carbohydrates chemistry 2

8/8/2019 Carbohydrates Chemistry 2

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CARBOHYDRATECARBOHYDRATECHEMISTRYCHEMISTRY


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OutlineOutline

Importance of carbohydratesDefinition of a carbohydrateMonosaccharides nomenclatureStereochemistry in carbohydratesEnantiomersDrawing sugars - Fischer ProjectionsFunctions of different carbohydratesSweeteners


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Importance of CarbohydratesImportance of Carbohydrates

Primary energy store in biosphereEnergy distribution

Antigenic ABO blood groupsStructural and mechanicalcomponents of cell walls in plants

and insects, cartilage in vertebrates


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Importance of CarbohydratesImportance of Carbohydrates

Most organisms that live in air obtainenergy from the oxidation of carbohydrates

Glucose is most common simplecarbohydrate used as fuelImportant to consider structure of

carbohydratesDifferences in molecular structure areoften small but critical to their function


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W hat is a Carbohydrate?W hat is a Carbohydrate?

Aldehyde or ketone compounds with multiplehydroxyl groups (OH)

Ketones both groups attached to carbonyl group

are carbonAldehydes one carbon and one hydrogen attached

to carbonyl group

Acetone : Acetaldehyde


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W hat is a Carbohydrate?W hat is a Carbohydrate?

Simplest carbohydrate molecule is amonosaccharide : (C-H 20) n : carbonhydrate

Monosaccharides have 3 to 7 carbonsEither aldehyde or ketone group and

hydroxyl (OH) groups on nearly everycarbon

Polyhydroxyaldehydes or Polyhydroxyketones


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CARBOHYDRATESCARBOHYDRATES

Carbo hydrate s are compounds composed of carbon

andhydrates of water

Carbohydrates can also be classified as polyalcohols.

Simple carbohydrates are saccharides.

Complex sugars as starches.


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SACCHARIDESSACCHARIDESMonosaccharide One Sugar Unit

GlyceraldehydeDisaccharide Two Sugar Units

MaltosePolysaccharide More Than Two Starch


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L earning check CCL earning check CC- -11

1. W hich is a correct definition of carbohydrates?a. They are esters of alcohols and aldehydes and

ketones.b. They are polyhydric derivatives of aldehydes and

ketones.c. They are hydrates of carbon.d. They are polymers of sugars.2. Classify the following as a. monosaccharides b.

oligosaccharides c. polysaccharides

2.1 hexoses2.2 disaccharides2.3 starches2.4 celluloses

2.5 pentoses


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1. W hich is a correct definition of carbohydrates?a. They are esters of alcohols and aldehydes and

ketones.b. They are polyhydric derivatives of aldehydes and

ketones.c. They are hydrates of carbon.d. They are polymers of sugars.2. Classify the following as a. monosaccharides b.

oligosaccharides c. polysaccharides

2.1 hexoses (a)2.2 disaccharides (b)2.3 starches (c)2.4 celluloses (c)

2.5 pentoses (a)


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PolyhydroxyaldehydesPolyhydroxyaldehydes

Ribose GlucoseGalactose

R


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PolyhydroxyketonePolyhydroxyketone

R R


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Hexose: aldo & ketoHexose: aldo & keto

R R R


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MonosaccaridesMonosaccarides


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Monosaccharide NomenclatureMonosaccharide NomenclatureC Ketone Aldehyde Examples

4 Tetrose Tetrulose Erythrose,Threose

5 Pentose Pentulose Ribulose,Ribose

6 Hexose Hexulose Fructose,Glucose

7 Heptose Heptulose Sedoheptose,Sedoheptulose


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Which classification fits this sugar?

