DEVELOPMENT OF AN ECO-FRIENDLY HYBRID CARCAPSTONE PROJECT

Submitted in the partial fulfilment of theRequirement for the award of the

Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN

(Mechanical Engineering)

By

Prashant Nautiyal 11104582 Kushagr Shah 11103009 Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018 Vankayala Raja 11102877

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Manpreet Singh(Assistant Professor)

(Lovely Faculty of Technology and Sciences) Lovely Professional University

PunjabApril 2015

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Capstone project titled “Development of an Eco-friendly Hybrid Car” that is being submitted by

Prashant Nautiyal 11104582Kushagr shah 11103009

Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018Vankayala Raja 11102877

Is in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY DEGREE, is a record of bonafide work done under my/our guidance. The contents of this capstone project, in full or in part, have neither been taken from any other source nor have been submitted to any other Institute or University for award of any degree or diploma and the same is certified.

Project Supervisor

(Lovely Professional University)

(Organization stamp)

Objective of capstone project is satisfactory/unsatisfactory

Examiner I Examiner II

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all we are thankful to our project guide Mr. Manpreet Singh who motivated us to work on our project “Development of an Eco-Friendly Hybrid Car”.

We express our sincere thanks and gratitude to our university authority for allowing us to undergo our project. We want to specially thanks Mr Lalli Singh without whom we would never have been able to work on the undertaken project. He has been constantly guiding and motivating us during the project development.

In the end we would again like to express our express sincere thanks to all the people who are supporting us by various ways during our project development.

Prashant NautiyalKushagr Shah

Raiyani Dipak KumarVankayala Raja

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Prashant Nautiyal 11104582

Kushagr Shah 11103009

Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018

Vankayala Raja 11102877

have completed objective formulation of Capstone project titled “Development of Eco-Friendly Hybrid Car” under my guidance and supervision. To the best of my knowledge, the present work is the result of their original investigation and study. No part of the capstone has even been submitted for any other degree at any University.

The capstone project is fit for submission and the partial fulfilment of the conditions for the award of B-Tech in Mechanical Engineering from Lovely Professional University, Phagwara.

Signature and Name of the Research Supervisor

Designation:

School:

Lovely Professional UniversityPhagwara, Punjab

Date:

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DECLARATION

We,

Prashant Nautiyal 11104582

Kushagr Shah 11103009

Raiyani Dipak Kumar 11106018

Vankayala Raja 11102877

Students of Mechanical Engineering under Department of Lovely Faculty of Technology and Sciences of Lovely Professional University, Punjab, hereby declare that all the information furnished in this capstone project is based on our own intensive research and is genuine.

This capstone project dose not, to the best of our knowledge, contains part of work which has been submitted for the award of our degree either of this university or any other university without proper citation.

Date: (Prashant Nautiyal)

(Kushagr Shah)

(Raiyani Dipak Kumar)

(Vankayala Raja)

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ABSTRACT

The proposed project aims at developing and fabrication of an eco-friendly hybrid car which

aims to calculate the emission characteristic and designing of eco-friendly vehicle. Now

arising issue is that which can sustain the impact of increasing pollution in the environment

for better man machine relationship and built the vehicle using maximum cost efficiently?

The effectiveness and efficiency is also taken as consideration throughout the development.

This project report also include the manufacturing of chassis, brake and various parts required

to built an eco-friendly hybrid vehicle and assembling of the same. It also includes the

calculations of transmission, break and steering, which shows that we have turning radius of

approximately 70 inches, stopping distance of 3.85 meters and final drive ratio of 2.428:1.

This document is the live template which contains the design report of the hybrid

vehicle which includes introduction & design methodology and description of some

important components of the hybrid vehicle, scope of project, chassis, engine (selection

parameters), steering (type and calculations), transmission (Calculations), tires

(specifications & selection parameters), brake (Type and calculations) and performance

specifications (vehicle speed and acceleration calculations). The emissions features of hybrid

vehicle and a non hybrid vehicle of same engine specifications were also taken into

consideration and compared, which are 9700 ppm (parts per million) and 900 ppm of

measured CO (carbon-mono-oxide) level (prescribed standard level 35000) of non hybrid

vehicle and hybrid vehicle respectively and 301 ppm and 62 ppm of measured HC

(hydrocarbons) level (prescribed standard level 4500) of non hybrid vehicle and hybrid

vehicle respectively.

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES Page No.

Fig 1.1 Hybrid Car 11

Fig 3.1 Chassis 22

Fig 3.2 Car Tyres 23

Fig 3.3 Heat Engine 23

Fig 3.4 Disc Break 24

Fig 3.5 Fuel Tank 24

Fig 3.6 Solid Axel 25

Fig 3.7 Electric DC Motor 25

Fig 3.8 Electrical Controller 26

Fig 3.9 Batteries 26

Fig 3.8 Electrical Controller 28

Fig 3.9 Batteries 29

Fig 6.1 The Hybrid Car 36

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LISTOF TABLES

TABLES Page No.

Table 5.1 Steering data 29

Table 5.2 Ackerman condition 30

Table 5.3 Go kart dimension 32

Table 5.4 Engine specification 35

Table 5.5 Gear reduction chart 35

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS Page No.

