cannabis_history-pdx file · web viewword cannabis occurred in 1783. this means that cannabis as an...

10,000 Years: An Etymologically Guided History of Cannabis of 21

By Brian Grimmer

Cannabis can get you high. One might describe the high as a

wonderfully euphoric state of mental bliss that balances between absolute

clarity of the task-at-hand and a total blurring-out of one’s external

awareness. For others the opposite may be the case, as the task-at-hand

blurs out and one’s awareness of the world around them increases ten-fold

within the euphoria. While these intentionally ambiguous and apposing

states may not be easy for the non-user to understand, for those who have

experienced the mental pleasures of cannabis, the above is accurate.

The learned individual understands that cannabis is a very utilitarian

plant with medicinal, industrial, and nutritional purposes in addition to its

most famous role as a recreational or spiritual intoxicant. With 10,000 year-

old artifacts as evidence, the plant’s status as one of the oldest cultivated

crops in the world is indisputable. Despite the above facts about the plant,

the origins of the word cannabis are a source of division among historians.

Like the effects of the plant when consumed, the word cannabis is

pleasant sounding word to the ear when spoken. Hemp, perhaps reflecting

the plant’s industrial usefulness is not as pleasant in its sound but is rather, a

very efficient word in that it is quickly spoken. The correct pronunciation of

cannabis, or hemp for that matter, is not difficult for the average reader to

master either.


To understand the simple concept that one word can have many

meanings or definitions is a basic purpose of the dictionary. Each progressive

definition following a word is a less common, but nonetheless accurate and

correct application of the word. Further examination these multiple

definitions found within the dictionary for cannabis provide insight into the

origin of the word. With detailed examination given to these alternate

definitions, old names given to this plant by great cultures of the past can be

uncovered and explored further.

In these ancient cultures, experts dedicated to their trades and

profession found various uses for cannabis and documented their results in

ancient texts and tablets. Through historical research and archaeology,

today’s society is rediscovering how industrious and beneficial cannabis can

be when society agrees on a place for it within in said society. In many

aspects, cannabis has contributed greatly to the advance of humanity and its

culture from ancient times to modernity.

Many of the established societal issues surrounding cannabis use and

production in today’s world existed in some form during the Victorian Age. In

some cases, many of these same concerns also existed in ancient China.

Despite the multitude of years cannabis has served humankind, the social

factors of the past have influenced the views of modern society has

regarding the plant. These historic societal issues provide examples and

understanding of the etymology of cannabis. The etymology provides a


historical roadmap to explore the effects cannabis has upon the societies of

the past and consequently their effect on society views of the plant today.

What is cannabis? Mirriam-Webster’s online dictionary defines

cannabis as - 1: hemp, 2: any of the preparations (as marijuana or hashish)

or chemicals (as THC) that are derived from the hemp and are psychoactive.

Miriam’s further informs the reader that the origin of the word cannabis is

Latin for hemp, derives from the Greek word kannabis (κάνναβης or

kánnavi s), and is akin to Old English hænep, meaning hemp. Lastly, the page

states the first known use of the word cannabis occurred in 1783. This means

that cannabis as an English word is only 228 years old, but has its roots in

ancient Greece via Latin.

Note that hemp is the first definition and repeated again in the second

definition. Hemp appears twice again within the word’s origins. Therefore, it

is accurate to say that hemp is cannabis. In examination of the word hemp,

the Miriam-Webster’s verifies this as its definition is as follows:

1a: a tall widely cultivated Asian herb

(Cannabis sativa of the family Cannabaceae, the

hemp family) that has a tough bast fiber used

especially for cordage and that is often separated

into a tall loosely branched species (C. sativa) and a

low-growing densely branched species (C. indica), b:


the fiber of hemp, c: a psychoactive drug (as

marijuana or hashish) from hemp, and 2: a fiber (as

jute) from a plant other than the true hemp; also : a

plant yielding such fiber.

From this page, the reader also learns that there are multiple varieties

of cannabis – cannabis sativa and cannabis indica. Additionally, the origin of

the word ‘hemp’ is Middle English, from the Old English word ‘hænep’; akin

to Old High German word ‘hanaf’, meaning hemp, and the Greek word

‘kannabis,’ and that its first known use occurred before the 12th century C.E.