Learning check CC-2a


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DihydroxyacetoneDihydroxyacetone

Learning check CC-2a


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Which classification fits this sugar?Learning check CC-2b


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GalactoseGalactose

Which classification fits this sugar?Learning check CC-2b


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Learning check CC-2c


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GlyceraldehydeGlyceraldehyde


Learning check CC-2c


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Which classification fits this sugar?Learning check CC-2d


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DD--ThreoseThreose


Learning check CC-2d


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Learning check CC-2e


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Ketoheptose

SedoheptuloseSedoheptulose


Learning check CC-2e


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Chiral MoleculesChiral Molecules

Mirror images

but notsuperimposable,

L ike your hands


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Are these compounds the same?Are these compounds the same?


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Nonsuperimposable mirror imagesNonsuperimposable mirror images


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Different CompoundsDifferent Compounds

Nonsuperimposable so different compoundsOne carbon atom is chiral (not symmetric)Nonsuperimposable mirror images are calledenantiomers


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EnantiomersEnantiomersStereoisomers are

molecules that have thesame bonds connectingthe same atoms butdifferent relativeorientations of thebonds

Enantiomer : one type of stereoisomer

Nonsuperimposablemirror images


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Enantiomers are different compoundsEnantiomers are different compounds

Different relative orientations of bonds in a pair of enantiomers

cannot be changed by rotationabout the bondsOnly be changed by breaking

bonds and remaking themOne enantiomer can only be

changed into another enantiomer by chemical reaction


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Stereoisomers: important implicationsStereoisomers: important implicationsStarch and cellulose both polymers of

glucose units linked together C4 of one glucose bonded to C1 of next

glucoseOnly difference is the direction of the

bond

Cellulose bond points up, in starchbond points downHumans can digest starch but not

cellulose


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Chiral Carbon AtomChiral Carbon Atom


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C

C

CH

H OH

OH

OH

beam of x-rays

crystal of (+)-glyceraldehyde

XX--RAY DIFFRACTIONRAY DIFFRACTIONSCATTERING PATTERN - EXPOSED FILM

calculation

CC

CH

H OH

OH

OH

structure( = D )

Structures can be determinedby mathematical analysis of the scattering pattern.

Method developed by Max von Laue (1912)


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RELATIVE CONFIGURATIONRELATIVE CONFIGURATION

D- , L-

Configuration is related to eitherD-glyceraldehyde or L-glyceraldehyde,

from which it may be synthesized.

ABSOLUTE CONFIGURATIONABSOLUTE CONFIGURATION

R- , S-The actual configuration about astereocenter - just as it really is inthree-dimensional space. Uses theSequence Rule to specify R or S.

SPECIFIC ROTATIONSPECIFIC ROTATION(+)- , (-)-

d- , l-

Specifies whether the compound isDextrorotatory or Leveorotatory whenplaced in a polarimeter.

older terms, not much used today


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There is no implied relationship among the terms!

R,S +, -

D,L


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Glyceraldehyde EnantiomersGlyceraldehyde Enantiomers

Groups attached to an asymmetric carbon atom takeeither of 2 fixed positions with respect to other carbon atoms

-OH group can extend either right or left of the carbonchain with reference to the CHO and CH 2OHgroups

RRLL


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Glyceraldehyde EnantiomersGlyceraldehyde Enantiomers

Orient molecule so carbonylis at top

If hydroxyl (OH) on highestnumbered chiral carbon

to the right D-glyceraldehyde

to the left L -glyceraldehyde

Dexter = right in latinL aevus = left in latin

RRLL


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Fischer ProjectionsFischer ProjectionsDrawing 2D images representing 3D configuration

of molecule is difficult but possible by using setof rules

Acyclic compounds drawn so that vertical bondsrepresent bonds pointing back and horizontal

bonds are bonds pointing forward


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Fischer ProjectionsFischer Projections

H O

C

C

CH 2OH

HO H

H OC

C

CH 2OH

H OH

Glyceraldehyde


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DRA W ING FISHER PROJECTIONSDRA W ING FISHER PROJECTIONS

When drawing Fisher projections for saccharides, thealdehyde carbon is alwaysdrawn up.This will then be the #1 carbon.

Fisher structures can also berepresented as stick drawingsas illustrated in the next slide.


