cannabis (drug) - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

7/30/2019 Cannabis (Drug) - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

1/23

Dried flowers of the Cannabis sativa

plant with visible trichomes.

People of the Hadza ethnic group in

north-central Tanzania smoking

cannabis

Cannabis (drug)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Marijuana)

Cannabis, also known as marijuana[1] (from the MexicanSpanish marihuana), and by other names,a[] is a preparation ofthe Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug andas medicine.[2][3][4] Pharmacologically, the principal psychoactiveconstituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); it is oneof 400 compounds in the plant, including other cannabinoids,such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), andtetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV).[5]

Contemporary uses of cannabis are as a recreational drug, asreligious or spiritual rites, or as medicine; the earliest recordeduses date from the 3rd millennium BC.[6] In 2004, the United

Nations estimated that global consumption of cannabis indicatedthat approximately 4.0 percent of the adult world population(162 million people) used cannabis annually, and thatapproximately 0.6 percent (22.5 million) of people used cannabisdaily.[7] Since the early 20th century cannabis has been subject tolegal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabispreparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currentlyillegal in most countries of the world; the United Nations hassaid that cannabis is the most-used illicit drug in the world.[8][9]

Contents

1 Effects1.1 Classification1.2 Medical use1.3 Long-term effects

2 Forms2.1 Unprocessed2.2 Processed

2.2.1 Kief

2.2.2 Hashish 2.2.3 Hash oil2.2.4 Residue (resin)

3 Routes of administration4 Mechanism of action5 Potency

5.1 Difference between Cannabis indica andCannabis sativa

5.2 Adulterants6 Detection of use

Page 1 of 23Cannabis (drug) - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

11/9/2012http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marijuana


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Main short-term physical effects of

cannabis

7 Gateway drug theory8 History9 Legal status10 Price11 Truth serum12 Breeding and cultivation13 In arts and literature

14 See also15 Footnotes16 Citations17 Further reading18 External links

Effects

Main article: Effects of cannabis

Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects whenconsumed. The minimum amount of THC required to have aperceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms perkilogram of body weight.[10] Aside from a subjective changein perception and, most notably, mood, the most commonshort-term physical and neurological effects includeincreased heart rate, increased appetite and consumption offood,[11] lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-termand working memory,[12] psychomotor coordination, andconcentration. Long-term effects are less clear.[13][14]

Deaths attributed directly to cannabis usage are infrequentbut have been documented.[15][16][17][18] Recorded fatalitiesresulting from cannabis overdose in animals are generallyonly after intravenous injection of hashish oil.[19]

Classification

Main article: Psychoactive effects

While many psychoactive drugs clearly fall into thecategory of either stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis exhibits a mix of all properties,perhaps leaning the most towards hallucinogenic or psychedelic properties, though with other effectsquite pronounced as well. THC is typically considered the primary active component of the cannabisplant, various scientific studies have suggested that certain other cannabinoids like CBD may also play asignificant role in its psychoactive effects.[20][21][22]




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Prescription medical cannabis in the

Netherlands

Medical use

Main article: Medical cannabis

Cannabis used medically has several well-documented beneficialeffects. Among these are: the amelioration of nausea andvomiting, stimulation of hunger in chemotherapy and AIDSpatients, lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effectivefor treating glaucoma), as well as general analgesic effects (painreliever).b[]

Less confirmed individual studies also have been conductedindicating cannabis to be beneficial to a gamut of conditions running from multiple sclerosis todepression. Synthesized cannabinoids are also sold as prescription drugs, including Marinol (dronabinolin the United States and Germany) and Cesamet (nabilone in Canada, Mexico, the United States and theUnited Kingdom).b[]

Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked cannabis for anycondition or disease in the United States, largely because the FDA claims good quality scientificevidence for its use from U.S. studies is lacking.[23] Sixteen states have legalized cannabis for medicaluse.[24][25] The United States Supreme Court has ruled in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers'Coop and Gonzales v. Raich that it is the federal government that has the right to regulate andcriminalize cannabis, even for medical purposes. Canada, Spain, The Netherlands and Austria havelegalized some form of cannabis for medicinal use.[26]