While the term hashish will be discussed later in this paper, this initial

inspection of Miriam-Webster’s definitions provide a brief etymology that

shows dated usage of the terms cannabis and hemp in Europe going back

centuries and an ancestry that goes back to ancient Greece.

Pedanius Dioscorides, a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist

circa 40-90 C.E. who resided in Rome, wrote about the medical qualities of

cannabis in the first century C.E. Discorides explained that the plant’s

‘juiced’ seed, when green, was useful for treating ‘pains of the ear’.”1 The

inclusion of cannabis sativa as a healing herb in Dioscorides’ De Materia

Medica ("Regarding Medical Materials"), an ancient five-volume medical text,

conclusively illustrates Greek society’s recognition of the plant’s value as a

medicinal herb. As the Greek Empire fell in decline, the medicinal knowledge


of cannabis would pass successively through the Romans and onto Europe

and the Byzantines through Dioscorides’ texts.

Referred to by the German Byzantinist August Heisenberg as “the

Christianized Roman Empire of the Greek nation,”2 the Byzantines literally

and beautifully illustrated the medical value of the cannabis. Cannabis sativa

is one of 435 plants illustrated in the Vienna Dioscurides. An extravagantly

illustrated version of Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica crafted in the 6th

century as a gift for the Byzantine Princess Anicia Juliana, the Vienna

Dioscurides served as a medical reference for centuries.3 Proving the text’s

relevance and accuracy, the De Materia Medica still serves as a basis of

modern medical and therapeutic herbal knowledge.4

Miriam Webster’s etymology of cannabis ends with the Greek word

kannabis. The Greeks, being familiar with all qualities of the cannabis,

preferred alcohol as a recreational intoxicant. The Greeks did not often

consume cannabis for intoxication and research indicates the origin of the

Greek word ‘kannabis’ is the Scythian word ‘cannabis.’ 5 This would make

sense as Herodotus, a 5th century B.C.E Greek historian, wrote extensively

about the Scythians and their ways.6 Learning the language would be a

natural aspect of his studies of Scythian culture. Prior to Scythia however,

there existed Assyria, Akkadia, and Sumeria, these earlier civilizations were

successively located in southern Mesopotamia.


According to British archaeologist, cuneiformist and Assyriologist

Reginald Campbell Thompson (1876-1941), who spent 50 years deciphering

19,000 Assyrian cuneiform tablets recovered from the mound of Kouyunjik,

an archaeological site in ancient ruins of Nineveh. Located across the Tigris

River from the modern Iraqi city of Mosul, Nineveh was ruined by invading

Scythians in 612 b.c, and ignored for more than 2000 years. According to

Thompon, cannabis was known as ‘azallu’ in Akkadian or Ancient Assryian,

and ‘A.ZAL.LA’ in Sumerian. Thompson also further noted that of 19,000 clay

tablets, 660 tablets related to material medica, and 30 citations in the

Kouyunjik tablets mention cannabis. During his studies of Assyrian cuneiform

Thomson, noted associations to the Hindu word for cannabis ‘ganja.’ 7

Researcher Sula Bunet(1903 – 1982) was a Polish anthropologist

studying Judaic customs and traditions who believed the Scythian word

'cannabis' was Semitic in origin due to its similarity to the Semitic word

'kanbos'.8 Bunet’s 1936 paper Tracing one word through different languages

states, “The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were

neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for

hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations

through Asia Minor.”9 In 1980, etymological researchers at Hebrew University

in Jerusalem corroborated Benet’s research claiming the Old Testament word

‘kineboison’ (kaneh bosm) literally meant ‘hemp blossom’ which is the fruit

or buds of the cannabis plant. 10


This translates to mean that scholars now acknowledge that the Holy

anointing oil contained cannabis extracts. In addition, these scholars

determined that cannabis is present in the original Hebrew and Aramaic

texts of the Old Testament and listed within said text as an incense tree. The

importance of this revelation to Christianity is that according to the Old

Testament scripture, Holy anointing oil was used by Hebrews to anoint all

priests, kings and prophets – Jesus was anointed this holy anointing oil when

he became a prophet.11 While this declaration obviously places the church in

the uncomfortable position of explaining Jesus’ and the Bible’s newly

discovered association with cannabis.