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Stick RepresentationsStick Representations

H O

C

C

CH 2OH

HO H

H OC

C

CH 2OH

H OH

HO H

C

OH

C

H OH

C

OH

CH 2OH


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galactosegalactose

GlucoseGalactose

CC CC CC CC CC


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DD--riboseribose

CC


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DD--glyceraldehydeglyceraldehyde

CC


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SACCHARIDE STRUCTURESACCHARIDE STRUCTURE

From the Fisher projection of glyceraldehyde we see that:

The end group is an aldehyde. The end group carbon (the

aldehyde carbon) is always the

#1 carbon. The #2 carbon has an alcohol

group.


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SACCHARIDE STRUCTURESACCHARIDE STRUCTURE

Sacharides undergo End GroupConversion.The Aldehyde end group convertsto an Alcohol group,The #2 carbon converts to aKetone.Notice the hydrogen moves and thebonds change.


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End Group ConversionEnd Group Conversion Aldehyde carbon is always number one carbon. Aldehyde carbon is always number one carbon.

H O

C

C

C

CH 2OH

H OH

H OH

H O

HOH

Note alcoholgroup

Note formation

of Ketone

ErythoseErythulose

H OH

C

C

C

CH 2OH


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End group conversionEnd group conversion

Biochemically is

L OBRY DE BRUYN TRANSFORMATION


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Naming SaccharidesNaming Saccharides

Saccharides are also known assugars.The functional group name for sugars

is ose.Prefix will be our usual designation of number of carbons (1c= meth, 2C=eth, , 10C = dec, etc.)The end group name can also beused to catagorize sugars asaldehydes (aldose) or ketones(ketose).


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NamingNaming common and as osecommon and as ose

H OH

C

OH

CH 2OH

H

OH

C

OH

CH 2OH

OH

H

H OH

C

OH

CH 2OH

H

H

OH

OH

HOH

C

OHH

CH 2OH

H

H

OH

OH

H O

glyceraldehydetriosealdotriose

therosetetrosealdotetrose

ribosePe n tosealdope n tose

fructosehexoseketohexose


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IsomersIsomersIsomers Organic molecules with

the same molecular formula butdiffer in structure or arrangement of atoms.


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StereoisomersStereoisomers

Stereoisomers:Same molecular formula but

different atomic arrangement inspace.

Examples:C 3H6O

CH 2OHCH 2OHCH(=O) CH 2OHCH(=O)CH 2OH


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Classify the following pairs as:A. Enantiomers B. stereoisomers

1. And

2. and

HO H

H OHC

OH

CH 2OHH O

CH

CH2OH

OH


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Classify the following pairs as:A. Enantiomers B. stereoisomers

1. And ENANTIOMER

2. and ISOMER,functional

HO H

H OHC

OH

CH 2OHH O

CH

CH2OH

OH


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Fisher StereoisomersFisher Stereoisomers

CHO

H

OH

HH

CH 2OH

HOHO

H

HO

CHO

H

OH

HOH

CH 2OH

HHO

H

HO

L-glucose D-glucose

1

2

3

4

5

6


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DD--glucoseglucoseCommon names:

glucosedextrose

Natural Source:Fruits, vegetables, cornsyrup and honey

Importance:Building block for disaccharides (such assucrose, lactose andmaltose) andpolysaccharides (starch,cellulose and glycogen)

CHO

H

HO

HH

CH 2OH

OHOH

H

OH

1

2

3

4

5

6

Diseases:Hypoglycemia/Hyperglycemia


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DD--galactosegalactoseNatural Source:

None for free formFormed by hydrolysis of milkmaltose

Importance:

Cellular membranes of brain &nervous system.

Dificiency diseases:Galactosemia:

Enzyme to digest galactosemissing and levels build in bloodcause mental retardation, cataractsand cirrhosis.

CHO

H

HO

HO

HCH 2OH

OHH

H

OH

1

2

3

4

5

6

ff


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DD--fructosefructose

Common names:L evulose and fruitsugar

Natural Source:Fruit juice and honeyHydrolysis of sugar

Importance:Due to sweetness,used as sugar

CH OH

H

HO

HO

HCH 2OH

OHH

H

O

1

2

3

4

5

6


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MutarotationMutarotation

Sugars can exist as linear structures.