Certificate 2

Acknowledgement 3

Certificate 4

Declaration 5

Abstract 6

List of Figures 7

List of Table 8

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID CARS 11-14

1.1 Introduction 11

1.2 Principle of Working 13

1.3Identified Problems 14

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY 15-21

2.1 Literature review 15

CHAPTER 3: COMPONENTS OF HYBRID CAR 22-26

3.1 Chassis 22

3.2 Tyres 23

3.3 Engine 23

3.4 Breaks 24

3.5 Fuel Tank 24

3.6 Solid Axle 25

3.7 DC Motor 25

3.8 Controller 26

3.9 Batteries 26

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CHAPTER 4: OVERALL METHODOLOGY 27

4.1 Project description 27

4.2 Design methodology 27

4.3 Flow chart 27

CHAPTER 5: SPECIFICATION AND CALCULATION 28-35

5.1 Steering 28

5.1.1 Steering mechanism 28

5.1.2 Ackerman Steering Geometry 28

5.1.3 Ackerman Steering Geometry Requirement 29

5.1.4 Dimension specification 29

5.1.5 Formula used 30

5.1.6 Calculation 30

5.2 Brake 30

5.2.1 Objective 30

5.2.2 Braking principle 30

5.2.3 Brake selection 31

5.2.4 Brake calliper selection 31

5.2.5 Brake Calculation 32

5.3 Engine Specification 34

5.3.1 Analysis on Transmission 35

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION 36

FUTURE SCOPE 37

REFRENCES 38

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CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID CARS

1.1 Introduction

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of vehicle which is the combination of a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion system with an electric propulsion system (hybrid vehicle drive train). Due to the presence of the electric propulsion system better fuel economy can be achieved compared to a conventional vehicle and better performance. There are a variety of hybrid electric vehicles, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, few hybrid electric trucks i.e. pickups, tractors and buses also exist. Advanced hybrid electric vehicles make use of technology that improve the efficiency of the vehicle such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy that will charge the battery rather than wasting it as heat energy as in conventional brakes system. Some types of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator and this combination is known as a motor–generator, to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric motors. These HEV helps in reducing the emissions which is usually emitted in staring of the engine and this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric vehicle produces less emission compared to ICE than a comparably sized gasoline car.

Fig 1.1 Hybrid Car

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Nowadays the main focus is on that how to put a full stop in rapid increasing pollution rate in the atmosphere which is the main cause of ozone depletion. The rapid increase in automobile production and their use have fully supported the pollution increment. The burning of fossil fuels in an automobile causes the rapid increase of harmful toxic gases in air and leads to the development of more efficient and eco-friendly hybrid electric system and Plug in hybrid electric system. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle system indicates the direction of vehicle development due to good fuel economy, environmental benefits of all electric drive ability. They run with two main power sources Direct current (DC) motors and heat engine. Compared with conventional hybrid electric system, Plug in hybrid eclectic vehicle is having a good energy storage system, which can provide power to the vehicle by using only the stored energy, charged from the power grid.

There are mainly two types of PHEVs which are classified into series and parallel. Modern work has been done on the vehicle electrification which controls the energy waste and fuel usage. In parallel to rapid urbanization, transportation services have become even more important and immediately transportation sector took second rank in pursuit of the power generation sector as emitting approximately one quarter of the total fossil fuel related CO2 emissions. For the urgent need of fuel efficiency and fewer Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission rates in vehicles, hybridization notion which means combination of multiple power sources to supply a common load has come into prominence. Consequently, it has been focused to improve eco-friendly vehicle solutions. Thus, electrical and hybrid configured vehicles with many different technologies have been adapted and improved for the automobile industry recently.

By the advantageous structure of electric vehicles (EVs), CO2 emission rate can be reduced dramatically. For example, if we consider the vehicle powered by renewable sources, powered by grid electricity and powered by electricity generated from coal, the emission rates are 0 gkm-1, 70 g km_1 and 250 g km_1. EVs with battery packages are good options to reduce exhaust emissions; but they also have some negative directions such that higher cost, limited range, added weight of battery packages, recharging facilities, etc. Also, EV (Electric vehicle) may increase the electricity consumption of a household up to 50% in case of plug-in configuration. But even though the negative sides; EV share in car market is predicted to be between 6% and 30% by 2030, which is the much more than the present marginal proportion.

Effective controls strategies are needed for the energy managing system of hybrid electric system are classified into two categories [1]. These are rule built and optimization based on control plans. The main rules are fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is the most useful approach and widely used in many studies [2–5]. They are applicable in real time, easy to understand, flexible and robust but highly dependent on the application as well as on the selection of the control parameters and membership functions. Rules are extracted from heuristic knowledge, experimental data and even from mathematical models. As it is not based on the formal optimization techniques, cost functions are not defined explicitly and the results are generally suboptimal. However, optimization based control strategies aim to minimize or maximize a cost function which is a measure of some objectives such as minimization of fuel consumption and exhaust emissions, improving of energy efficiency and driving comfort, weight reduction, and cost-effectiveness. Among global optimization methods, dynamic programming (DP) is the popular one. Bellman’s Principle of Optimality is widely used in optimization problems of hybrid electric vehicles [6–9]. DP methods guarantee a global solution as a priori by assuming the entire driving cycle. They are not suitable for real time applications but rather for comparison of the performance of other control techniques. There is also a study in [10] which aims to increase the efficiency of the power train by lowering the losses from power of the ICE, generator and the battery pack

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using genetic algorithm. The other global optimization algorithms used in hybrid vehicles can be found in [11]. Main characteristic of hybrid electrical system is the effect of dropping temperatures and reducing pollutant. Now-a-days selected manufacturing companies provide new hybrid vehicle methods. There are some problems have to be solved thru alteration. Characteristics of the vehicles have different compositions. By this method we can obtain more efficient design. Green technology having great demand in modern cities. Due to increase in the population growth in the cities has led to an increased use of transport. Gases released by vehicle must be reduced and useful steps have to taken to minimize the emissions .The automotive industry has introduced hybrid cars [1]. Such technology has a positive effect on the environment by reducing gas emission. Zero- emission powered vehicles has become greatest challenge for research activities for developing [2]. FC is the potential renewable energy device to power vehicles. Electrochemical method AFC that produces DC electrical energy by chemical reaction [3]. Different materials include in this like anode, anode catalyst layer, electrolyte, cathode and a cathode catalyst layer. To produce desired voltage and current multiple FC is arranged in series or parallel [4]. FCs can be used for transport at ion applications from scooters to tram ways, for joined heat and power systems for portable power supplies. Hydrogen is the key source to produces the electricity needed to move an electric vehicle which was used by FC technology. In comparing to heat engine (HE) that emits harmful gases like NOx and CO2, FC releases water as by-product.