Deepening the biblical cannabis references, Professor Raphael

Mechoulam of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem suggests the following

etymology for cannabis: The Greek word ‘kannabis’ from the Arabic word

‘kunnab’ from the Syriac word ‘qunnappa’ from the word Hebrew pannag

which came from the Sanskrit word ‘bhanga’ and the Persian word ‘bang.’

Machoulam suggests that ‘pannag’, mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel

(27:17), is in fact Cannabis.12 In the King James Bible, the verse is as follows:

“Judah, and the land of Israel, they [were] thy merchants: they

traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, and Pannag, and honey,

and oil, and balm.”


The confirmation of Benet’s claims by the Hebrew University of

Jerusalem in addition to the new references highlighted in Mechoulam’s

research are sure to fuel the fires of passionate debate for those seeking a

biblical justification of cannabis. Several seemingly Christian-leaning activist

websites have cited Benet in support of their claims that anointing oil comes

from cannabis, not calamus, which is apparently the result of a mis-

translation.13 While offensive to some, a few humorists have poked fun at the

possibility that Jesus may have been an ancient hippy due to his getting high

from bathing in the supposedly cannabis-infused anointing oil during his

anointment as a prophet.14

Mentioned previously, Herodotus wrote about the Scythian culture in

the 5th century. He noted the Scythians cultivation of cannabis (hemp) as

well as its use in their personal hygiene practices. Instead of bathing in

water, Herodotus noted the Scythians would take woolen bags containing

cannabis seeds and set them upon red-hot stones in a closed tent.

Immediately, the bags of cannabis seed would begin to smolder and fill the

tent with the smoke. The Scythians would then proceed to inhale deeply and

rub their bodies to cleanse themselves in the smoke while laughing and

having a good time. In his writings, Herodotus noted that the vapors were

much more pleasing than those produced by incense burned in Greece

were.15


Harvard Ethnobotinist Richard Evans Schultes noted in his 1979 book

Plants of the Gods, that ‘recent’ archaeological digs in central Asia

uncovered Scythian tombs matching Herodotus’ descriptions. Dating from

500-300 B.C.E. archaeologists excavated artifacts consisting of the remains

of tripods, tent materials and cannabis fruits and seeds with charcoal.

Schultes further states a general acceptance among scholars who subscribe

to the theory that Scythians are responsible for spreading cannabis

westward to Europe.16

Researchers like Benet and Mechoulam credit the Scythians for being

the bridging society that spread cannabis from central Asia into Europe, the

Middle East, India and Africa. In Africa, where cannabis is not an indigenous

species, it was the Egyptians and the Bantu who learned of cannabis. The

Khoikhoi, or as the Europeans labeled them Hottentots17 and the kaffirs of

South Africa are mentioned by Professor Ernest L. Abel in his book Marijuana:

the First 12,000 Years as a people who learned of the plant’s intoxicating

properties. Some of the negative connotations associated with cannabis-use

may be a result of early European reports from colonies in southern Africa. In

1658, the first governor of the Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope, Jan

