carbohydrate metabolism
TRANSCRIPT
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CARBOHYDRATE CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISMMETABOLISM
Week 3-5
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Major pathways of glucose utilizationMajor pathways of glucose utilization
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LIVER BLOOD MUSCLE
glycogen glycogen
Fructose & galactose
glucose glucose Glucose
ATP ATP ATP
pyruvate pyruvate pyruvate
Lactate Lactate ATP
CO2 + H2O CO2 + H2O
Lipid
sterol & cholesterol
glucose has a normal blood level of 70-90 mg/dL< 70 mg/ 100 ml hypoglycemia> 70 mg/ 100 ml hyperglycemia
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glicolysisglicolysisGlycolysis is a series of reactions that takes place in the
cytoplasm of all prokaryotes and eukaryotesa molecule of glucose is degraded in a series of enzyme-
catalyzed reactions to yield two molecules of the three-carbon compound pyruvate
Also called Embden Mayerhoff metabolismAerobic (glucose pyruvate) and anaerobic (glucose
lactate)Fermentation (glucose ethanol)
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Three possible catabolic fates of the pyruvate formed in Three possible catabolic fates of the pyruvate formed in glycolysis.glycolysis.
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An Overview: Glycolysis Has Two PhasesAn Overview: Glycolysis Has Two Phases
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Glycolysis is tightly regulated in coordination with other energy-yielding pathways to assure a steady supply of ATP. ◦ Hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase are all
subject to allosteric regulation that controls the flow of carbon through the pathway and maintains constant levels of metabolic intermediates.
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Entry of glycogen, starch, disaccharides, and hexoses into the preparatory stage of glycolysis
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Fates of Pyruvate under Anaerobic Conditions: Fermentation
The NADH formed in glycolysis must be recycled to regenerate NAD, which is required as an electron acceptor in the first step of the payoff phase. Under aerobic conditions, electrons pass from NADH to O2 in mitochondrial respiration.
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Pyruvate is the terminal electron acceptor in Lactic Acid Pyruvate is the terminal electron acceptor in Lactic Acid FermentationFermentation
Under anaerobic or hypoxic conditions, many organisms regenerate NAD by transferring electrons from NADH to pyruvate, forming lactate
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Ethanol Is the Reduced Product in Ethanol Fermentation
Other organisms, such as yeast, regenerate NAD by reducing pyruvate to ethanol and CO2.
In these anaerobic processes (fermentations), there is no net oxidation or reduction of the carbons of glucose.
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GluconeogenesisGluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the pathway for glucose synthesis from noncarbohydrate precursors
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Important for the maintenance of blood glucose levels during starvation or during vigorous exercise.
The brain and erythrocytes depend almost entirely on blood glucose as an energy source.
Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the liver and to a lesser extent in the kidney.
Most enzymes of gluconeogenesis are cytosolic, but pyruvate carboxylase and glucose 6-phosphatase are located in the mitochondrial matrix and bound to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, respectively.
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The Pathway of GluconeogenesisThe Pathway of Gluconeogenesis
Seven of the steps in gluconeogenesis are catalyzed by the same enzymes used in glycolysis; these are the reversible reactions.
Three irreversible steps in the glycolytic pathway are bypassed by reactions catalyzed by gluconeogenic enzymes: ◦ conversion of pyruvate to PEP via
oxaloacetate, catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase;
◦ dephosphorylation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by FBPase-1; and
◦ dephosphorylation of glucose 6-phosphate by glucose 6-phosphatase.
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Alternative paths from pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate
Conversion of mitochondrial pyruvate to cytosolic phosphoenolpyruvate to initiate gluconeogenesis.
Oxaloacetate cannot pass across the inner mitochondrial membrane, so it is reduced to malate, which can do so.
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The initial irreversible step of glycolysis is bypassed by glucose 6-phosphatase, which catalyzes the dephosphorylation of glucose 6-phosphate to form glucose◦ This enzyme is mainly found in liver and kidney, the only two
organs capable of releasing free glucose into the blood.◦ A special transporter (GLUT2) in the membranes of these
organs allows release of the glucose.
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated to prevent wasteful operation of both pathways at the same time.
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The Cori CycleThe Cori Cycle
During vigorous exercise, pyruvate produced by glycolysis in muscle is converted to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase.
The lactate diffuses into the bloodstream and is carried to the liver. Here it is converted to glucose by gluconeogenesis. The glucose is
released into the bloodstream and becomes available for uptake by muscle (as well as other tissues, including brain).