1.2 Principle of working

Hybrid electric vehicles can be classified according to the way in which power is supplied to the drive train:-

In parallel hybrids, the ICE and the electric motor are both connected to the mechanical transmission and can simultaneously transmit power to drive the wheels, usually through a conventional transmission. The internal combustion engine of many parallel hybrids can also act as a generator for supplemental recharging. Parallel hybrids are more efficient than comparable non-hybrid vehicles especially during urban conditions.

In series hybrids, only the electric motor drives the drive train, and a smaller ICE works as a generator to power the electric motor and to recharge the batteries. They also usually have a larger battery pack than parallel hybrids, making them more expensive. Once the batteries are low, the small combustion engine can generate power at its optimum settings at all times, making them more efficient in extensive city driving.

Power-split hybrids have the benefits of a combination of series and parallel characteristics. As a result, they are more efficient overall, because series hybrids tend to be more efficient at lower speeds and parallel tend to be more efficient at high speeds; however, the cost of power-split the hybrid is higher than a pure parallel.

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1.3 Identified problems

Rising Gas Prices Equals Rising Hybrid Prices, which will make hybrid car affordable for the rich people and the common man can only desire for it but could not afford to buy it.

Lower Highway Mileage, in the highways and express ways where driver need more speed and the vehicle will run on gasoline engine making the engine to lower its mileage because it will be impossible to drive from motor.

Not All Hybrids Are Equal, making it impossible for AC to work when gasoline engine is not working and it won’t ever live up to the promise of a true hybrid.

Few Third Row Hybrids, many hybrid vehicles are made two seater and third person cannot sit in it.

Weak 12 Volt Battery, due to which more 12 volts batteries had to be installed so that it will meet the requirement of the motor. The weight of the vehicle is also increased because of the number of batteries in the same vehicle. Vehicle has to carry the heavy batteries and also the weight of the driver and the passenger which will lower the efficiency of the hybrid vehicle.

CHAPTER 2

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LITERATURE SURVEY

2.4 Literature review

In this literature Weihua Wang [1] discussed power-split system of hybrid vehicles, it was observed different characteristics of compound split system, and the analysis on this system was explaining it with power flow of Toyota Prius car model and it was explained by different graphs and by different mathematical expressions. The final results were explained by different graphs.

Frank A.Bender [2] discussed fuel saving by Hybrid vehicles. It was explained by driving cycle acquisition was the 1st step for the possible fuel savings of hybrid hydraulic refuse trucks, vehicle measurements, driving cycle was explained by supplementary hardware, different vehicle model which was allow to get more fuel savings it was explained by longitudinal dynamics differential equation. Conventional vehicle components, compactor system were explained by different vehicles and with the help of graphs and bar graphs.

In this literature Mohd Azrin Mohd Zulkefli [3] studied several incorporate traffic information of vehicle power train optimization. Different traffic and power train models were explained by mathematical expressions based on Gipp’s car following model and different powertrain energy management strategy was discussed with different simulation were also done based on graphs and bar graphs.

In this literature Ye Li[4] discussed vehicle detection methods. Different experiments were done in this urban traffic conditions. The main methods was And or graphs which were represented method for recognition from images. The three nodes were And nodes, OR nodes and terminal nodes. Another method was hybrid image template work on detecting an image object. Different experiments were done like quantitative, contrast experiment.

In this literature Nien-Che Yang [5] discussed adaptive 3-Phase power flow methods for smart grids with PHEV’s. Several other methods were also proposed to mixed integer linear programming,3-phase ac power flow methods. It was solved by Newton Raphson power flow with two constant matrics, Jacobian matrix was solved by Bi-factorization different algorithm were explained by i-th iteration method. The analysis of mathematical model of DER’s and PHEV’s were also been discussed.

In this literature Cong Hou [6] discussed rule based on charge depleting-charge sustaining (CDCS) strategy was simple Ems for PHEV. The trip length can be manifested when GPS is used and driven daily routine the learned for unknown trips lengths (RADOC) strategy were used. It was explained by plotting graphs between percentages of total distance Vs state of charge. The utility factor weighted fuel consumption which were explained by mathematical expression. Different driving patterns solutions were explained by plotting graphs torque Vs speed, Acceleration pedal Vs vehicle Speed.

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Y.Wang [7] discuss developing of HEV/EV by improving and optimizing automotive IGBT modules. The cooling solution of direct liquid cooling was the solution with great efficiency, integration, integrated liquid cooling modules for HEV/EV, thermal performance, life time prediction were explained with the help of plotting graphs with Rth (Kw), Tf (degrees C) Vs time.

In this literature Mohammed Abu Mallouh [8] done research different alternative energy sources and for replacements for conventional fuels. The research on development and validation of heat engine were done. PSAT software Package were used to develop this method. Different experiments were done to test and validated. Engine speed responses for ICE vehicle VS engine speed were plotted with graphs. Different researches were done on development of hybrid fuel cell/battery vehicle model and were explained by plotting different graphs.

In this literature Andrea Cordoba-Arenas[9]discussed different battery cell models. The electrical sub-model were used to predict battery cell voltage and soc in response to current and temperature. Thermal sub-model were used to predict the cell temperature, aging sub-model to predict capacity and power fade in response to depleting, soc, temperature, charging rate. Electrical sub model were explained with the help of mathematical expressions by 1st

order Randle equivalent circuit model and with different mathematical expressions.

In this literature Zhe Liu [10]discussed interactive mechanism between system and Plug in hybrid electric system, three levels are mandatory to signify this mechanism. Charging load self-management model of different types were discussed. Risk analysis model considering charging load self-management was discussed with the help of graphs. Different case studies were explained by using graphs.

Ziyou Song[11] discussed energy storage system by dynamic programming. The hybrid energy storage system by dynamic modelling (HESS) were explained how DC/AC convertor, motor, controller works. Semi-active HESS tropology schematic and the general control were explained with the help of flow chat. Final results were explained with the help of different graphs.