van Riebeeck wrote about Khoikhoi use. He noted the tribe’s extensive and

frequent custom of chewing on local hemp the tribe called dagga and

commented that the drug affects their brain like opium. 18


In 1609, the Dominican priest, Joao dos Santos, in writing about the

kaffirs, a now-derogatory term that referred the natives of South Africa living

around Kafaria coined by the settling English and Dutch Boers, noted that

the natives chewed upon cannabis leaves the natives called bangue from

which a powerfully intoxicating’ drink of the same name was made.19

The Egyptians, who also invented beer,20 would also learn of the

textile and medicinal values of cannabis. By 2350 B.C.E., scribes in Memphis

were writing about cannabis. While some readers may doubt the accuracy of

certain deciphered hieroglyphs, it is a consensus among experts of Egyptian

hieroglyphs, that the Egyptian word for cannabis was ‘šmšm-t’ – pronounced

shemshemet. Although the ancient Egyptians used hemp for textiles and

cordage to make ropes, matting, and woven fabric in ancient Egypt,21 what

marks the Egyptians as particularly fascinating from a medical aspect, is

their practice of mummification and the resultant benefit of increasing the

society’s knowledge of medicine and human physiology.22 In his 2003 Doctor

of Philosophy dissertation for the University of Birmingham entitled

Pain,Disease and Analgesics In Ancient Egypt, Roy James Lane noted how

classical texts of the era such as The Odyssey and the Holy Bible often refer

to Egyptian medicine.23

With various preparations listed for treating a wide range a maladies,

Russo’s paper shows that the ancient Egyptians considered cannabis as an

important medical resource for the for their society. Scholars consider Ebers


Papyrus (circa 1550B.C.E.) to be one of the most important medical texts of

ancient Egypt.24 Listed in the text is a preparation that can serve as a

disinfectant for malignant flesh. The preparation consists of ground cannabis

mixed with honey, ochre, hedjou resin and some ibou plant. Russo points out

that while the antibacterial qualities of honey are well known, there is a

definite lack of research into the antibiotic qualities of cannabis, let alone

any understanding the plant’s insecticidal or anthelminthic (the expelling of

parasitic worms – helminthes, such as flat worms, round worms tapeworms

and flukes – from the body) properties.25

One of the oldest preparations listed in the scroll Ramesseum III,

estimated to have been written in 1700 B.C.E., was a treatment for the eyes:

celery; hemp; is ground and left in the dew overnight. The patient then being

instructed to wash both eyes of with the preparation early in the morning.

Russo imparts that this type of usage suggests a similar medical approach as

that taken regarding the modern use of cannabis in treating glaucoma, or,

possibly, for anti-inflammatory effects.26

Before leaving Africa, in a most interesting side note, perhaps it is the

case of the Bashilange tribe that cannabis legalization opponents and

governments of the world fear the most. Doctor Ernest Abel, a professor at

Wayne State Univeristy, explains the Bashilange were an extremely warlike

people until usurpers to the throne introduced cannabis into the society

around 1850. Within 25 years of its introduction, the Bashilange transformed


their warring society into one of peaceful co-existence and non-violence.

While some reversion to old ways did occur in time, life for the Bashilange

tribe continued to remain comparatively peaceful, as cannabis use became a

daily ritual in their lives.27

Following the trails of civilization’s expansion, the Scythians being

linguistic descendants of the Indo-Aryan people, were certainly in contact

with the Hindu peoples of the Indian sub-continent. Whether the Scythians,

or their ancestry are responsible for introducing cannabis to India is

debatable. What is indisputably the earliest cannabis reference in Indian

culture recognized to date, comes from the Compendium of the essence of

medicine. Written by the Bengali author Vangesena around 1050-1100

B.C.E., cannabis is referred to by the name ‘bhanga.’ In writing about

cannabis, Vangesena states, “Bhanga was a drug like opium whose mode of

action is to pervade the whole body before being absorbed and digested.” In

his writings, Vangasena prescribed cannabis under the names ‘indr¯a´sana’

and ‘tribhavanavijaya’ in two recipes that he claimed promoted a long and

healthy life. 28

By examining Hindu references to cannabis within the faith’s many

sacred texts, one can quickly conclude that Hindus regard cannabis in much

the same way as Christians regard the holy sacrament of wine. Verses within

the Atbarva Veda, written sometime between 2000-1400 B.C.E., exemplify

the reverence held for cannabis by the Hindu culture.29 The text lists


cannabis as one of the five sacred plants of Hindu culture. Another sacred

Hindu text, the Raja Valabba, claims divine intervention as the source for

hemp. According this text, the gods, in an act of compassion, provided hemp

for the human race, so that they may find enjoyment, lose anxiety, and gain

sexual desire.30

With so many gods in Hinduism, the outsider can quickly be confused

with who is what and what is where. A basic rule in understanding the Hindu

theology of Hinduism is that Brahman is everything and everything is

Brahman.31 Across the many regions of India, the faithful appease the most

popular local form of God with offerings of cannabis. In Madras, the faithful

offer gifts of cannabis to Kama, the god of love, as well as Shiva, the

destroyer. Vishnu, the supreme god within the Vaishnavite tradition, is the

benefactor of local cannabis offerings in Bombay.32

During the early history of cannabis use in Indian society, it was

unlikely one could discern medicinal use from religious use. Touw points to a

reference within the Atbarva Veda regarding overcoming enemies and evil

forces; interpreting the verse to mean such ‘forces’ would have included

physical illnesses as well as ill spirits. As medicinal use broke away from

religious and secular use, medicinal applicability rapidly expanded through

thorough exploration.33 For the student, researching cannabis use in India,

Touw’s paper is a detailed, in-depth study providing valuable information.