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Pentose Phosphate PatwayPentose Phosphate PatwayThe pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also called
the hexose monophosphate shunt, is an alternate pathway of glucose metabolism that supplies the NADPH required by many biosynthetic pathways.◦ The main purpose of the PPP is to generate NADPH to be
used in pathways for synthesis of important molecules, eg, amino acids, lipids, and nucleotides.
◦ NADPH derived from the PPP is also important for detoxification of reactive oxygen species.◦ The PPP also is responsible for synthesis of ribose 5-
phosphate for nucleotide biosynthesis
The PPP operates in two phases: an oxidative phase and a nonoxidative phase
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Glycogen MetabolismGlycogen MetabolismGlycogen is stored in muscle and liver as
large particles. Contained within the particles are the
enzymes that metabolize glycogen, as well as regulatory enzymes
Glycogen granules in a hepatocyte
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glycogenolysisglycogenolysis
the catabolic pathways from glycogen to glucose 6-phosphate Catalyzed by glycogen phosphorylase
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Glycogen synthesisGlycogen synthesis
A glycogen chain is elongated by glycogen synthase. The enzyme transfers the glucose residue of UDP-glucose to the nonreducing end of a glycogen branch to make a new (α-14) linkage
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Branch synthesis in glycogen
The glycogen-branching enzyme (also called amylo (14) to (16) transglycosylase or glycosyl-(46)-transferase) forms a new branch point during glycogen synthesis
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Glycogen degradation and glycogen synthesis are reciprocally regulated by hormones.
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Kinases and phosphatases control the activities of the interconvertible enzymes glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen synthase
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THE CITRIC ACID THE CITRIC ACID CYCLECYCLE
Hans Krebs (1900–1981). Krebs wasawarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology orMedicine in 1953 for his discovery of the citricacid cycle.
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Catabolism of proteins, fats, and Catabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the three stages carbohydrates in the three stages of cellular respirationof cellular respiration
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Production of Acetyl-CoA (Activated Acetate)Production of Acetyl-CoA (Activated Acetate)
Pyruvate, the product of glycolysis, is converted to acetyl-CoA, the starting material for the citric acid cycle, by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
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Coenzyme ACoenzyme A
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Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA by the PDH complex
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Reactions of the citric acid cycleReactions of the citric acid cycle
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Products of one turn of the citric acid cycleProducts of one turn of the citric acid cycle
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Biosynthetic precursors produced by an incompleteBiosynthetic precursors produced by an incompletecitric acid cycle in anaerobic bacteriacitric acid cycle in anaerobic bacteria
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Role of the citric acid cycle in anabolismRole of the citric acid cycle in anabolism
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Regulation of the Citric Acid CycleRegulation of the Citric Acid Cycle
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THE GLYOXYLATE THE GLYOXYLATE CYCLECYCLE
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The glyoxylate cycle is active in the germinating seeds of some plants and in certain microorganisms that can live on acetate as the sole carbon source.
In plants, the pathway takes place in glyoxysomes in seedlings.
It involves several citric acid cycle enzymes and two additional enzymes: isocitrate lyase and malate synthase.
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Reaction of glyoxylate cycle
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Relationship between the glyoxylate and citric acid cycles
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Coordinated regulation of glyoxylate and citric acid cycle
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ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC)/ RESPIRATION
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Most energy from food obtained through stepwise anaerobic oxidative processes to yield NADH or FADH2 (reducing equivalent).
ThenNADH or FADH2 aerobically oxidized ( in ETC ).This energy is used to synthesize ATP
(phosphorylation).
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But how the energy of ETC
(oxidation) is used to
synthesize ATP (phosphorylation)
The coupling of oxidation & phosphorylation.
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Peter Mitchell
Chemiosmotic Theory
A proton gradient is generated with energy from electron transport by the vectorial transport of protons (protonpumping) by Complexes I, III, IV from the matrix tointermembrane space of the mitochondrion.
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Mitochondrion or the power house of cell
• Outer membrane permeable to small molecules
• Inner membraneImpermeable to small molecules.