Mostly they exist as cyclicstructures.

The linear form mutates into thecyclic form.

This conversion can be drawn asa Haworth structure.


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Haworth StructuresHaworth Structures Step 1Step 1

CHO

H

HOHH

CH 2OH

OHOHH

OH

1

2

3

4

5

6 CHOHOHHH

HOH 2C

OH OH H OH

123456


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CHOHOHHH

HOH 2C

OH OH H OH

123456

CHOH

OH

H H

HOH 2C

OH

OH

H OH

1

23

4

5

6

H h SH h S S 3S 3


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CHOHOH

HH

HOH 2COH

OH

H OH

1

23

4

5

6

CHOHH

OH

H H

HOH 2CO

OH

H OH

1

23

4

5

6


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AnomersStereoisomers formed when ring is formed ( E , F).

CO

CH 2OH

OHCH

HO

H

HC

OH

OH

CH

HO

HO HC

OH

C H

H C OH

C H

H

HO

H C

CH 2OH

O

C C

O

CH 2OH

CH

HO

H

HC

OHCH

HC

OH

or

E is same side with ring


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Six a nd Fiv e M ember Ri ngsSix a nd Fiv e M ember Ri ngs

Py ranFuran

o o


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Fisher & Harworth Projection Forms

OH

OH

CH

H C OH

C H

H

HO

H C

CH 2OH

O

C

OH

O

OH

OHHO

CH2

OH

1

23

45

6

E - D - Gl ucop yranose


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EE-- and and F F-- Gluc oseGluc ose


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EE--Gluc oseGluc ose F F--Gluc oseGluc ose

H H


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O

OH

OH

OH

OH

CH2OH

H

H

H

HH

O

H

H

H

H

H

OH

OH

OH

OHCH2OH

C

H

C OHH

CHO H

C OHH

CH

CH2OH

O

OHC

H

CHO H

C OHH

CHO H

C H

CH2OH

O

HO

E -D- glucose E- L- glucose


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1 . Gl ucose

OH

OH

CH

H C OH

C H

H

HO

H C

CH 2OH

O

C

OH

O

OH

OHHO

CH2 OH

1

23

4

5

6

E-D-Gl ucop yranose


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HOC

O

CH 2 OH

CH

HO

H

HC

OHCH

H C

OH

HO

OH

CH

H C

OH

C H

H

HO

H C

CH 2 OH

O

C

C

O

CH 2 OH

CH

HO

H

HC

OH

CH

H C

OH

OH

CO

CH 2 OH

OHCH

HO

H

HC

OHCH

OHH C

OH

OH

CH

H C OH

C H

H

HO

H C

CH 2 OH

O

C

-D-Glucofuranose(0.5%)EE -D-Glucopyranose(35%)

-D-Glucofuranose

(0.5%)

F F -D-Glucopyranose (65%)

Aldehydo-D-glucose (0.03%)

Fisher Projection Form


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2. G alactose

Component of lactose

E-D-G alactop yranose

O

OH

OH

CH2 OH

HO

OH


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3 . Fructose

D- Fructose F-D- Fructose E -D- Fructose

CH 2OH

O

CH 2OH

C

HO HC

OHCH

H C

OH

O

CH 2OH

C

HO HC

OHCH

H C

CH 2OHCH 2OH

CH

HO

H C OH

C HHO

C

OH

CH 2OH

O

or


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L earning check CCL earning check CC- -44W rite the HA W ORTH Structures of the following

monosaccharides:


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monosaccharides:

Glucose glucopyranose

OH

OH

CH

H C OH

C H

H

HO

H C

CH 2OH

O

C

OH

O

OH

OHHO

CH2 OH


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monosaccharides:

fructose fructopyranose

HOCH CH 2OH

OH HO

H OHHO H


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L i h k CCL i h k CC 44


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monosaccharides:

mannose mannopyranose

O

CH2 OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

L i h k CCL i h k CC 44


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monosaccharides:

gulose gulopyranose

O

CH2 OH

HO

OH

OHOH

DisaccharidesDisaccharides


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DisaccharidesDisaccharidesformed by dehydrationformed by dehydration