The breadth of Indian society’s medicinal and cultural preparations

that involve cannabis is astounding. An ancient beverage called ‘bhang,’

made from a combination of ground cannabis flowers, milk, ghee and spices,

is an integral part of Indian society and tradition. So strongly integrated into

the Indian society is the 4000-year-old tradition of cannabis use, that in

1894, J.M. Campbell wrote his Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report. Within

his report, he wrote about hemp’s among the Indian people:

"To forbid or even seriously to restrict the use of so gracious an

herb as hemp would cause widespread suffering and annoyance and to

large bands of worshipped ascetics, deep-seated anger. It would rob

the people of a solace in discomfort, of a cure in sickness, of a

guardian whose gracious protection saves them from the attacks of

evil influences, and whose mightly power makes the devotee of the

Victorious, overcoming the demons of hunger and thirst, of panic, fear,

of the glamour of Maya or matter, and of madness, able in rest to

brood on the Eternal, till the Eternal, possessing him body and soul,

frees him from the haunting of self and receives him into the Ocean of

Being.”

So alluring were the intoxicating qualities of Indian Hemp, as the

variant grown in India is colloquially called, its scientific name is Cannabis

indica. Shorter and less robust than Cannabis sativa or Cannabis ruderalis,

the plant is well suited for intoxicating its users. Victorian-Age England,


familiar with hemp varieties suited for textiles, papermaking and rope

making, was shocked by the intoxicating power of Indian Hemp. With opium

being the drug of choice among English subjects back at home, there was

little desire to allow cannabis use in colonial India beyond its industrial and

medicinal applications; spiritual use had to be controlled. Despite Campbell’s

report, the colonial government in India planned to prohibit the consumption

of cannabis. Fortunately, cooler heads prevailed and taxation became the

chosen method of deterring cannabis use. 34 If the colonial government in

India had implemented the policy of outright cannabis prohibition, the cost

and success ratio of today’s prohibitionist policies infer that the enforcement

costs of prohibition would have significantly reduced the amount of profit the

colony generated for the crown. Perhaps representing a lesson for today’s

leadership to consider, the decision to tax cannabis helped keep India

profitable as colony and allowed the British Empire to prosper for another 65

years.

While England’s association with India involved Indian Hemp, China’s

treasures were tea and a white powder called opium. In China, the colonial

merchants saw cannabis as just another trade commodity like silk, spices

and other exotic items of interest. Archaeological excavations on the island

of Taiwan have uncovered 10,000-year-old pottery fragments embedded

with hemp fibers. These pottery shards demonstrate a 10,000 –year history

of cannabis utilization in China.35 Considering the Chinese harvested


cannabis seeds for food, it’s not a far stretch for them to discover any

medical properties or benefits the plant, its fruit or seeds may have offer

along the way. 36

A significant aspect of Chinese culture is connected to cannabis,

however that connection is not as intertwined with the culture of China as it

is in Indian culture. In China, where the word for hemp is 麻 or má, the plant

served in its contemporary roles as a food product, industrial resource, and

medicinal herb. Accordingly, the people of China relied on Cannabis for many

more products than fiber. Ground into meal, roasted whole, or cooked in

porridge, cannabis seeds, along with rice, barley, millet, and soybeans, were

the staple grains for the citizens of ancient China. Ancient tombs often

contained sacrificial vessels filled with hemp seed and other grains to sustain

the deceased in the afterlife. The importance of hemp seed as staple food

source extended from prehistoric times into the first to second century

B.C.E., when more palatable cereal grains finally surpassed the hemp seed.37

With Confucianism’s focus on improving the self for the benefit of

society, spiritually, the use of cannabis in China was non-existent in

comparison to spiritual use in India. Instead, the Chinese focused on the

medicinal qualities of the plant. The Chinese consider cannabis to be one of

the 50 "fundamental" herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. According to the

