candice sparks thesis task based

7/27/2019 Candice Sparks Thesis Task Based

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TEACHER REACTION TO AND

UNDERSTANDING OF A TASK-BASED,EMBEDDED SYLLABUS

by

Candice Sparks(BA BEd University of Queensland)

School of Humanities and Human Services

Centre for Social Change Research

Submitted for Masters Degree

Queensland University of Technology

December 2006


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List of keywords- task-based instruction, embeddedness, Queensland French syllabus,

French teaching, teacher understanding, learner centredness, teacher role, teacher

change.

ABSTRACTThis thesis investigates where the Years 4-10 Queensland French Syllabus is receiving

support, by investigating groups of teachers with shared characteristics. In doing so, it

aims to shed some light on why teachers have not embraced this new syllabus. Specific

issues pertaining to the syllabus are investigated, such as the use of task-based

instruction as the chosen methodology and of embedded content, as well as contextual

issues, such as employment sector and levels taught. Teachers reactions to change have

also been investigated in relation to the introduction of this syllabus. In addition to this,

the process involved in acceptance of an innovation has been explored which led to an

examination of teacher understanding of the current syllabus. This study is divided into

five chapters. Chapter one outlines the syllabus and context, as well as hypotheses for

this study and rationale. Chapter two is a literature review which brings together

previous research and links it to the current study. The chosen methodology is covered

by chapter three, with chapter four being a detailed explanation of results received from

the data collection. The final chapter, chapter five, discusses these results and the

implications of these findings.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One- Introduction

1.0 Introduction 11.1 Recent History of French syllabuses in Queensland 2

1.2 Methodology of 2000 French syllabus 31.3 Description of Queensland French context 81.4 Aim of the study 10

Chapter Two- Literature Review

2.0 Introduction 152.1 Task-based instruction 15

2.2 Embeddedness 31

2.3 Teacher proficiency/qualifications 332.4 Teachers and change 35

2.5 Conclusion 41

Chapter Three- Methodology

3.0 Introduction 42

3.1 The survey 42

3.2 Details of survey questions 463.3 Focus groups 50

3.4 Conclusion 54

Chapter Four- Survey Results

4.0 Introduction 55

4.1 Teacher and school details 56

4.2 Who is using the syllabus 684.3 Strengths and weaknesses of the syllabus 76

4.4 Task-based instruction 774.5 Embeddedness 94

4.6 Time 108

4.7 Resources 111

4.8 Teacher role 1214.9 Physical space/ideal classroom 122

4.10 Professional development 123

4.11 Conclusion 124

Chapter Five- Discussion5.0 Introduction 1275.1 School sector 127

5.2 Adaptability/resistance to change 128

5.3 Syllabus specific issues 132

5.4 Scope and limitations of the study 1485.5 Recommendations 148


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Appendices

Appendix 1A- Example module 154Appendix 1B- Example of a resource 155

Appendix 2A- Survey 156

Appendix 2B- Teacher Information letter and consent 162

Appendix 3- Ethics clearance 164Appendix 4- Focus group information and consent 166

Bibliography 168


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List of diagrams and tables

Diagram 1 The Teachers Life Cycle (taken from Huberman, Thompson & Weiland

1997)

Diagram 2 Possible pathways through the survey

Table 4.1-Male/female

Table 4.2-In which system are you currently employed?

Table 4.3- Primary/secondary

Table 4.4- French as percentage of teaching load

Table 4.5- Please indicate in which age group you belong.

Table 4.6-How many years have you been teaching?

Table 4.7-Native/background/neither

Table 4.8-Have you spent a time greater than 2 months in a French speaking country?

Table 4.9-Listening proficiency

Table 4.10- Speaking proficiency

Table 4.11-Reading proficiency

Table 4.12- Writing proficiency

Table 4.13- Overall scores for macroskills

Table 4.14- Proficiency levels of participants by levels taught

Table 4.15-Did you use the 1988 Queensland French syllabus?

Table 4.16-Do you currently follow the year 4-10 Queensland French Syllabus?