HOH

H H

HOH 2C O

OH

H OH

1

23

4

5

6

HH

HOH 2CO

OH

H OH

1

2

34

5

6

H

OH

OH

-, D-glucose

, D-fructoseCH 2OH


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SucroseSucrose

HOH

H H

HOH 2C O

OH

H OH

1

23

4

5

6

HH

HOH 2CO

OH

H OH

1

2

34

5

6

H + HOH

O

, -1,2 glycosidic bond

Weve seen the ether

link

CH 2OH


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1 ,2-E-D-Gl ucop yranos yl F-D- Fructofuranoside

O

OH

OHHO

CH2 OH

CH 2OH

OCH 2OH

O

HO

OH

H1

23 4

5

6

Invert sugar is the h ydro lyzed sucrose into g lucose and fructose.

Sucrose


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O

OH

OHHO

CH2 OHO

OH

OH

CH2 OH

O

OH

1 ,4- F-D-Gl ucop yranos yl - F-D-Gl ucop yranose

Ce ll obiose


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L actoseP

r inc

ipal s

uga r in m i

lk

O

OH

OH

CH2 OHO

OH

OH

CH2 OH

O

OH

OH

1,4 - F-D-G a la ct opy r anos y l- E-D- Gluc opy r anose

1,4 - F-D-G a la ct opy r anos y l- F-D-Gluc opy r anose

ff


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1,6

-E

-D-Ga

lactop yranos y

l- 1,2

-E

-D-Glucop yranos y

l - F

-D-

Fructofuranoside

2

2

2

2

elb iose ucrose oiet y

R affinose


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1 ,6-E-D-G alactop yranos yl- 1 ,6-E-D-G alactop yranos yl 1 ,2-E-D-Gl ucop yranos yl- F-D- Fructofuranoside

F latu lence Factor

2

2

2

2

2

Stach yose

PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides


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yy

C ll l


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Polymer of F-D-Gl ucose ( 1 , 4) linkage.

R epeating ce ll obiose moiet y.

O

OH

OH

CH2 OH

OH

O OO

O

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

O

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

O

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

O

OH

OH

CH2 OH

O

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

O

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

O

OH

OH

CH 2 OH

n

Ce ll ulose


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Starch


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T he reserve carboh ydrate of p lants. Occurs as granu les in the ce ll .

Made of am ylose and am ylopectin.

Am ylose --- Polymer of E-D- Gl ucose ( 1 " 4) linkage -straight -chain.

Starch

O

OH

OH

CH2OH

OHO OO

O

OH

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

CH2OH


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Am y lose


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Am y lopectin

Polymer of E -D-Gl ucose ( 1 -> 4) linkage in addition to

E -D-Gl ucose ( 1 " 6) linkage.

T he length of linear units in am ylopectin is on ly 25.

E - (1 " 4) linkage (25) to E - (1 " 6) l inkage.


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Am ylose and Am ylopect inAm ylose and Am ylopect in


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Gl ycogen

Anima l starch.

E - (1 " 4) l inkage and E - (1 -> 6) l inkage

1 2 : 1


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Gl yc ogen

i


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Polymer of 1 ,4-E -D-G alacturonic acid ( 1 , 4) &Meth ylga lacturonate

Pectin

O

OH

OH

OH

OO

O

O

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

O

OH

OH

COOH COOCH 3 COOCH 3 COOH


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L earning check CCL earning check CC 55

Give the monosaccharide components of the followingoligosaccharides and polysaccharides:1. Maltose (glucose)2. L actose (glucose, galactose)

3. Cellulose (glucose)4. Sucrose (glucose, fructose)5. Stachyose (glucose, galactose, fructose)6. Raffinose (glucose, galactose, fructose)