Chinese Materia Medica, every part of the hemp plant; the dried flowers, the

achenia, the seeds, the oil, the leaves, the stalk, the root, and the juice can


be used to make medicine. The flowers alone can be used treat over 120

different diseases.38

From a textile perspective, the oldest archaeological find of hemp

fabric in China dates from around 4,000 B.C.E. Rope and thread production

with hemp began early as well, with artifacts found in Chinese-occupied

Turkistan dating back to 3,000 B.C.E.39 Cannabis, in combination with silk,

pushed trade across the vastness of Asia. Using the Silk Road, a network of

trade routes that extended across the Asian continent to connect Asia with

the Mediterranean world, traders introduced the world to the qualities of silk

and hemp. The sheer expense of silk restricted its use to the wealthy who

could afford it’s luxuriate qualities. In responding to the predicament,

merchants commonly traded both hemp and silk.40

At one time, the Chinese referred to China the “land of mulberry and

hemp.” The mulberry tree was a food source for the silkworm, and hemp was

a source of food, medicine, and fiber.41 The resilience of this fiber brought a

major development to the world with China’s use and cultivation of cannabis.

Using hemp fibers recycled from old rags and fishnets, the Chinese made a

paper that was very durable and long lasting. Without this development,

humanity would still be writing on clay tablets, woven pages, or animal skins.

The Chinese invention of paper was an advancement that revolutionized

record keeping and communication around the world.


Beginning in China over 10,000 –years-ago, the knowledge of cannabis

spread across the continent of Asia to the early cultures of Mesopotamia.

From central Asia, knowledge of cannabis began to spread south to India and

westward to Europe. Reaching Europe around 500 B.C.E., European cultures

learned to use cannabis in much the same manner as the Chinese did 7500-

years before in Taiwan. Eventually the Europeans would use hemp to weave

canvas sails and hemp ropes, eventually allowing Europe to discover and

conquer the New World.

The medical secrets of cannabis reached Europe and were employed

successfully during the Victorian Age, only to disappear again for nearly 80

years as the western society grappled with the moralities of spiritual and

recreational cannabis use. Today, the moral issues surrounding such use still

effect societal attitudes towards cannabis and use of the plant. With so much

to offer humanity, cannabis has truly gotten a bum rap.

1 Dioscorides, Pedanius. Goodyer, John (trans). "The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides (1655 translation of a 1st century text) Books 2 - 4." The Renaissance Man. Available from http://www.therenaissanceman.org/images/DIOSCORIDES-Books_2_-_4.doc. Accessed 3 May 2011.

2 Winnifrith, Tom and Murray, Penelope. Greece Old and New. New York: Macmillan, 1983. p.113.

3

"Byzantine Medicine." Claude Moore Health Sciences Library. Available from http://www.hsl.virginia.edu/historical/artifacts/antiqua/byzantine.cfm. Accessed 1 May 2011.

4 "Vienna Dioscurides." UNESCO. Available from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en//ev.php-URL_ID=22639&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. Accessed 8 May 2011.

5 Robinson, Rowan and Robert Nelson. The Great Book of Hemp. Rochester: Park Street Press, 1996. p. 89. Available at: http://books.google.com/books?id=w0qvkVGO0sgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Great+Book+of+Hemp&hl=en&ei=dk7vTd3hOKLkiAKTsfz0AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=benet&f=false. Accessed 4 May 2011.

6 Rawlinson, George ed. and tr. The History of Herodotus, vol. 3, Book 4, Chapters 2-36, 46-82. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1885. Available online: http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Scythians.html. Accessed 6 May 2011.

7 Russo, Ethan B. "History of Cannabis and Its Preparations in Saga, Science, and Sobriquet." Chemistry & Biodiversity 4 (2007): 1614-1648.

