesis) to assert or to prove.

The purpose of an argumentative text is mainly persuasive.

This type of text not only presents facts, but also discusses them, trying to convince theaddressee of the validity of the arguments presented.

The thesis must be proved in a clear and effective way: examples, data, information andjustifications must be given to support the thesis.

Linking words are fundamental for the logical development of the arguments proposed.

The tone and the language register used depend on where the text appears and on whicheffect the author wants to achieve; however the tone is mainly formal.

An argumentative text can be either non-literary or literary:

� NON-LITERARY texts include editorials, scientific essays, politicians’ speeches etc.Scientific essays try to be objective and support their thesis with statistical/scientific data andscientific reasoning; politicians’ speeches try to attract the audience’s attention, to carryconviction and/or to induce the audience to action;

� LITERARY texts include literary essays characterised by a “poetic language” which makesuse of stylistic devices.

An argumentative text is a piece of formal writing which appears in newspapers andmagazines.The degree of formality depends on where the text appears. In a semi-formal articleyou can address the reader directly whereas in a formal article it is not possible.

There are different kinds of argumentative texts.The most common are:a. Pros and cons essaysb. Opinion essaysc. Essays providing solutions to problems

• The aim of a pros and cons essay is to elicit a debate on a specific topic.Therefore theconclusion presents a balanced consideration on both sides of the topic.

• The aim of an opinion essay is to persuade the reader about the writer’s opinion on thetopic. Facts are presented, then discussed and finally clearly restated; the effectiveness ofpersuasion lies in the validity of the arguments in favour of the writer’s thesis. Somedevices may be used to attract the reader’s attention, such as a catchy introduction.

• The aim of an essay providing solutions is to carry conviction and to induce the readerto action, suggesting possible solutions to problems.

When writing a pros and cons essay you should follow a plan:

Introduction • Present the topic

Main body • Arguments for + justifications/examples• Arguments against + justifications/examples

Conclusion • Balanced consideration

Card eighteenTips for writingargumentative

texts

REMEMBER

1. Present advantages and disadvantages in separate paragraphs.2. Avoid personal opinions.3. Use a formal register.4. Support your arguments for and against with justifications and examples.5. Use linking words and phrases.

When writing an opinion essay you should follow a plan:

Introduction • Present the topic and express your thesis clearly

Main body • Express various viewpoints and reasons to support the statement• Express opposing viewpoint and reason to support the statement

Conclusion • Restate your opinion

The plan given above is the most common. However, there are other ways to organise anopinion essay, for example by proposing the opposing viewpoint at the beginning of the essayand demolishing it with counter arguments in order to restate your opinion.

REMEMBER

1. Present the viewpoints in separate paragraphs.2. Express your personal opinions using expressions such as I strongly believe, in my view, in my

opinion.3. Use a formal/semi-formal register.4. Support your viewpoints with justifications and examples.5. Use linking words and phrases.

When writing an essay providing solutions you should follow a plan:

Introduction • State the problem

Main body • Give suggestions + explanations/examples/possible results

Conclusion • Restate your opinion

REMEMBER

1. Present the suggestions in separate paragraphs.2. Express your personal opinions.3. Use a formal register.4. Provide your suggestions with explanations, examples or expected results.5. Use linking words and phrases.

Useful phrases/linkers

to list points to begin with, in the first place, first of all, one major advantage is, etc.

to add more points secondly, moreover, in addition to this, what is more,furthermore, also, finally, etc.

to give exemplification for instance, for example, especially, in particular, etc.

to clarify that is to say, in other words, etc.

to give reasons as, since, because, because of, due to, owing to, etc.

to give result, effect consequently, therefore, so, for this reason, etc.

to present contrasting viewpoints it is often suggested, opponents argue, it is argued that, on the other hand, opponents of this view say… however,although, on the contrary, etc.

to demolish a false argument this is partly true, but… true, no one denies that... but, etc.

to express opinions I think, I believe, I strongly believe, in my view, in my opinion.

to emphasize opinions obviously, needless to say, clearly, it is clear that, certainly.

to conclude all in all, to sum up, in conclusion, all things considered, on the whole, etc.

Card nineteen

Word bank for presenting and

discussing arguments

Card twenty

Word bankfor general topics

to broadcast

to press a button

healthy/unhealthy

food

to plug into

sound track

cordless phone

engine

laptop

vacuum cleaner

dishwasher

to record

legumes tasteless/tasteful meal

eating habits acid rain

global warming

deforestationlitter

high in calories

source ofproteins

fatty food

balanceddietharmful to

one’s health

low-caloriefoods

dairy

poultry

cereals

pesticide abuse traffic jam

exhaust fumes

noise pollution

ozone layerrecycling

naturalresources

soil erosion

answeringmachine

television/cablechannel

wasteproducts

to connect to websites

e-mail service

entertainmenton line

to make “chatfriends”

to exchangeinformation

anonymous and unsafe

mediumhackers

to enter a web siteaddress

to click onunderlined words

to surf the net in search of

technology fax machineto rewind/to fast

forward the Internetto

store/accessinformation

downloaddocuments

food rich innutrientsvegetables

environmentalproblems

green-houseeffectclean fuel