Table 4.17- Use of syllabus in EQ and IE schools

Table 4.18- Use of syllabus by levels taught


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Table 4.19- Proficiency levels of participants versus use of the syllabus

Table 4.20-EQ teachers use of the syllabus by proficiency level

Table 4.21- Years of experience versus use of syllabus

Table 4.22-Experience versus use of syllabus in EQ

Table 4.23- Students are enthusiastic about task-based education

Table 4.24-Level taught versus student reaction to TBI

Table 4.25-I enjoy teaching a task-based syllabus

Table 4.26- Primary and secondary teachers enthusiasm for TBI

Table 4.27- Proficiency levels versus enthusiasm for TBI

Table 4.28- Years experience versus enthusiasm for TBI

Table 4.29- The move to a more learner-centered syllabus is beneficial for students

Table 4.30- Primary and secondary opinions on benefits of learner centredness

Table 4.31-My students have the necessary skills to deal with learner-centredness

Table 4.32- When working on tasks, students spend the majority of time engaged in work

Table 4.33- Primary and secondary responses to time spent on task

Table 4.34- When working on tasks, many students are frequently off task unless they

are being individually monitored

Table 4.35- Primary versus secondary opinions on whether students are frequently off

task

Table 4.36- Teacher opinion on focus on form in the 2000 syllabus

Table 4.37- Years experience versus opinion on focus on form

Table 4.38- Overall, I feel the 2000 Syllabus is working well in my situation

Table 4.39- Primary vs secondary opinions on whether syllabus is working well

Table 4.40- Years experience versus overall support for syllabus


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Table 4.41-I have sufficient general knowledge to teach the topics in the 2000 Syllabus

Table 4.42- Conferring with other KLA teachers

Table 4.43- Primary vs secondary responses to conferring with other KLA teachers

Tables 4.44- The suggested topics in the syllabus are interesting for students

Table 4.45- Primary vs secondary results to interest of topics for students

Table 4.46-A task-based, embedded syllabus, such as the current Qld 4-10 French

syllabus, puts a higher demand on teachers language skills than a textbook course

Table 4.47-Do you feel that a high French proficiency is necessary to be able to

effectively teach the current syllabus?

Table 4.48- Proficiency level vs opinion on necessity of high French proficiency to teach

syllabus

Table 4.49-Do you ever refer to the suggested teacher language supplied on the

syllabus CDs?

Table 4.50-Do you feel that a teacher with limited proficiency would be able to

successfully teach the 2000 syllabus using the materials and sample language supplied

on the CD?

Table 4.51- Proficiency versus opinion on whether low proficiency teacher could

effectively teach syllabus using supplied resources

Table 4.52-Has your use of French in the classroom increased since implementing the

2000 syllabus?

Table 4.53- Proficiency versus increase in use of French in the classroom

Table 4.54- The time allocated to LOTE in my school allows enough time for me to teach

the current syllabus

Table 4.55-Do you use the resources supplied on the syllabus CDs?

Table 4.56- The resources are level appropriate

Table 4.57- Proficiency versus opinion on level appropriateness of resources

Table 4.58- The resources engage the students

Table 4.59-I need to add many additional resources to what is supplied


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Table 4.60-I have access to sufficient resources to teach the 2000 syllabus

Table 4.61-Have you been informed of the existence of the resource kits created to

complement the modules of the syllabus which are available from the Qld LOTE Centre?

Table 4.62-Do you use the aforementioned LOTE centre kits?

Table 4.63-I feel that I am adequately prepared for my role as facilitator in the 2000

syllabus

Table 4.64-Have you had any training in the implementation of the Years 4-10 French

syllabus, including pre-service education?

Table 4.65-If professional development sessions in the implementation of the 2000

French Syllabus were offered, would you be interested in attending?


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AcknowledgementsI would like to acknowledge the assistance of my supervisors, Dr Barbara Hanna and Dr

Beatrice Atherton and thank them for their unrelenting support which enabled me tocontinue studying with my daughter by my side. I would also like to acknowledge the

patience of my daughter, Mia, when Mummy had work to do.

Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best ofmy knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written

by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature: ____________________Date: ____________________


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 IntroductionSix years have passed since the current Queensland Years 4-10 French syllabus first

appeared in schools, so teachers have had ample time to work with it and discover both

the positive aspects and the limitations in their individual contexts. Prior to the

commencement of this thesis, based on my teaching experience and informal discussions

with other Queensland Language Other Than English (LOTE) teachers, my

understanding was that, in many cases, this syllabus was not being implemented as

intended, nor was it receiving the support expected when it was introduced.