Long-term effects

ain article: Long-term effects of cannabis

See also: Cannabis smoking

Cannabis can be habit-forming and the developmentof cannabis dependence in some users has been wellestablished; its effects on intelligence,[28] memory,respiratory functions and the possible relationship ofcannabis use to mental disorders[29] such asschizophrenia,[30] psychosis,[31] depersonalizationdisorder[32] and depression[33] are still underdiscussion. A study published in the American

Journal of Epidemiology in 2011, concluded that theprevalence of obesity is lower in cannabis users thanin nonusers.[34]

A 35-year study published August 2012 inProceedings of the National Academy of Sciencesand funded partly by NIDA and other NIH institutesprovides objective evidence that, at least foradolescents, marijuana is harmful to the brain.[28] It




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Cannabis is ranked one of the least harmful drugs

by a study published in the UK medical journal, The

Lancet.[27]

Dried Cannabis flowers

in natural herbal form

Hashish

was found that the persistent, dependent use ofmarijuana before age 18 showed lasting harm to aperson's intelligence, attention and memory.Quitting cannabis did not appear to reverse the loss.However, individuals who started cannabis use afterthe age of 18 did not show similar declines.[35]

A July 2012 report in Brain reveals neural-connectivity impairment in some brain regions followingprolonged cannabis use initiated in adolescence or young adulthood.[36]

Forms

Unprocessed

The terms cannabis ormarijuana generally refer to the dried flowers andsubtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant. [citation needed] This

is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.

[37][38]

Incontrast, cannabis varieties used to produce industrial hemp contain lessthan 1% THC and are thus not valued for recreational use. [39]

Processed

Kief

ain article: Kief

Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes, which can be sifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants

and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[40]

Hashish

ain article: Hashish

Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentratedresin produced from the flowers of the female cannabis plant. Hash canoften be more potent than marijuana and can be smoked or chewed. [41] Itvaries in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity.

Hash oil

ain article: Hash oil

Hash oil, or "butane honey oil" (BHO), is a mix of essential oils and resinsextracted from mature cannabis foliage through the use of various solvents. It has a high proportion ofcannabinoids (ranging from 40 to 90%)[42] and is used in a variety of cannabis foods.




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BHO

A joint

A forced-air

vaporizer. Thedetachable

balloon (top)

fills with vapors

that are then

inhaled.

Residue (resin)

Because of THC's adhesive properties, a sticky residue, most commonlyknown as "resin", builds up inside utensils used to smoke cannabis. It hastar-like properties but still contains THC as well as other cannabinoids. Thisbuildup retains some of the psychoactive properties of cannabis but is more

difficult to smoke without discomfort caused to the throat and lungs. Thistar may also contain CBN, which is a breakdown product of THC. Cannabisusers typically only smoke residue when cannabis is unavailable. Glasspipes may be water-steamed at a low temperature prior to scraping in order to make the residue easier toremove.[43]

Routes of administration

ain article: Cannabis consumption

Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which involve inhalingvaporized cannabinoids ("smoke") from small pipes, bongs (portable version ofhookah with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts.

A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365410 F (185210 C),[citation needed] causingthe active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material(the boiling point of THC is 390.4 F (199.1 C) at 760 mmHg pressure). [44] Alower proportion of toxic chemicals is released than by smoking, depending on thedesign of the vaporizer and the temperature setting. This method of consumingcannabis produces markedly different effects than smoking due to the flash pointsof different cannabinoids; for example, CBN (usually considered undesirable) has a

flash point of 212.7 C (414.9 F)[45]

and would normally be present in smoke butnot in vapor.

Fresh, non-dried cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or itsextract must be sufficiently heated or dehydrated to cause decarboxylation of itsmost abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), intopsychoactive THC.[46]

Cannabinoids can be extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits(often grain alcohol) to create a tincture, often referred to as Green Dragon.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter),[47] so tea is made by first adding asaturated fat to hot water (i.e. cream or any milk except skim) with a small amountof cannabis.