8 Robinson, Rowan and Robert Nelson.9 Benet, Sula. 1936. Tracing one word through different languages. Institute of

Anthropological Sciences, Warsaw. Reprinted 1967 In: The Book of Grass. George Andrews and Simon Vinkenoog (eds.) Grove Press, New York, "pp. 15-18.

10 Robinson, Rowan and Robert Nelson.11

Rogers, . Ultimate truth : book i. S.l: Authorhouse, 2009. p.123.12

R. Mechoulam, W.A. Devane, A. Breuer, J. Zahalka, A random walk through a cannabis field, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, Volume 40, Issue 3, November 1991, Pages 461-464. Available online: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0091305791903475. Accessed 5 May 2011.

13 "Cannabis in the Holy Oil?." Freeanointing.org. Available from http://www.freeanointing.org/cannabis_in_the_holy_oil.htm. Accessed 1 June 2011.

14 jesus_was_a_hippy.jpg – Available from http://mickeymalta.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/jesus_was_a_hippy.jpg. Accessed 1 June 2011.

15 Herodotus, Translated by Isaac Littlebury. The History of Herodotus. Vol. IV. London. 1737. p.380-381. Available from http://books.google.com/books?id=1uQaAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1&dq=History+of+Herodotus+littlebury&hl=en&ei=jRfvTcvCIYnRiALBr6T1AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&sqi=2&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=History%20of%20Herodotus%20littlebury&f=false. Accessed: 3 May 2011

16 Schultes, Richard and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. p. 49.

17 "Bring back the Hottentot Venus." South Africa Mail & Guardian. Available from http://web.mit.edu/racescience/in_media/baartman/baartman_m&g_june95.htm. Accessed 1 June 2011.

18 Abel, Ernest. Marihuana, the first twelve thousand years. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.19 Ibid.20 Redford, Donald. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt: Beer. Oxford Oxfordshire:

Oxford University Press, 2001.21

Lane, Roy James. "Pain,Disease and Analgesics In Ancient Egypt." University of Birmingham, (2003): p. 1-300

22

Russo, Ethan B.23

Lane, Roy James.24

Gordetsky, Jennifer. "Mysticism and Urology in Ancient Egypt."University of Rochester Medical Center Department of Urology. Available online: http://www.urologichistory.museum/content/exhibits/historyforum/mysturo.pdf. Accessed 26 May 2011.

25

Russo, Ethan B.26

Ibid.27

Abel, Ernest.28

Wujastyk, Dominik. "Cannabis in Traditional Indian Herbal Medicine."Wellcome Library, London. Available from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/papers/cannabis.pdf. Accessed 28 May 2011.

29

Courtwright, David (2001). Forces of Habit: Drugs and the Making of the Modern World. Harvard Univ. Press. p. 39. Avilable online: http://books.google.com/books?id=GHqV3elHYvMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Forces+of+Habit&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=SD_wTdzHNIeCsQOey_2PDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false.

30

Touw, Mia. "The Religious and Medicinal Uses of Cannabis in China, India and Tibet." Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 13 no. 1 (1981). Available online: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/papers/cannabis.pdf. Accessed 16 May 2011.

31

Bhagavad-gi ta as it is. Los Angeles, Calif: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1984.32 Touw, Mia.33 Ibid.34

Blanchard & Matthew J. Atha MSc, Sean. "Indian Hemp and the Dope Fiends of Old England." UKCIA.org. Available from http://www.ukcia.org/culture/history/colonial.php. Internet; accessed 19 May 2011.

35

Abel, Ernest.36

Li, Hui-Lin (1974). "An Archaeological and Historical Account of Cannabis in China", Economic Botany 28.4:437–448, p. 444.

37 Keng, Hsuan. 1974. Economic Plants of Ancient N. China as Mentioned in Shih Ching (Book of Poetry). Econ. Botany 28 (4): 391-410.

38

Smith, Frederick Porter (1911). Chinese Materia Medica: Vegetable Kingdom. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. pp. 90–91

39

Touw, Mia.40

"Approaches Old and New to the Silk Roads" Eliseeff in: The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. Paris (1998) UNESCO, Reprint: Berghahn Books (2009),

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Robinson, Rowan and Robert Nelson.

cannabis_history-pdx file · web viewword cannabis occurred in 1783. this means that cannabis as an...

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