At the time of its introduction, the Queensland 2000 Years 4-10 French Syllabus

represented a radical shift away from what most teachers were currently doing in their

classrooms. Based on the latest research on second language acquisition, the approach

taken by this syllabus combined a strong version of task-based instruction (TBI) with

embedded content from other key learning areas (KLAs) of the curriculum, a rare, if not

unique, combination. Due to decreasing interest in LOTE, there was a need to change

approach in an attempt to attract a greater number of students into the language

classroom. A task-based syllabus was seen to be the most effective way of achieving

this, blended with the choice of embedded content, being topics from other KLAs.

This chapter commences by tracing the history of French syllabus change in Queensland

and how a task-based, embedded syllabus came to be the methodology of choice.

Following this, the syllabus is described and its various, and often unique, components

are outlined. Hypotheses for this study are then made explicit and a brief discussion of

the relevance of the project concludes this chapter.


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1.1 Recent history of French syllabuses in Queensland

Prior to the current 2000 Years 4-10 Queensland French Syllabus, the last junior French

syllabus is dated 1988. However, in the interim an attempt at the creation of a new

syllabus was made, but the document was never completed. In lieu of a formal, written

document, many teachers came to rely on the boxed Stage A, B and C Kits (Department

of Education Queensland, 1996), adapted from Distance Education materials, and also

on a non-language specific sourcebook entitled In other Words (Department of

Education Queensland, 1989).

Gradually language education in Queensland has been moving away from a synthetic

approach to an analytic approach. The 1988 syllabus encouraged teachers to direct

attention away from the concept of language as an abstract system to be learnt towards

the uses of language why and how it is used (BSSS, 1988:1), which in reality, is

closer to an analytic syllabus. However teachers were still expected to set out in detail

the situations, topics, functions, grammar, learning experiences and cultural components

to be included in the units of work for each semester (BSSS, 1988:19), making this

syllabus a typically synthetic one when it came to practice. A traditional PPP

(presentation-practice-production) approach was still the expected methodology in thiscase. As discussed in Ellis (2003:29), PPP views language as a series of products that

can be acquired sequentially. However SLA research has shown that learners do not

acquire language in this way. Rather they construct a series of systems, known as

interlanguages, which are gradually grammaticized and restructured as learners

incorporate new features. This final remark relating to the construction of

interlanguages is one that is crucial to understanding the workings of a task-based

syllabus. Skehan (1996a) summarises the differences between PPP and TBI stating,

A PPP approach looks on the learning process as learning a series of discrete

items and then bringing these items together in communication to provide further

practice and consolidation. A task-based approach sees the learning process as


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one of learning through doing- it is primarily by engaging in meaning that the

learners system is encouraged to develop. (p. 20)

A task-based approach is meaning focused and involves learners in doing something

rather than simply manipulating language out of context. TBI also seeks to have real

world significance which, in the Queensland case, is done by linking the content to other

subject areas in the curriculum. This will be discussed in greater detail in section 1.2.1.

The task-based approach to instruction moves away from the traditional transmission

approach, to one where the teacher acts more as a facilitator and allows students to

discover their own knowledge which is precisely why TBI is viewed as controversial

(Siu-yin Tong, Adamson, & Man-wai Che, 2000). Teachers attitudes towards the shift

in teacher role in task based education is another factor which was investigated in this

study . Naturally, with the move to teacher as facilitator, the learner also takes on a

different role, a more active one, so teacher reaction towards increased learner

centredness is also investigated.

Within TBI programs there is considerable variation in implementation. The following

section outlines the practical aspects of this syllabus as defined in the syllabus

document.

1.2 Methodology of 2000 French syllabus

The 2000 French syllabus spans grades 4-10 and as such has been arranged into three

bands of schooling: middle primary (Years 4 and 5), upper primary (Years 6 and 7) and

lower secondary (Years 8, 9 and 10). At the time of its introduction, it was expected that

LOTE in Queensland would be compulsory for all students in years 4-10, however this

is not the case. Currently in Education Queensland (EQ) students in years 6-8 should

experience compulsory language classes, though there are reportedly a number of

schools where this does not occur. The syllabus caters for students at different stages of

language learning by acknowledging that at any point in time, regardless of band of


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schooling, there could be students in the classroom at any of the four stages of language

learning these being beginner, elementary, lower intermediate and intermediate (QSCC

2000a:10).