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A conduction

vaporizer, with

flexible

extension tube

("whip"). A

small serving of

cannabis is

heated on a

metal platform(center).

Mechanism of action

The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body forlong periods of time. Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels ofTHC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (depending on the amountadministered and the sensitivity of the assessment method). A number of

investigators have suggested that this is an important factor in marijuana's effects,perhaps because cannabinoids may accumulate in the body, particularly in the lipidmembranes of neurons.[48]

Until recently, little was known about the specific mechanisms of action of THC atthe neuronal level. However, researchers have now confirmed that THC exerts itsmost prominent effects via its actions on two types of cannabinoid receptors, theCB1 receptor and the CB2 receptor, both of which are G-Protein coupled receptors.The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the brain as well as in some peripheraltissues, and the CB2 receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is alsoexpressed in neuroglial cells as well.[49] THC appears to alter mood and cognitionthrough its agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondarymessenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner. These actionscan be blocked by the selective CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant),which has been shown in clinical trials to be an effective treatment for smoking cessation, weight loss,and as a means of controlling or reducing metabolic syndrome risk factors. [50] However, due to thedysphoric effect of CB1 antagonists, this drug is often discontinued due to these side effects.

Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release and produces psychotropic effects.THC, anandamide, and several other cannabinoids also act as allosteric modulators of opioid and glycinereceptors. The role of these interactions in the "marijuana high" remains elusive. [citation needed]

Potency

According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), "the amount of THC present ina cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."[51] The three main forms ofcannabis products are the flower, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that cannabisoften contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC content", and that "Cannabis oil maycontain more than 60% THC content."[51]

A scientific study published in 2000 in theJournal of Forensic Sciences (JFS) found that the potency

(THC content) of confiscated cannabis in the United States (US) rose from "approximately 3.3% in 1983and 1984", to "4.47% in 1997". It also concluded that "other major cannabinoids (i.e., CBD, CBN, andCBC)" (other chemicals in cannabis) "showed no significant change in their concentration over theyears".[52] More recent research undertaken at the University of Mississippi's Potency MonitoringProject[53] has found that average THC levels in cannabis samples between 1975 and 2007 haveincreased from 4% in 1983 to 9.6% in 2007.




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Types of Cannabis

Australia's National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers)of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. Thestalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels".[54] The UN states that the leaves can contain ten timesless THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC. [51]

After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a class C

to a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis. They believe skunkaccounts for between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police [55] (despite the fact that skunk cansometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis). [56][57] Extracts such as hashish andhash oil typically contain more THC than high potency cannabis flowers.

While commentators have warned that greater cannabis "strength" could represent a health risk, othershave noted that users readily learn to compensate by reducing their dosage, thus benefiting fromreductions in smoking side-hazards such as heat shock or carbon monoxide.

A number of analytical laboratories serving the medical marijuana industry in the Western US haveevaluated THC levels of medical cannabis. Typical levels range between 1617% while cannabis

materials with less than 10% THC are an anomaly. Currently upper THC limits for herbal cannabisgrown in California are 2325%.[58]

Difference between Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa

Cannabis indica may have a CBD:THC ratio 45 times that ofCannabis sativa. Cannabis strains with relatively high CBD:THCratios are less likely to induce anxiety than vice versa. This maybe due to CBD's antagonistic effects at the cannabinoidreceptors, compared to THC's partial agonist effect. CBD is alsoa 5-HT1A receptor agonist, which may also contribute to an

anxiolytic effect.[59] This likely means the high concentrations ofCBD found in Cannabis indica mitigate the anxiogenic effect ofTHC significantly.[59] The effects ofsativa are well known for itscerebral high, hence used daytime as medical cannabis, whileindica are well known for its sedative effects and preferred nighttime as medical cannabis.[59]

Adulterants

Chalk (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have

been used to make cannabis appear to be higher quality.[60][61][62]Increasing the weight of hashish products in Germany with leadcaused lead intoxication in at least 29 users.[63] In theNetherlands two chemical analogs of sildenafil (Viagra) were found in adulterated marijuana.[64]