7. Glycogen (glucose)8. Starch (glucose)9. Cellobiose (glucose)10. Amylose (glucose)


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Functions of Polysaccharides

1 . Viscosit y contro l

2. T exture contro l

3 . Emu lsif ying agent

4. Water - binding capacit y

5. Stabi l izer


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D et erm ina t ion


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1. M onos acch

a r ides and Oligos a

cchar ides

A . E nz ym a t ic M eth od

1. Gluc ose oxidase

2. H exok inaseB . C h rom a t ogr ap h y M eth od

1. T h in lay er ch rom a t ogr ap h y

2. G

as ch

rom atogr ap

hy

3. L iq u id c olu mn ch rom a t ogr ap h y

2. P olysa cch ar ides

D et erm ina t ion

Gl O id S t


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Gl ucose Oxidase S ystem

D-Gluc ose + O 2 Gluc on ic Ac id + H 2O 2

H 2O 2+ 0 - D ia n isid ine 2 H 2O + Oxi d ized 0-D ia n isid ine(C olor less) (Brown )

OCH3

H3CO

H2 N NH2

H3CO OC3

HN N

Gl ucose Oxidasse

Peroxidase


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PolysaccharidesQ uantification depends on chemical or enzymatichydrolyses of them into monomers and analysis of themonomers.

Q ualitative Analyses

1. Amylose + I - Blue color

Use spectrometer for determining the amylose - iodine

blue color

2. Amylopectin + I - Reddish color .


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R elative Sweetnes of Sugars

Sucrose 1 00

Gl ucose 74

Fructose 1 74

L actose 1 6

Invert Sugar 1 26Ma ltose 3 2

G alactose 3 2

W hy is sugar sweet?W hy is sugar sweet?


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Molecules, including non-sugars, taste sweetbecause they bind to sweet receptors on thetongue

W hy is sugar sweet?W hy is sugar sweet?

T ab le 3 .6

Types Of SweetenersTypes Of Sweeteners


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ypyp

Caloric SweetenersSugars

Sugar AlcoholNon-CaloricSweeteners

SugarsSugars


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gg

Includes Many Caloric SweetenersRefined Sugars L actoseCorn Sweeteners GlucoseInvert Sugars DextroseMaltose Honey

HFCS SyrupsConcentrated Fruit Juices

Health Effects of SugarsHealth Effects of Sugars


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gg

Nutritional DeficienciesSugar Can Only Contribute To

Deficiencies By Displacing

NutrientsSugars Are Not Bad But NutrientDense Foods Must Come First

Amount Of Sugar Depends OnCalories Available Beyond ThoseNeeded For Nutrients



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gg

Tooth DecaySugars And Starches Contribute To

Decay

Bacteria In Mouth Ferment Sugars AndProduce Acid That Dissolves EnamelSugar Only One Of Many Factors

HowL

ong Food On TeethHow Often Food EatenDental Hygiene



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Diabetes/HypoglycemiaGlucose May Be Modified As Part Of

Treatment

Hormonal Regulation Or Obesity (InCase Of Type 2 Diabetes) NotGlucose

Sugars Do Not Cause A Greater Glycemic Index Than ComplexCarbohydrates



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Hyperactivity/Misbehavior In Children Controlled Studies Failed To Show

An Adverse Relationship Between

Sugar And Hyperactivity Or Misbehavior In Children Carbohydrates, Including Sugars,

Stimulate Production Of Serotonin,Makes A Person Sleepy AndSluggish



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Heart DiseaseNormal Sugar Intakes do not Raise

Triglycerides, If Calories In Balance

Very H igh Intakes Of Sucrose AndFructose Can Increase TriglyceridesGlucose Causes Insulin Release

Some People Over Produce Insulin InResponse To High Glucose Or Carbohydrate



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ObesityObesity Due To Energy ImbalanceNo Direct Connection Between Sugar