The syllabus is available in two forms: one is a paper copy, and the other is a CD. The

CD version contains a significant amount of material not included in the paper copy of

the syllabus. There are many example modules which teachers can adapt to suit their

own contexts. Within these modules are provided a multitude of resources and task

ideas, as well as suggested teacher language to assist those who need it.

1.2.1 Task-based methodology

The methodology adopted by the 2000 syllabus is a strong task-based approach, where

tasks form the basis around which the syllabus is organized. The syllabus discusses the

task-based approach stating:

Tasks engage learners in using real language for real or lifelike purposes. They

are sequenced to achieve some central purpose within a context that has

relevance for students in terms of their social, school and personal lives. Students

become involved themselves and are able to invest personal meanings into what

they comprehend and compose (QSCC 2000a:8).

The points mentioned above are equally applicable to the choice of content, which is

embedded content being content taken from other subject areas. This is discussed in

greater detail in the following section.

1.2.2 Learner centredness

Learner centredness is a key feature of the 2000 syllabus. The roles of teacher and

student are described in the syllabus when it describes learning as the active

construction of meaning, and teaching as the act of guiding and facilitating learning


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(QSCC 2000a:11). Students are encouraged to be active participants in the learning

process and, as mentioned previously, it is believed that by engaging with the language,

ones interlanguages are restructured. The syllabus states

Through feedback and continued experimentation and deliberate and

subconscious processes of acquisition, learners constantly refine and extend their

internal grammars. A task-based language approach within an embedded

program encourages learners to apply their mastery of another language to

actively pursue knowledge and understanding about their world and the cultures

within it (p. 4).

While advocating a program based around tasks, the syllabus also acknowledges the

important role of focus on form in language acquisition. It suggests that sessions of

integrated form-focused instruction will accelerate language acquisition (p.11).

1.2.3 A three phase approach

In terms of unit planning, the 2000 Syllabus was loosely modeled on the Language Arts

Syllabus in Queensland from 1991, employing the same terms to label the different

phases of task completion. Explanation of the different phases in each of the syllabuses

is quite similar, although obviously in practice, there are differences when a second

language is being taught, as opposed to a first language. There are three phases outlined

in the modules in the 2000 French syllabus CDs, these being the orientating, enhancing

and synthesizing phases. The orientating phase is comprised of preliminary activities

and explanations about what will take place in the unit and discussion of the major

task(s). The enhancing phase concerns itself with acquainting learners with what they

will need to complete the final task, which is realized through smaller tasks that may

form part of the larger end task, through completion of similar tasks or possibly viewing

a completed version of the task. Basically the aim of the enhancing phase is to give the

learners the tools to be able to successfully achieve the final task. The synthesizing

phase, as the name suggests, aims to synthesize what has been learnt throughout the unit


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by giving students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding through the

realization of an individual creative task. Interestingly, there is neither mention nor

explanation of these phases in the syllabus document. Information concerning the three

phases appears only on the syllabus CDs and can be located in the section entitled

sequence for teaching and learning in LOTE.

To further clarify the above explanation, I propose the following examples of tasks

forming part of the module appearing on the syllabus CDs entitled No Dodos.

Suggested tasks for the orientating phase involve the learners in hearing the names of

endangered animals and locating their country of origin on a world map. Identifying

other endangered animals also forms part of the orientating phase, as well as reading

brief case studies and identifying the concepts of rare, vulnerable, endangered and

extinct. Included amongst the examples of the enhancing phase of this module are tasks

such as listening to or reading about endangered species and recording the information

on a class sheet, describing why different animals are endangered and identifying groups

that help threatened animals, as well as making suggestions about what can be done to

assist in the protection of these animals. The example given as a possible synthesizing

task is the presentation of a promotional poster, story or report which suggests ways to

help an endangered or threatened species.