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According to both the "Talk to FRANK" website and the UKCIA website, Soap Bar, "perhaps the mostcommon type of hash in the UK", was found "at worst" to contain turpentine, tranquilizers, boot polish,henna and animal fecesamongst several other things.[65][66] One small study of five "soap-bar" samplesseized by UK Customs in 2001 found huge adulteration by many toxic substances, including soil, glue,engine oil and animal feces.[67]

Detection of use

ain article: Cannabis drug testing

THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH, can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluidor sweat using chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or a forensicinvestigation of a traffic or other criminal offense. The concentrations obtained from such analyses canoften be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use, and extent orduration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medicalpurposes from unauthorized recreational smoking.[68] Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, oftenemployed as the initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence,have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites. Urine contains predominantlyTHC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain bothsubstances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage. [68][69][70][71]

The Duquenois-Levine test is commonly used as a screening test in the field, but it cannot definitivelyconfirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives.Despite this, it is common in the United States for prosecutors to seek plea bargains on the basis ofpositive D-L tests, claiming them definitive, or even to seek conviction without the use of gaschromatography confirmation, which can only be done in the lab. [72] In 2011, researchers at John JayCollege of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC and

other drugs in urine. Similar claims have been made in web forums on that topic.[73]

Gateway drug theory

Further information: Gateway drug theory

Since the 1950s, United States drug policies have been guided by the assumption that trying cannabisincreases the probability that users will eventually use "harder" drugs. [74] This hypothesis has been oneof the central pillars of anti-cannabis drug policy in the United States,[75] though the validity andimplications of this hypothesis are hotly debated.[74] Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better

predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.[76]

No widely accepted study has ever demonstrated a cause-and-effect relationship between the use ofcannabis and the later use of harder drugs like heroin and cocaine. However, the prevalence of tobaccocigarette advertising and the practice of mixing tobacco and cannabis together in a single large joint,common in Europe, are believed to be cofactors in promoting nicotine dependency among young peopletrying cannabis.[77]




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The use of cannabis,

at least as fiber, has

been shown to goback at least 10,000

years in Taiwan.[84]

M (), the Chinese

expression for hemp,

is a pictograph of two

plants under a

shelter.[85]

A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a givensetting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential thancannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social context, individual characteristics, anddrug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs. [78]

Some studies state that while there is no proof for this gateway hypothesis, young cannabis users shouldstill be considered as a risk group for intervention programs. [79] Other findings indicate that hard drugusers are likely to be "poly-drug" users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugsinstead of a single hard drug.[80]

Another gateway hypothesis is that a gateway effect may be detected as a result of the "common factors"involved with using any illegal drug. Because of its illegal status, cannabis users are more likely to be insituations which allow them to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs.[81][82] By this argument, some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may be regarded as gatewaydrugs.[76] However, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readilyavailable (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs, and alcohol/tobacco are in turn easier to obtain

earlier than cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the "gatewaysequence" in those people who are most likely to experiment with any drug offered. [74]

A 2010 study published in theJournal of Health and Social Behaviorfound that the main factors inusers moving on to other drugs were age, wealth, unemployment status, and psychological stress. Thestudy found there is no "gateway theory" and that drug use is more closely tied to a person's lifesituation, although cannabis users are more likely to use other drugs. [83]

History

See also: Cannabis, Hemp, War on Drugs, and Legal history of cannabis in the United States

Cannabis is indigenous to Central and South Asia.[86] Evidence of theinhalation of cannabis smoke can be found in the 3rd millennium BCE, asindicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burialsite in present day Romania.[6] In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabisleaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-oldmummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Regionof China.[87][88] Cannabis is also known to have been used by the ancientHindus of India and Nepal thousands of years ago. The herb was called ganjikain Sanskrit (/ganja in modern Indic languages).[89][90] The ancient drugsoma, mentioned in the Vedas, was sometimes associated with cannabis.[91]

Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered itspsychoactive properties through the Aryans.[92] Using it in some religiousceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), aprobable origin of the modern word "cannabis".[93] Cannabis was also




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Cannabis sativa from

Vienna Dioscurides, 512 AD

introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance. [94]

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found inpharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered byarchaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eatingby the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE,confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.[95] One writer hasclaimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jewsand early Christians[96][97] due to the similarity between the Hebrew word"qannabbos" ("cannabis") and the Hebrew phrase "qenbsem" ("aromatic cane"). It was used by Muslims in various Sufi ordersas early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars. [98]

A study published in the South African Journal of Science showed that"pipes dug up from the garden of Shakespeare's home in Stratford-upon-Avon contain traces of cannabis."[99] The chemical analysis was carried

out after researchers hypothesized that the "noted weed" mentioned inSonnet 76 and the "journey in my head" from Sonnet 27 could be references to cannabis and the usethereof.[100]

John Gregory Bourke described use of "mariguan", which he identifies as Cannabis indica or Indianhemp, by Mexican residents of the Rio Grande region of Texas in 1894. He described its uses fortreatment of asthma, to expedite delivery, to keep away witches, and as a love-philtre. He also wrote thatmany Mexicans added the herb to their cigarritos or mescal, often taking a bite of sugar afterward tointensify the effect. Bourke wrote that because it was often used in a mixture with toloachi (which heinaccurately describes asDatura stramonium), mariguan was one of several plants known as "locoweed". Bourke compared mariguan to hasheesh, which he called "one of the greatest curses of the East",citing reports that users "become maniacs and are apt to commit all sorts of acts of violence andmurder", causing degeneration of the body and an idiotic appearance, and mentioned laws against sale ohasheesh "in most Eastern countries".[101][102][103]

Cannabis was criminalized in various countries beginning in the early 20th century. In the United States,the first restrictions for sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in District of Columbia). [104] It was outlawed inSouth Africa in 1911, in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913, and in the United Kingdom and NewZealand in the 1920s.[105] Canada criminalized cannabis in the Opium and Drug Act of 1923, before anyreports of use of the drug in Canada. In 1925 a compromise was made at an international conference inThe Hague about the International Opium Convention that banned exportation of "Indian hemp" to

countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving theimportation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes".It also required parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicitinternational traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin".[106][107]

In 1937 in the United States, the Marihuana Tax Act was passed, and prohibited the production of hempin addition to cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputed. Severalscholars have claimed that the Act was passed in order to destroy the hemp industry, [108][109][110] largelyas an effort of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family. [108][110] With the




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Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935

invention of the decorticator, hemp became a very cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used inthe newspaper industry.[108][111] Hearst felt that this was a threat to his extensive timber holdings.Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America, had invested heavily in theDuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and considered its success to depend on its replacement of thetraditional resource, hemp.[108][112][113][114][115][116][117][118] The claims that hemp could have been asuccessful substitute for wood pulp have been based on an incorrect government report of 1916 which

concluded that hemp hurds, broken parts of the inner core of the hemp stem, were a suitable source forpaper production. This has not been confirmed by later research, as hemp hurds are not reported to be agood enough substitute. Many advocates for hemp have greatly overestimated the proportion of usefulcellulose in hemp hurds. In 2003, 95% of the hemp hurds in EU were used for animal bedding, almost5% were used as building material.[119][120][121][122]

Legal status

Main article: Legality of cannabis

See also: Prohibition of drugs and Drug liberalization

Since the beginning of the 20th century, mostcountries have enacted laws against the cultivation,possession or transfer of cannabis. These laws haveimpacted adversely on the cannabis plant'scultivation for non-recreational purposes, but thereare many regions where, under certaincircumstances, handling of cannabis is legal orlicensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened thepenalties for possession of small quantities ofcannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation and

sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment,focusing more on those who traffic the drug on theblack market.