And Obesity, Unless Excess Sugar Containing Foods L eads To EnergyImbalance

Foods High In Sugar Often High In Fat

Increase In Calorie Intake Has ComeFrom Carbohydrates, And PrimarilySoft Drinks

Sugar AlcoholsSugar Alcohols


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Provide Calories, But Fewer ThanSugars Because Not CompletelyAbsorbed

ProductsW

ith Sugar Alcohols Can BeL abeled Sugar Free or Reduced Calorie

Incomplete Absorption Can CauseGas, Abdominal Discomfort andDiarrhea


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Accepted Daily Intake (ADI)Accepted Daily Intake (ADI)


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Amount/Kg Body W eight PersonCan Safely Consume EverydayOver A L ifetime W ithout Risk

Conservative L evel Usually 100Times L ess Than Maximum L evel

AtW

hich No Observed Effects

NonNon--Caloric SweetenersCaloric Sweeteners


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FDA Petitioned Non-CaloricSweeteners

CyclamateAlitameNeotame


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Saccharine SafetySaccharine Safety


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Used Over 100 Years In USNot Metabolized By Body, Rapidly

Excreted, Does Not Accumulate In

BodyOriginally on GRAS L istSafety Q uestions Arose In 1977Rat Study Suggested L arge Doses

Increased Risk Of Bladder Cancer

Saccharine SafetySaccharine Safety


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FDA Proposed Ban On SaccharineCongress Imposed Moratorium On

Ban, Until 1991 W hen BanW

ithdrawnL arge Human Studies Do Not SupportAn Association Between SaccharineAnd Cancer For Population As AW hole

Subgroup May Have Increased Risk

Aspartame SafetyAspartame Safety


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Composed Of:PhenylalanineAspartic AcidMethyl Group

Extensive Studies Document

Safety, Except For People W ithPKU


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DiketopiperzineDiketopiperzine


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In L iquid Systems AspartameBreaks Down To Diketopiperzine(DKP) W ith Heat Exposure And

L oses Sweetness.Studies Have Shown DKP is Not A

Concern, If All Aspartame

Converted To DKP,Below The ADI Of 3,000 mg/kg

Methyl GroupMethyl Group


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During Metabolism:Methyl GroupMethanol

FormaldehydeCarbon Dioxide

Amount Produced Fall Below L evels

That W ould Cause HarmMany Juices Produce More Methanol

Than Aspartame In A Diet Soda


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Other AccusationsOther Accusations


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Some People Claim They HaveUnusual Sensitivity To Aspartame

Headaches

DizzinessMood AlterationsFatigue

Double Blind Studies Have Failed ToReproduce Reactions

CyclamateCyclamate


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Approved By FDA In 1949, Banned In1969 Based On A Study IndicatingCaused Bladder Cancer In Rats

Has Concluded Cyclamate Or By-Products Do Not Cause Cancer

However, May Promote Cancer Once

Started,More Research Needed

Special PopulationsSpecial Populations


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ChildrenHighest Intake Of Non-Caloric

Sweeteners Due To High Food/FluidIntake For Size

Suggested Children L imit SaccharinIntake

Current Aspartame And Acesulfame KIntakes For Children Below ADI

Special PopulationsSpecial Populations


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Pregnant W omenConsider Careful Use Of SaccharinAspartame W ithin FDA Guidelines

Appears SafeFetal Phenylalanine L evels ExceedMaternal L evels, But Below L evels ThatW ould Cause Neurological Problems InFetus

Acesulfame K Determined Safe

Chemical Tests for carbohydratesChemical Tests for carbohydrates


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1. Molisch Test2. Iodine Test3. Barfoeds Test4. Seliwanoffs Test5. Fehlings Test6. Benedicts Test7. Nylanders Test

8. Bial-Orcinol Test9. Mucic Acid Test10.Osazone Test

Chemical Reactions of Chemical Reactions of carbohydratescarbohydrates: :


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carbohydratescarbohydrates: :

1.Ester formation2.Reduction

3.Oxidation4.Hydrolysis -

a. with acidsb. with enzymes


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END OF THE L ECTUREEND OF THE L ECTURE

carbohydrates chemistry 2

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