Lars-Henrik Bjornsson [12] discussed GPS there were also assess the viability of plug in hybrid electric vehicles. Different methods of PHEV modelling, battery utilization, PHEV economics different techno economic conditions all this were explained with the help of different graphs and mathematical expressions.Final results of battery sizing and viability, battery cycling, were explained by different graphs.

In this literature Yavuz Eren [13] discussed reducing the imperfections of (HEVs).Load sharing and sizing constraints of the system, fc modelling, battery modelling,itwasexplained with the help of mathematical expressions. Study on optimum sizing of HEV components using the given load profile of multi objective framework by minimization of operating cost,weight and volume. The results were explained with different graphs.

In this literature Hamid Khayyam [14] discussed energy management systems in PHEV. The different models of management of wind condition creation algorithm using some air

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conditioning system enhanced, environmental thermal data, ambient and humidity and solar radiation were explained by different graphs and mathematical expressions by considerations like modelling of road geometry, modelling of wind condition, environment model, thermal environment model. Final result were explained with the help of different graphs.

Abdollah Kavousi-Fard [15] discussed new stochastic expert framework to investigate the charging effect of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The different methods of PHEV smart charging strategy, MG formulation, Cost of energy, Security limitations, Generation and consumption balance was explained by graphs, 2m-PEM as the stochastic framework, Optimization method based on q-MKH was explained by flow charts.The other results were explained by bar graphs.

In this literature Somayeh Allahyari [16] discussed generalization of the multi-depot capacitated vehicle routing problems. It was mainly discussed about multi-depot covering tour vehicle routing problem(MDCTVRP).The main problems was explained by the flow based formulation,node based formulation. Different solutions were explained by using different search and construction,shaking procedure.Final result was given by analysis of performance and exact metaheuristic methods over small size and large size.

In this literature Andreas Bortfeldt [17] discussed vehicle routing problem with clustered backhauls (VRPCB) to an integrated routing and three – dimensional loading problem there were also discussed on related works on Exact approaches for the VRPCB, Conventional heuristic approaches for the VRPCB Meta heuristic approaches for the VRPCB.

In this literature Zheng Chen [18] discussed energy management method of power-split plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. It was explained by Vehicle driveline analysis and simplification by mathematical expression, PMP analysis and application were explained by graphs. Simulated annealing method and its application, Simulation validation were explained by graphs.

In this literature Mehdi Ansarey [19] discussed Hybrid storage systems consisting of battery and ultra-capacitor there were also discussed by Structure of the article, Literature survey, on Energy management Energy sources, Vehicle arrangement, results were explained with different graphs.

In this literature Jihun Han [20] discussed fuel cell hybrid electric system, driving conditions at hilly roads,DP-based EF is figured, and the performance was related with Pontryagin's minimum principle. The results shows EF adaptation increases fuel economy, battery states of charge constraint. Some graphs were also obtained in this case study.

In this literature Brian Tarroja [21] discussed analyses of effectiveness of utilizing plug-in vehicles therewere also discussed on Model description and approach on Summary of model and scenario development,policy trajectory curve results were discussed with graphs.

Alexander Farmann [22] discussed board capacity estimation of lithium-ion batteries there were also discussed on Voltage-based estimation methods, different battery capacity definitions, and Basic idea and challenges of on-board capacity estimation, Methods based on a measured or estimated EMF, Electrochemical model-based methods were discussed.

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In this literature Graham Mills[23]discussed Future electric vehicle it was also explained with Modelling methodology EV vehicle modelling parameters Modelling Tool, there were also explained by Case study of Australian National Electricity Market load profile. Results were explained by Un-managed charging, Time of Use tariff charging were also explained by bar graphs.

In this literature Joseph S. Krupa [24] discussed reducing greenhouse gas emissions, increasing fuel efficiency. The materials and methods which was used by AMT survey data, Data quality control, Statistical methods. The results were explained by demography and Factors influencing most recent and future vehicle purchases, Factors influencing potential future PHEV purchase, Consumer discounting. It was also discussed on environment benefits, Fuel/financial savings.

In this literature F. Payri [25] discussed optimal energy management in hybrid electric vehicles were discussed by case study on new method to estimate future driving conditions were allows applying the ECMS strategy to solve the EMP Problem formulation had been explained with mathematical expression. Results had been explained by graphs.

François Martel [26] discussed degradation management strategy of economical dynamics for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles was focused on lead-acid batteries, low cost optimization. The optimal management algorithm explained by discrete dynamic programming theory and designed for the purpose of PHEV battery degradation management; its operation relies on simulation models using data obtained experimentally on a physical PHEV platform.

In this literature Tobias Nüesch [27] discussed optimal energy management systems to balance fuel reducing raw particulate matter (PM) emissions, and raw nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions for a Diesel hybrid electric vehicle. Two methods for the derivation of the strategies were compared by Methodology, Emission models,they also Comparison of different methods on optimal energy management.

In this literature Winai Chanpenga [28] discussed design and development of an in-wheel motor for electric vehicles. Motor connected in series generates a 350-watt power drive with a power source of two 12V batteries. Based on the principle of a DC electric motor were operate by vehicle wheels. The maximum efficiency obtained with speed of 468rpm was 82.56% at 2.5 N.m torque, with a 5.81A input current. The maximum torque acquired was 6.25 N.m with the input power of 348.76 watts and 13.72A, but the speed of the motor is reduced to 395 rpm. Some graphs were also obtained with Input signal voltage of 131.1 Hz and the experimental results of the in-wheel motor under various load condition.

In this literature Li Houyu [29] discusseddrive system of engine used in the hybrid electric system it was also explained the advantages of (HEV), HEV major technique units, HEV engine and motor's combination in this Series hybrid electric system, Parallel hybrid electric system, Combined hybrid electric system and Hybrid electric vehicle's actuation pattern were also explained.