In some areas where cannabis use has beenhistorically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of cannabiscoffee shops near the borders of the Netherlands,[123] closing of coffee shops near secondary schools inthe Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in Christiania, Copenhagen in 2004.[124][125]

Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs forfrequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly inEast Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. Morerecently however, many political parties, non-profit organizations and causes based on the legalizationof medical cannabis and/or legalizing the plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged.

Price

The price or street value of cannabis varies widely depending on geographic area and potency. [126]




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Maturing female Cannabis

plant

In the United States, cannabis is overall the #4 value crop, and is #1 or #2 in many states includingCalifornia, New York and Florida, averaging $3,000/lb.[127][128] It is believed to generate an estimated$36 billion market.[129] Most of the money is spent not on growing and producing but on smuggling thesupply to buyers. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Reportthat typical U.S. retail prices are $1015 per gram (approximately $280420 per ounce). Street prices inNorth America are known to range from about $150 to $400 per ounce, depending on quality.[130]

The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices inEurope for cannabis varies from 2 to 14 per gram, with a majority of European countries reportingprices in the range 410.[131] In the United Kingdom, a cannabis plant has an approximate street valueof 300,[132] but retails to the end-user at about 160/oz.

Truth serum

Cannabis was used as a truth serum by the Office of Strategic Services(OSS), a US government intelligence agency formed during World War

II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed atthe OSS labs at St. Elizabeths Hospital; it caused a subject "to beloquacious and free in his impartation of information."[133]

In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS counter-intelligence operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto DelGracio, an enforcer for gangster Lucky Luciano. Del Gracio was givencigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from cannabis, and subsequentlytalked openly about Luciano's heroin operation. On a second occasionthe dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.[133]

Breeding and cultivation

Main article: Cannabis cultivation

It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis thatadvances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased thepotency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when THC wasfirst discovered and understood. However, potent seedless cannabis suchas "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried,

seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollinationoccurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen toprevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensityartificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) toprohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. It is often cited that theaverage levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000,but such statements are likely skewed because of undue weight given to much more expensive andpotent, but less prevalent samples.[134] The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is




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currently about 1819%, but new regulations adopted by the Dutch government in 2011 will force theTHC content of cannabis sold in coffee shops to be limited to 15%, stating that cannabis in excess of15% THC will be reclassified as a hard drug. These new regulations take effect in 2012. [135][136]

In arts and literature

Les paradis artificiels by Charles BaudelaireThe Hasheesh Eaterby Fitz Hugh Ludlow

See also

Addiction Recovery

Marijuana Anonymous

Cannabis plant

BhangHemp oilMarijuana strainsAutoflowering cannabisThai stick

Cannabis legality

Cannabis political partiesGlobal Marijuana MarchLegal and medical status of cannabisLegal history of cannabis in the United StatesLegality of cannabis by countryMarijuana Control, Regulation, and Education ActMarijuana Policy ProjectMarihuana Tax Act of 1937

National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws

Cannabis use demographics

Adult lifetime cannabis use by countryAnnual cannabis use by country

Footnotes

^a:Weed,[137]pot,[138] and herb[139] are among the many other nicknames for marijuana or cannabis asa drug.[140]^b: Sources for this section and more information can be found in the Medical cannabis article




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Citations

^ See article onMarijuana as a word.1.^Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed.), Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-920687-22.^ See, Etymology ofmarijuana.3.^ Company, Houghton Mifflin; American Heritage Dictionaries (2007-11-14). Spanish Word Histories and

Mysteries (http://books.google.com/?id=VTYBbGybtNEC&pg=PA142) . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 142.

ISBN 0-618-91054-9, 9780618910540. http://books.google.com/?id=VTYBbGybtNEC&pg=PA142.

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^ Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA, Bhattacharyya S, et al. (January 2009). "Distinct effects of {delta}9-tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation during EmotionalProcessing" (http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&) .Archives of General Psychiatry66(1): 95105. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchgenpsychiatry.2008.519) . PMID 19124693 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19124693) .http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&. Retrieved 2009-09-26.

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Further reading

Booth, Martin (2005). Cannabis: A History. Macmillan Publishers & Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-312-42494-7.