1.2.4 Embedded content

The 2000 French Syllabus is considerably different from previous syllabuses in that it is

an embedded syllabus, meaning that an embedded program [] involves content based

on concepts and topic areas in other key learning areas while always allowing for

content to be interpreted as appropriate for language learning (QSCC 2000a:8). Nunan

suggests sources for possible subject matter in a content based course might be defined

in terms of situations, topics, themes, or following Widdowson (1978; 1979) other

academic or school subjects (1988:38), which is the approach taken by the current

Queensland French syllabus. In practice, this translates into modules of work with titles

such as Moon Residence (see Appendix 1a) and Waterwise, where clearly the


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content has been taken from other school subjects and French language thus becomes the

means for learning about the content, rather than solely an end in itself. Nunan (1988)

discusses the use of content from other subject areas, stating that The stimulus for

content based syllabuses is the notion that, unlike science, history, or mathematics,

language is not a subject in its own right, but merely a vehicle for communicating about

something else (p. 38). Therefore, in order for the lesson to be a French lesson, the

lesson itself really needs to be conducted in French, otherwise, it would seem that there

is little difference between a French lesson and a science or study of society lesson,

given that the content is very similar. Teacher attitude towards teaching in the target

language is an issue which was investigated in this study. In addition to this, teachers

were also asked whether they felt they were equipped with sufficient general knowledge

to be able to teach content derived from other subject areas, which may well be derived

from an area where the teacher has little or no experience, such as science or history.

Content that teachers can cover in their classrooms is not strictly prescribed, although

there are many suggestions of modules accessible on the syllabus CDs. Topics covered

need to fall into any of six broad fields, these being:

personal and community life leisure and recreation the natural world the built world the international world the imaginative world

The use of embedded content is a key feature that sets the Queensland program apart

from other task-based syllabuses. The rationale behind this choice of content is the belief

that embedded content provides a link to the real world as students are familiar with the

content from other subject classes. This differs from many other task-based syllabuses

where a real world link is created in other ways, such as by simulations of tasks that may

occur in the target country. As reported by a teacher involved in the syllabus


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development, the use of embedded content is more relevant to students. At this point in

their lives, many students cannot yet visualize visiting the target country so units created

around the idea of completing day to day tasks for life in French may not hold real world

significance for students. Included in the appendices are the overview of a module

(Appendix 1A) and an example of one of the included resources (Appendix 1B).

1.3 Description of Queensland French context

The following section aims to give a brief presentation of the Queensland background.

French is taught in a diverse range of contexts in Queensland, hence there is no one

defining description that can be given. Instead this section will aim to show a snapshot

of LOTE in Queensland. Firstly, there are three sectors of schooling: Education

Queensland Schools (Government run), Independent Education (operated by

Independent bodies, often different church associations, such as the Anglican Church)

and Catholic Education (which has its own education office). Within the Catholic system

there are two branches: that run by the dioceses and independent Catholic schools.

French is taught across all three of these sectors and while each sector has its

differences, so too do individual schools within each sector.

Geographically, a significant portion of Queensland schools are identified as rural by

Education Queensland providing a very different context to teaching in metropolitan

areas, such as Brisbane, Cairns or Rockhampton. Language teachers frequently report

lack of support for language programs in country areas and as such, there are diverse

issues at play in terms of success of LOTE programs in the rural context.

LOTE is compulsory from years six through to eight, meaning that both primary and

secondary students study compulsory LOTE. Primary school students (Prep - 7)

generally have one principal teacher who takes the class for majority of the week, with

several specialist teachers attending to particular subjects, such as LOTE and music. In

the high school context (year 8-12), on the other hand, LOTE teachers are just one of the

teachers students encounter in their day. In primary schools, the LOTE teacher most


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often will conduct the lesson in the students regular classroom while the classroom

teacher is released for non contact time. In contrast, many high school LOTE teachers

are fortunate enough to have a room or building designated to LOTE where students

come for the lesson. This varies greatly among schools and it could be argued that the

allocation of specialized LOTE space seems to relate to the attitude towards LOTE in

the school.

The current mandated minimum time for LOTE in the compulsory years (years 6, 7 and

8) is 90 minutes a week and it is up to the school how the 90 minutes is divided into

lessons. While 90 minutes is expected of all schools, there exist differences between

schools, with some not even reaching the minimum time allowance, and others greatly

exceeding the minimum amount.

It is preferred that students study the same language across the three compulsory years

of LOTE education, however frequently this is not possible in practice as students

change districts or sectors from primary into high school, into a school where a different

language is taught. As a result, students in a year eight French classroom may exhibit a

range of ability levels and the French teacher is expected to cater to these mixed ability

groups. There are also some schools where the French program is commenced prior to

year six, putting these students at a different level again, as they have received a

considerably larger number of hours of instruction than others commencing in year six.

Resources available to teachers vary greatly among schools and even among sectors.