Paul D. walker and Nong Zang [30] done investigation on the active damping of power trains for the suspension gear shift of automobile it was related with transient vibrations. The dual

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clutch transmission on equipped power train, conventional power train modelling, engine torque model, clutch torque model, vehicle resistance torque model, hybrid configuration and modelling were discussed. The vibration of engine resulting from piston firing was stimulated. The modelling strategies were utilised to demonstrate the vibration in delay between IC engines and electric motors.

In this literature Nursel Ozturk [31] discussed hybrid meta-heuristic algorithm (HMA) to resolve the vehicle routing problem with time window and backhaul. Mathematical formation was done with different following algorithms. Simulated annealing algorithm, Fabu search algorithm. Gelinus et all developed data was used to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm.

In this literature Weihua Wang[32] discussed different power-split hybrid electric vehicle characteristics,analysis of compound split configuration.Torque and speed of four powertrain elements were explained by graphs.Different mathematical expressions were also used.Electric power ratio,lever model splitting were explained by different graphs.Final results of this configuration were explained by mode switching point and application in dual-mode of HEV.

In this literature Kursad Gokce [33]discussed instantaneous optimization algorithm based up on efficiency maps of the heat engine and the generator for the energy management system in hybrid electric system.The analytical expression of the overall energy efficiency of the hybrid energy source. Which were calculated based on the energy flow at the DC bus. The results show the proposed method provides a competitive performance with a lower computational burden compared to the alternative methods for different state of charge (SOC) ranges and drive cycle conditions.

Joachim Baumeister [34] proposed “smart batt” project with a purpose to equate a 20KWH battery pack which exhibits a 10-15% weight reduction. The project was accomplished by using innovative sandwich materials made of aluminium face sheets and a core of aluminium hybrid foam for battery housing. Resulted material AISI 10 material properties were experimented, the foamed sphere were coated with two different thickness (100µm and 200µm). Stress-strain curves were obtained in the quasi-static and dynamic experiments.

In this literature Cong Hou [35]discussed optimal energy management strategy based on the Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle algorithm for parallel plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).After observing some regular patterns in numeric PMP results, author apply a novel piecewise linear approximation strategy by specifying the turning point of the engine fuel rate for the Hamiltonian optimization. As a result, the instantaneous Hamiltonian optimization turns convex. Taking the engine state, five candidate solutions for the optimization were obtained. The results show that the A-PMP strategy reduced fuel consumption by 6.96% compared with the conventional all-Electric, Charge-Sustaining (AE–CS) strategy. Further, the A-PMP shortened the simulation time from 6 h to only 4 min, when compared with the numeric PMP method.

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In this literature M.F. Shaaban [36] discussed coordination approach for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles it was discussed on Problem description and Modelling on PHEV modelling, Converter modelling, results were explained with different graphs.

Wladislaw Waag [37] discussed battery management system. The battery management system consists of hardware and software for battery management including algorithms determining battery states. The methods for monitoring of the battery state of charge, capacity, impedance parameters, available power, state of health, and remaining useful life are studied with the focus on elaboration of their strengths and weaknesses for the use in on-line BMS applications.

Imdat Taymaz [38] discussed how vehicles play an important role in city transportation all over the world. The vehicle which uses fossils fuels were polluting environment with effected gases. In addition, to the cost of fossil fuel were also increasing due to shrinkingreserves, these petroleum oils must be used very efficiently. In the result, it was seen that the mixed hybrid vehicles were the same performance with low fuel consumption and CO2emissions. Some graphs were also obtained by shows the reduction in CO2 emissions.

In this literature Hassan Fathabadi [39] discussed Li-ion battery pack design including hybrid active-passive thermal management system were studied. Distributed thin ducts, air flow and natural convection as cooling media were the active parts while the passive parts was change in material/expanded graphite composite (PCM/EG) as cooling/heating component to optimize the thermal performance of the proposed battery pack. Simulation results obtained in Mat lab environment and data were plotted.

In this literature M.A. Hannan [40] discussed Number of alternative energy resources being studied for hybrid vehicles to replace the internal combustion engine worldwide. The rising concern of the use of fossil fuel in vehicles were harmful environmental effects. Other sources like battery, fuel cell (FC), super capacitors (SC) and photo voltaic cell i.e. solar are studied to put in use for vehicles.Various techniques of HEV from energy management system (EMS), power conditioning and propulsion system were studied. Relevant fields of HEV such as DC machine and vehicle system were also included. A mathematical models of HEV developed by researchers was successful simulated, which is the important tool in investigating the hybrid vehicles performance.

Sarah G. Nurre [41] discussed integer programming model for operations of multiple plug-in hybrid electric system (PHES) battery exchange stations over a time period. In this process the number of batteries to charge, discharge, and exchange at each point in time over a set time are considered. It include discharging of batteries back to the power grid, through vehicle-to-grid technology. It include the exchange stations depending on power network, transportation network, and other exchange stations.Further tests were conducted which evaluate these policies while factoring wind energy into the power generation curve.

In this literature Jihun Han [42] discussed fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles were also discussed on different methods of FCHEV system configuration, Fuel cell system, Battery system, Vehicle model and Dynamic programming and Instantaneous optimization approach

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with state constraints. Case studies on FCHEV control on hilly roads were also discussed and results had been explained with different graphs.

François Martel [43] discussed optimized battery degradation management system intended by plug-in hybrid electric system. Other methods were also discussed on electrochemical battery modeling, Battery degradation modeling system, HEV power management, and were also explain the PHEV models, battery electrical model were explained by graphs.

Elwood R. Horwinski [44] discussed gasoline engine and battery powered electric system that start and running. The motor is driven my battery which is recharged by generator driven by the internal combustion engine. Wheels of the vehicles were powered by heat engine through differential and magnetic clutch.