Deitch, Robert (2003).Hemp: American history revisited: the plant with a divided history

(http://books.google.ca/books?id=PKDrpeRRY94C&lpg=PA9&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Algora Pub. ISBN 0-87586-206-3.http://books.google.ca/books?id=PKDrpeRRY94C&lpg=PA9&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Earleywine, Mitchell (2005). Understanding marijuana: a new look at the scientific evidence(http://books.google.ca/books?id=r9wPbxMAG8cC&lpg=PA3&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513893-7.http://books.google.ca/books?id=r9wPbxMAG8cC&lpg=PA3&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true




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Emmett, David; Graeme Nice (2009). What you need to know about cannabis: understanding the facts(http://books.google.ca/books?id=dHAy6T_LSV4C&lpg=PA55&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-697-3.http://books.google.ca/books?id=dHAy6T_LSV4C&lpg=PA55&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Geoffrey William, Guy; Brian Anthony Whittle, Philip Robson (2004). The medicinal uses of cannabis andcannabinoids (http://books.google.ca/books?id=AznCzOxvrtwC&lpg=PA1&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 0-85369-517-2.

http://books.google.ca/books?id=AznCzOxvrtwC&lpg=PA1&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Holland, Julie M.D. (2010). The pot book : a complete guide to cannabis : its role in medicine, politics,science, and culture (http://books.google.ca/books?id=MQql_gt2QEgC&lpg=PA316&dq=Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Park Street Press.ISBN 978-1-59477-368-6. http://books.google.ca/books?id=MQql_gt2QEgC&lpg=PA316&dq=Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Iversen, Leslie L (2008). The science of marijuana (http://books.google.ca/books?id=l8O2OMNLNtcC&lpg=PA17&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) (2nded.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532824-0. http://books.google.ca/books?id=l8O2OMNLNtcC&lpg=PA17&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Jenkins, Richard (2006). Cannabis and young people: reviewing the evidence (http://books.google.ca/books?id=bFDznfmJLnAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Jessica Kingsley. ISBN 1-84310-398-2. http://books.google.ca/books?id=bFDznfmJLnAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Lambert, Didier M (2008). Cannabinoids in Nature and Medicine (http://books.google.ca/books?id=ATDRt1HM9MwC&lpg=PA15&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PR11#v=onepage&q&f=true) .Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3-906390-56-X. http://books.google.ca/books?id=ATDRt1HM9MwC&lpg=PA15&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PR11#v=onepage&q&f=true

Roffman, Roger A; Robert S. Stephens (2006). Cannabis dependence: its nature, consequences, andtreatment(http://books.google.ca/books?id=DEWRoPweosEC&lpg=PA89&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81447-2.http://books.google.ca/books?id=DEWRoPweosEC&lpg=PA89&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Russo, Ethan; Melanie Creagan Dreher, Mary Lynn Mathre (2004). Women and cannabis: medicine, science,

and sociology (http://books.google.ca/books?id=gZJ7m3Uf6FQC&lpg=PA29&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) . Haworth Press. ISBN 0-7890-2101-3.http://books.google.ca/books?id=gZJ7m3Uf6FQC&lpg=PA29&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

Solowij, Nadia (1998). Cannabis and cognitive unctioning(http://books.google.ca/books?id=bL2u5RRYIpcC&lpg=PA84&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) .Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59114-7. http://books.google.ca/books?id=bL2u5RRYIpcC&lpg=PA84&dq=History%20of%20Cannabis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true

External links

Wiktionary Appendix of Cannabis Slang

Montana PBS documentary,Clearing the Smoke (http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/clearing-the-smoke-the-science-of-cannabis/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+TopDocumentaryFilms+%28Top+Documentary+Films+-+Watch+Free+Documentaries+Online%29)

Cannabis (Marijuana) (http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/) ErowidReefer Madness! (http://www.life.com/gallery/51331/reefer-madness#index/0) slideshow by

Life magazine




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"Cannabis: a health perspective and researchagenda" (http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_MSA_PSA_97.4.pdf) , Programme onSubstance Abuse, World Health Organization, 1997

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