Some schools place great importance in their LOTE program, and have access to

sufficient funding and resources for LOTE, while others function with minimal

resources and funding. Again, it seems to depend on the attitude towards LOTE within

each school.

The LOTE Centre1 Kits have been created as a set of resources to complement many of

the modules in the 2000 Syllabus. They are language specific and contain authentic

1The Queensland LOTE Centre is a government funded library housing resources from a variety of

languages and is open to teachers from all sectors.


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resources relating to the topics, such as posters in the target language that can be used in

the classroom, brochures, articles and videos, as well as resources created especially,

such as card games and board games. These kits are available for loan for the duration of

one term to enhance the implementation of the syllabus and give teachers access to

resources not always easily obtainable here in Australia.

In terms of LOTE teachers, there is a wide variety of qualifications and levels 2. Among

the teachers in this study, there was a range of language study and education

qualifications. Teachers reported qualifications ranging from a one year diploma of

education to a Bachelors degree or post graduate training in education. Language

qualifications were equally varied ranging from those who had only completed senior

school French, to those with post graduate language study in French and native speakers.

Needless to say, there is significant difference in teacher proficiency from school to

school. While there is a regulation of new graduates proficiency as they enter the

Education Queensland system, tested by a LOTE Proficiency Interview, it seems there

are many teachers who have no such rating.

1.4 Aim of the study

The purpose of this study is to investigate teachers reactions to the 2000 French

syllabus following its introduction six years ago. This research concerns itself with

determining the key features of the syllabus that teachers find problematic and in turn,

also explores how teachers integrate an innovation into their practice.

This study focuses on teacher-identified issues by using teacher input at every stage of

data collection. It is hoped that these results will be accessible and relevant to teachers

upon completion. As expressed by Barnes, Thomson, & Watson (1978), to make the

research available it requires more than better communication, more than popular

books; it requires different research which addresses itself to teachers' issues and offers

2In order to preserve teacher anonymity, detailed presentation of individual qualifications has been

excluded.


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explanatory accounts which teachers can map on to their own vocabulary of motives

(p.23). The work of Barnes et al has influenced my approach to this research, in that

teachers are asked to report on practice and results have then been, presented using much

of the teachers own words as taken from the survey and focus group sessions. Barnes et

al. discuss such research stating that, this can most readily be done through research in

which teachers are participants, and not merely subjects (p.23). Further to this, they

add that an important task for researchers in planning under such conditions would be

finding ways of helping teachers to make explicit to themselves aspects of the

vocabulary of motives which have formerly remained unreflected upon and unstated

(p.23). I have aimed to facilitate the clear expression of teacher opinion in my study

through the use of both open ended and multiple choice questions written in language

that is accessible to teachers to stimulate accurate reflection on practice The overall goal

of my research is to explore barriers to the successful implementation according to

teachers. The discussion of the results goes beyond a superficial view of what is

happening, attempting to isolate the key factors pertaining to the successful

implementation of the syllabus.

1.4.1 Issues investigated by this study

There are two broad questions that were investigated in this study, the first being who is

using the syllabus, in order to determine if there are consistencies amongst groups; the

second question seeks to identify the teacher-defined problematic issues in regards to the

syllabus.

In attempting to answer the first question, the following were identified as potential

factors which might influence use or non-use of the syllabus.

1. Sector

It was hypothesized, based on personal experience and informal contact with

teachers, that sector would play a major role in determining whether a teacher used

the syllabus. As the syllabus is not mandated in the private sector, it was expected


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that there would be a much lower number of teachers who claimed to be using it than

in Education Queensland schools, where teachers are expected to use the syllabus.

2. Levels taught (primary or secondary)

Due to the nature of the content in this syllabus, it was hypothesized that primary

teachers would be more supportive of it as it is more akin to what is happening in

their regular classroom, where subject boundaries are not so clearly defined. It was

also expected that primary teachers would express greater ease with conferring with

other subject area teachers as there are significantly fewer barriers to this happening

in the primary context. This is due to the arrangement of the primary school where

specialist teachers frequently encounter classroom teachers and there are no subject

specific staffrooms, instead there is a common room shared by all staff.

3. Stage in career

Based on the literature on teacher career cycle and on informal observation, it was

hypothesized that more experienced teachers would be more reluctant in their

support of this syllabus than their less experienced counterparts. It was expected that

more experienced teachers would be more resistant to any change as it represents

moving away from what they have established through their years of experience and

from what is familiar and comfortable.