• Cristae increase areaIT contains:
Electron transport system (ETC) and ATP synthase complex embedded;
• Integrity required for coupling ETC to ATP synthesis• Matrix contains Krebs cycle enzymes, β-oxidation enzymes;
also ATP, ADP, NAD, NADH2, Mg2+, etc
The size : (1-2μ)The number: 1-1000s in each cell
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Chemiosmotic TheoryChemiosmotic Theory
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Ubiquinone and cytochrome c are mobile carriers. They ferry electrons from one complex to the next
ETC= electron transport chain
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• NADH dehydrogenase (NADH Q reductase)
• Huge protein– 25 pp
• FMN, Fe-S• Electron UQ
• NADH dehydrogenase (NADH Q reductase)
• Huge protein– 25 pp
• FMN, Fe-S• Electron UQ
Iron-Sulfur Centers Transfer of electrons in variety of proteins such as NADH and
succinate dehydrogenase
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2H+ + 2 e-
Coenzyme Q
Coenzyme Q
Coenzyme Q = Ubiquinonea lipid in inner membrane carries electrons polyisoprene tail moves freely within membrane
Complex II: Succinate Q Recuctase (Succinate dehydrogenase)Is the only membrane bound enzyme in the TCA cylce and contains FAD, Fe-S
II electrons UQ
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Complex III= Cyt C reductase
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Complex IV (Cytochrome C oxidase)
Heme A and Cu act together totransfer electrons to oxygen
e- from cyt c to a
Cyto oxidaseContains a, a3, and CuA, CuB
The detail of this electron transfer in Complex IV is not knownIt also functions as a proton pump
Cu(II) Cu(I)
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Membrane potential = 140 mVpH gradient = 60 mVTotal proton motive force = 200 mV
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ATP Synthase (F0 - F1 complex)
F0
FI
F0 = Oligomycin sensitive Fragment
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ATP synthesis at FATP synthesis at F11 results from results fromrepetitive comformational changesrepetitive comformational changesas as γγ rotates rotates
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Uncoupling ProteinUncoupling ProteinThe coupling of oxidation (to make Proton gradient) and phosphorylation ( ADP+P) is needed for ATP synthesis.*Thermogenin is a proton carrier located at inner mitochondrial membrane*
*This uncoupling protein produced in brown adipose tissue of newborn mammals, and hibernating mammals for cold adaptation.
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Uncoupling ProteinUncoupling ProteinThe uncoupling protein blocks development of a H+ electrochemical gradient, thereby stimulating respiration. ∆G of respiration is dissipated as heat.
This "non-shivering thermogenesis" is costly in terms of respiratory energy unavailable for ATP synthesis, but provides valuable warming of the organism.
The gene is activated by thyroid hormone
Different level of the hormone in different season and areas
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Poisons of Oxidative Poisons of Oxidative PhosphorylationPhosphorylation
1- OXIDATION (ETC) inhibitors.2- PHOSPHORYLATION inhbitors.3- Uncouplers.4- ATP/ADP transporter
(tanslocators) inhibitors
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Rotenone, amytalAntimycin A
Dimercaprol
HCN, CO, H2S
• Complex 1: Rotenone and Barbiturates such as amobarbital and amytal inhibit NDAH- DH. They are fatal at sufficient dosage.
• 2- Complex 2: Malonate is competitive inhibitor of Suc- DH• 2- Complex 3: Antimycin A and Dimercaprol inhibit cyt C reductase.• 3- Complex 4: Classic poisons HCN, CO, H2S arrest respiration by inhibiting
cyt oxidase.• Note: all the components of the respiratory chain before the block
become reduced, all the components• downstream become oxidized.
ETC inhibitorsETC inhibitors
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ATP Synthase and ATP/ADP ATP Synthase and ATP/ADP translocator inhibitors translocator inhibitors
The antibiotic Oligomycin completely blocks F0 ( Oligomycin sensitive Fragment) the flow of H+ through the F0 directly inhibiting ox-phos.
Atractyloside ATP/ADP translocator.
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Uncouplers are lipid-soluble weak acids. E.g., H+ can dissociate from the OH group of the uncoupler dinitrophenol.
Uncouplers dissolve in the membrane and function as carriers for H+.
OH
NO2
NO2
2,4-dinitrophenol
Uncoupling reagents (uncouplers)
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It is very efficient processIt is very efficient process•Recall living cells efficiency is ~ 42%, compared to about 3% efficiency when burning oil or gasoline. BUT HOW?Separating carbohydrates, lipids, etc. from oxygen to optimize recover of energy. In other words first they are anaerobically oxidized to yield NADH and FADH2,And then Stepwise aerobic oxidation of NADH and FADH2 through ETC And then ATP synthesis by electrochemical energy.
How is the energy yield in living How is the energy yield in living cells cells
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SummarySummary1. Oxidative Phosphorylation is carried out by
respiratory assemblies that are located in the inner membrane...
2. Respiratory assemblies contain numerous electron carriers, Such as cytochromes.
3. When electrons are transferred, H+ are pumped out.
4. ATP is formed when H+ flow back to the mitochondria.
5. Oxidation and phosphorylation are COUPLED
6. The oxidation of NADH 3 ATP, and FADH2 2 ATP