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CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS OF HYBRID CAR

3.1 Chassis

The chassis are made of steel tubing. There is no suspension, therefore chassis have to be flexible enough to work as a suspension and stiff enough not to break or give way on a turn. The stiffness of the chassis enables different handling characteristics for different circumstances. Typically, for dry conditions a stiffer chassis is preferable, while in wet or other poor traction conditions, a more flexible chassis may work better. The best chassis allow for stiffening bars at the rear, front and side to be added or removed according to race conditions. Braking is achieved by a disc brake mounted on the rear axle. Front disc brakes are used in most shifter kart classes and are increasingly popular in other classes; however, certain classes do not allow them. Shifter karts have dual master cylinders, one for the front and one for the rear and are adjustable to allow for front/ rear bias changes.

Fig 3.1 Chassis

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3.2 Tyres

Wheels and tires are much smaller than those used on a normal car. Rims are made of magnesium alloy, aluminium, or composite materials. Tires can support cornering forces in excess of 2 g (20 m/s²), depending on chassis, engine, and motor setup. Some car tire manufacturers, such as Bridgestone, Dunlop or Maxxis, make tires for karts. There are also specific kart tire manufacturers, which include MG, MOJO, and Vega.

Fig 3.2 Car Tyres

3.3 Engine

Go-karts can be powered by 4-stroke engines or electric motors, while racing karts use small 2-stroke or 4-stroke engines. We have used LML Freedom engine of capacity 109.15cc.

Fig 3.3 Heat Engine

4-stroke engines can be standard air-cooled industrial based engines, sometimes with small modifications, developing from about 5 to 20 hp. Briggs & Stratton, Tecumseh, Kohler, Robin, and Honda are manufacturers of such engines. They are adequate for racing and fun kart applications. There are also more powerful four-stroke engines

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available from manufacturers like Yamaha, TKM, Swissauto or Aixro (Wankel engine) offering from 15 hp up to 48 hp. They run to and around 11,000 rpm, and are manufactured specifically for karting.

2-stroke kart engines are developed and built by dedicated manufacturers. WTP, Comer, IAME (Parilla, Komet), TM, Vortex, Titan, REFO, TKM, PRD, Yamaha and Rotax are manufacturers of such engines. These can develop from about 8 HP for a single-cylinder 60 cc unit to over 90 hp for a twin 250 cc. Today, the most popular categories worldwide are those using the TaG 125 cc units.

3.4 Breaks

Braking system is one of the most important part of any vehicle. In our hybrid go-kart we make use of hydraulic brakes. These brakes are usually used in motorcycles and cars. These brakes are much effective in use and then require less maintenance. Disk of the brakes is generally mounted on the rear solid axle on which the sprocket is mounted. Transmission is also provided on the rear axle which makes the braking system very efficient.

Fig 3.4 Disc Break

3.5 Fuel tank

Fuel tank is also one of the important part of the vehicle. It provide the necessary fuel to the internal combustion engine through gravity so that the engine keep on running.

Fig 3.5 Fuel Tank

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In our hybrid go-kart the fuel tank is placed above the engine so that fuel can some down into the engine due to gravitational pull. Catch can is also provided so that if there is a leakage in the fuel tank, fuel dose not drop onto the engine. This is some of the safety measures while installing the fuel tank

3.6 Solid axleAn axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle.

Fig 3.6 Solid Axel

In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. In hybrid go-kart brake disk is mounted on the solid axle. Transmission is also provided on the solid axle by fixing a sprocket and chain.

3.7 DC MotorIn our vehicle we have used 48 volts and 40 ampere DC motor to accelerate the vehicle initially. This is operated with the help of 4 batteries of 12 volts and 40 ampere each.

Fig 3.7 Electric DC Motor

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3.8 Controller

A controller is used in the vehicle with the DC motor to operate the motor, it is used to connect the motor with the battery, it is the key component to the electric system of the vehicle. The throttle is also operated with the help of this electric controller.

Fig 3.8 Electrical Controller

3.9 BatteriesTo operate the vehicle with the DC motor, high voltage dc supply is needed which is fulfilled with the help of 4 batteries of 12 volts and 40 ampere each, the motor is of 48 volts so the batteries of 12 volts each are so arranged and connected to fulfil the requirement of the motor.

Fig 3.9 Batteries

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CHAPTER 4

OVERALL METHODOLOGY

4.1 Project description

The project primarily aims to manufacture and fabrication of “Hybrid Car”, The model under development aim to meet following expectations:

To appear good. To be able to work properly. To evaluate the efficiency of the system. To combine the two different energy sources. To be drive efficiently, and ergonomically.

4.2 Design methodology

First we prepared a rough sketch of the model as per our requirement and available resources.

Then we choose the building material to be used in our project and cut out structural element out of commercial grade steel for building the chassis.

Then we bought and collect the various parts of the car as per our capability and availability.

The next step is to calculate the steering, braking and transmission value Further we analyse the efficiency of the system.

4.3 Flow chart

Fig 4.1 Process Flow Chart

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▼StartLiterature Survey

▼manufacturing of the projectAssembling

▼pollution analysis

CHAPTER 5:

SPECIFICATION AND CALCULATION

5.1 Steering

To guide/steer a vehicle we need a steering mechanism. The perfect steering is achieved when all the four wheels are rolling perfectly under all the condition of running. In vehicle it is seen that inside wheel is required to turn through a greater angle than outer wheel. The larger the steering angle, the smaller is the turning radius. The steering angle can have a maximum value of about 44 degree. There are two types of steering mechanism:--Davis steering mechanism.-Ackermann steering mechanism [45]

5.1.1 Steering mechanism:Out of these two steering mechanism Ackermann mechanism is almost universally used because of its simplicity.Ackerman mechanism When the vehicle is moving very slowly, there is a kinematic condition between the inner and outer wheels that allows them to turn slip-free. The condition is called the Ackerman condition.

Fig 5.1 Ackerman steering

5.1.2 Ackerman Steering Geometry:

The typical steering system, in a road or race car, has tie rod linkages and steering arms that form an approximate parallelogram, which skews to one side as the wheels turn. If the steering arms are parallel, then both wheels are steered to the same angle. If the steering arms are angled, this is known as Ackerman geometry. The inside wheel is steered to a greater angle then the outside wheel, allowing the inside wheel to steer a tighter radius. The steering arm angles as drawn show 100% Ackerman. Different designs may use more or less percentage pro-Ackerman, anti-Ackerman, or Ackerman may be adjustable. (In fact adjustable Ackerman is rare. This could be the car designer saying to us, "Do not mess with this.”) Full Ackerman geometry requires steering angles, inner wheel and outer wheel.[46]

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Ackerman geometry requires that:-

ᵟo = L/(R+T/2)ᵟi = L/(R-T/2)Here we are using mechanical steering system having steering ratio of 1:1.

Fig 5.2 steering geometry

The Ackerman condition is needed when the speed of the vehicle is too small, and slip angles are zero. There is no lateral force and no centrifugal force to balance each other. The Ackerman steering condition is also called the kinematic steering condition, because it is a static condition at zero velocity. A device that provides steering according to the Ackerman condition is called Ackerman steering. Ackerman mechanism or Ackerman geometry. There is no four-bar linkage steering mechanism that can provide the Ackerman condition perfectly.However, we may design multi-bar linkages to work close to the condition and be exact at a few angles. Figure on next page illustrates the Ackerman condition for different values of w/l. The inner and outer steer angles get closer to each other by decreasing w/l ratio.

5.1.3 Ackerman Steering Geometry Requirement Ackerman geometry requires that:-ᵟo = L/(R+T/2)ᵟi = L/(R-T/2)Here we are using mechanical steering system having steering ratio of 1:1.

5.1.4 Dimension specification:Wheel Base(L) 48 inches

Track width(W) 36 inches

Steering ratio 1:1

Table 5.1 Steering data

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5.1.5 Formula used:Ackerman condition Cot δₒ - cot δᵢ = W/l

Table 5.2 Ackerman conditionWhere,δₒ is the maximum outer wheel steer angle as shown in the figureδᵢ is the maximum inner wheel steer angle as shown in the figureδ is the average of maximum outer and inner steer anglesa is the distance from axle to the CG.[47]

5.1.6 Calculation:

1. Ackerman Steering angles

Cot δₒ - cot δᵢ = W/l = (36)/(48) = 0.75By the help of hit and trial method, we calculate δₒ and δᵢ,δₒ = 29 and δᵢ = 43.5Cot δₒ - cot δᵢ =1.8040-1.0537 = 0.75

2. Turning Radius

R² = a² + l² cot² δavgδavg= (δi+δo)/2Therefore,δ avg=36.25, a= 24

R² = 242+48² cot² (36.25)R = 69.724 inchTherefore we have turning radius approximately 70inches.

5.2 Brake

5.2.1 Objective

Our main objective is to create a well-balanced, long lasting, reliable & cost efficient braking system, while designing the brake system our full concern was to prepare a brake system which is safe & secure and follow the rule guidelines.

5.2.2 Braking principle

Brakes are the most important control system in a vehicle and are required to stop the vehicle

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at a smallest distance and at very less time safely. The principle of braking is to convert kinetic energy which is produced when brakes are applied into the heat energy which is then after dissipated into the atmosphere. Friction between braking surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat. In drum brakes, wheel cylinders force brake linings against the inside of the drum. In disc brakes, pads are forced against a brake disc.

5.2.3 Brake selection

Depending on the advantages which are as follows we are going to use “Disk Brake” over normal “Drum Brake” Disc brakes are far more resistant to heat fades, as the larger surface area of the disc allows for better heat dissipation, whereas in case of drum brake, the friction occurs in internal surface.

The friction pad in case of drum brake are more curved, whereas in case of disc brake it is more flat, which gives uniform wear to friction pads.

Disc brakes also works better after exposure to rain and puddles as they have vertical brake pad, whereas in drum brake, if you go through some water, they are very ineffective until the water has drained out of the drum; and they get less efficient as they get hot.

Unlike the conventional drum brake, the design of disc brake is such that there is no loss of efficiency due to expansion.

Disc brake weight less than their conventional drum type counterpart, a saving of approximately 20% possible.

The friction pads in case of Disk Brake are easy to replace, where as in case of Drum Brake, the brake lining have either riveted or fixed with adhesive to the brake shoes.

Generally disc brakes are more efficient than drum brakes and are easier to set up because of its simple design.

Total frictional area of pads in disc brakes is very less as compared with drum type brake, the approximately ratio being 1:4. This means that in disc brakes, the pressure intensity must be considerably greater than in drum type.[48]

5.2.4 Brake calliper selection

Here we are using Floating type calliper over the Fixed type calliper because of the following advantages-

It requires less parts compare to fixed calliper. It is less expensive to manufacture. It is easier to bleed floating calliper compare to fixed calliper It is mostly made of cast iron or steel which in turns increases weight and heat

compare to aluminium fixed calliper. A heavy weight stops the disc faster than light weight.

The other advantage is that floating calliper can better dissipate heat due to sliding nature and therefore less chances of brake fade.

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5.2.5 Brake Calculation

Mass of the kart232 kg

Mass of the person65kg

Weight of the kart2273.6 N

Weight of the man637.65 N

Total Weight of the car2910.6 N

Coefficient of friction0.4

Height of C.O.G0.2032m

Distance of C.O.G from front axle0.635m

Table 5.3 Go kart dimension

Kart Velocity, V = 60km/hr. = 16.67m/s

The fluid pressure that was caused by master cylinder can be calculated as follow: P = (FP*R*η) / AWhere: P = fluid pressure, MPa FP= pedal force, N R = pedal lever ratio η = Pedal efficiency A = cross section area of master cylinder P = (400 x 3 x 0.8) / .0005 = 1.92 MpaThe normal forces acting on calipers can be found by following formula- N = P*AWhere: N = Normal force, A = caliper areaRear: NRC = A*P = (0.0035 * 1.92* 1)(Where ‘1’ stands for one caliper used in rear axle) = 6720 N

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Once we found the normal forces the frictional forces could be calculated:

FRC =μP * NRC= (0.4 *6720) = 2688NNow we can calculate the torque cause by these forces: TRC = FRC * dRC = (5376 * 0.1) = 537.6 N Note that “d” is the distance from each caliper to the centre of each moving axle.Assuming the torque is constant over the entire length of the axle we can find theForces that are acting on each tire.

FRT = (TRC/ RRT) = [537.6 / (0.127)] = 4233.07 (RRT =10/2=5”= 0.127m)Where: “R” is the radius of tires.The deceleration could be calculated as:a = - (FRT) / m = - (4233.07) / (235) = - 18 m/s2

AndStoping Distanced = (V2) / (2a) = (16.67) / (2*18) = 7.72mAfter failure either we have to reduce the mass of cart or, we have to mount more brake disc Thus we mount more 1 more disc and two caliper.

New calculation

Kart Velocity, V = 60km/hr. = 16.67m/s

The fluid pressure that was caused by master cylinder can be calculated as follow: P = (FP*R*η) / A

Where: P = fluid pressure, MPa FP= pedal force, N R = pedal lever ratio η = Pedal efficiency A = cross section area of master cylinder

P = (400 x 3 x 0.8) / .0005 = 1.92 Mpa

The normal forces acting on calipers can be found by following formula- N = P*AWhere: N = Normal force, A = caliper area

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Rear: NRC = A*P = (0.0035 * 1.92* 2)(Where ‘2’ stands for two caliper used in rear axle) = 13440 NOnce we found the normal forces the frictional forces could be calculated:

FRC =μP * NRC= (0.4 *13440) = 5376NNow we can calculate the torque cause by these forces: TRC = FRC * dRC = (10752 * 0.1) = 1075.2N Note that “d” is the distance from each caliper to the centre of each moving axle.

Assuming the torque is constant over the entire length of the axle we can find theForces that are acting on each tire.

FRT = (TRC/ RRT) = [1075.2 / (0.127)] = 8466.14 (RRT =10/2=5”= 0.127m)Where: “R” is the radius of tires.The deceleration could be calculated as:a = - (FRT) / m = - (8466.14) / (235) = - 36.026 m/s2

And,Stoping Distanced = (V2) / (2a) = (16.67) / (2*36.026) = 3.85m

5.3 Engine Specification

Max Power: 10KW @ 8500 RPM

Max Torque: 11Nm @ 6500 RPM

0-100 km/h (0-60 mph): 23 seconds

Max RPM: 8500

Bore x stroke: 52x 58mm

Valves per cylinder: 2

Ignition: Digital CDI

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Lubrication system: Pressure/splash

Cooling system: Air Cooled

Gearbox: Manual

Transmission type: 4-speed rotary

Table 5.4 Engine specification

5.3.1 Analysis on Transmission:Transmission details are given below:Torque Given @ 8000 RPM @ 10 HP Velocity Calculated @ 8000(Locked RPM)

NO. of teeth on engine sprocket = 14 No. of teeth on shaft sprocket = 34

Thus final drive ratio = No. of teeth on axle sprocket/ No. of teeth on engine sprocket = 34/14 = 2.428:1

Gear No. Gear Ratio Final Ratio Drive Shaft Torque(Nm)

Velocity @8000 (KMPH)

1st Gear 2.722:1 30.607 126.40 14.912nd Gear 1.722:1 19.363 78.52 27.333rdGear 1.272:1 14.303 58.00 44.724th Gear 1.000:1 11.240 45.6 60

Table 5.5 Gear reduction chart

TOP SPEED: The top speed of vehicle will be calculated at max. rpm of the engine i.e. 8000 rpm, therefore max. Speed will be 60kmph.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

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Based upon the desired outcomes of eco-friendly hybrid vehicle project and manufacturing and fabrication of project using various techniques, following interpretations are concluded:

The vehicle is eco friendly as hybrid system techniques used two power sources i.e., electric motor and single cylinder 4-stroke heat engine.

Prototyping and fabricating of vehicle was done and pollution emissions of both non-hybrid vehicle and hybrid vehicle were evaluated.

For non-hybrid vehicle, carbon monoxide emissions were 9700 ppm and hydrocarbons were 301 ppm.

For eco-friendly hybrid vehicle, carbon monoxide emissions were 900 ppm and hydrocarbons were 62 ppm.

Different designing calculation pertaining steering mechanism, transmission system, gear ratio were designed according to optimum range.

Fig 6.1 The Hybrid Car

FUTURE SCOPE

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Some believe that hybrid cars are fast turning into the cars of future. Consumers are ready to take chance with the advance technology which hybrid cars have on offer. Today, Honda and Toyota are the two prominent companies producing hybrid cars. While Honda launched its Honda Civic Hybrid, Toyota is ready with its Prius. With brands such as Nissan, Mazda, Ford, Fiat, Peugeot, Audi, Mercury and even Porsche, all these vehicles are licensed to use Toyota’s Hybrid technology in future. In spite of this much hyped show, hybrid cars are somehow falling flat on consumer market. Hybrid cars lack in mileage which is a great setback for all the hybrid car owners. Currently a hybrid car gets up to a mileage of 31 mpg on city and 45 mpg on highway. Unless manufacturers seriously look into this aspect, the car may fail to sustain the on-going hybrid mania for long.The hybrid car designs of the future are including sports car models that have been all-time favourites with the world in the past and are now being revived with the brand new hybrid engine in mind. With a mind-set of grasping and expanding the propulsion features that are somewhat limited in today’s hybrid car designs, there are retro styling efforts that are focusing on providing hybrid cars with optional V8 engine capacities. There are considerations in place to use solar cells in the framework of hybrid automobiles. The future hybrid car will need to focus more on greenhouse gases that negatively affect the environment as well as a hybrid car that will be even more fuel efficient.

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PROJECT RELADED

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