4. Language proficiency of teachers

Prior to beginning this project I had spoken to many teachers about the supplied

resources and a resounding theme that emerged was the inappropriately difficult

level of the language. I hypothesized that perhaps teachers with limited language

proficiency would be less supportive of the syllabus because of the challenge

presented by the high language level and specialist language coming from the

embedded content.


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5. Knowledge of teaching methodologies

From my own conversations with teachers I noticed that there seemed to be various

interpretations of task-based instruction which also became a focal issue in my study.

I hypothesized that perhaps rejection of the syllabus might be due to lack of

understanding of TBI as a methodology.

6. Issues with TBI as a methodology

The choice of task-based instruction and the issues it raises were also investigated to

determine if the task-based methodology could be responsible for the lack of support

for this syllabus. The change in teacher role to that of facilitator and the move to a

more learner centred syllabus, as well as teacher reaction to the place of form were

all explored as contributing to teachers lack of support for the syllabus. The impact

of time allocations was also investigated, both in terms of time in the classroom and

teacher preparation time.

As discussed previously, the Queensland Years 4-10 French Syllabus uses embedded

content taken from the other KLAs which raises several issues. Teachers reaction to

embedded content is investigated, as well as whether the topics are motivating for

students (according to teachers), and also the availability of appropriate resources to

assist with the content. Based on informal discussion, it was expected that the issue of

embeddedness would be a key reason for lack of support for the syllabus. As mentioned,

there are a large number of resources supplied with the syllabus CDs and teachers

reactions to these are also explored. It was expected that issues such as the language

level and relevance of the material may be some of the issues mentioned by teachers.

Teacher opinion on professional development associated with the implementation of the

syllabus was also explored, with the expectation that many may not have attended

training sessions and so may not have the necessary grounding in the use of this

syllabus.


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1.4.2 Relevance of study

The findings in this study and the subsequent conclusions have serious implications for

French teachers in Queensland, and indeed for any teacher who is attempting to

implement a task-based program, these results will hold some relevance.

During the initial stages of implementation, there was some effort made to report on

teacher practice however these results were never formally released. My study is thus

the first conducted that investigates teacher reaction to the Queensland Years 4-10

French Syllabus, six years after its introduction.

While it has been mentioned previously that the Queensland syllabus is somewhat

unique in its approach, being both task-based and embedded, the results are nonetheless

significant for teachers using TBI outside Queensland. Many of the findings relate

specifically to teacher reaction to TBI and teacher understanding of the concept of TBI

is one of the key issues investigated.

As we have seen in this chapter the 2000 syllabus adopts a strong-task based approach

with embedded content coming from the other KLAs. We now move to chapter two to

situate the syllabus amongst second language acquisition research.


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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to discuss the research related to a task-based, embedded

approach for French, as well as to explore the issues which relate to the success, or

otherwise, of this approach. This chapter is organized into four main sections. Section

2.1 deals extensively with task-based instruction, covering the different models of TBI

and different meanings ascribed to the word task and situates the Queensland version

of TBI amongst these. Also discussed are the theories behind task-based instruction and

why it can be an effective methodology. Other studies on teachers views of task-based

programs are reviewed and subsequent problems identified by the participants in these

studies are covered as they relate to the Queensland context.

Section 2.2 centres around embeddedness, tracing its origins and rationale. Teacher

language proficiency is briefly covered in section 2.3 as it relates to the implementation

of a syllabus such as the Queensland one. Section 2.4 examines the literature on

teachers reaction to change and discusses how teachers experience an innovation. Also

included in this section is a discussion of the role played by career stage in acceptance of

change.

2.1 Task-based instruction

Section 2.1 discusses task-based instruction as it relates to the 2000 French syllabus. The

syllabus is situated amongst the different versions of TBI and issues pertaining to TBI

are also covered in this section. It is important to note here that a number of sources used

in the writing of this section may, by usual standards, appear dated. These sources have

been specifically included, alongside more recent works, as they form part of the

bibliography of the environmental scan conducted by the QSCC prior to the writing of

the syllabus (QSCC 1997). These sources are thus crucial in a discussion of the syllabus.


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2.1.1 Analytic versus synthetic syllabuses

In a broad sense, the Queensland 4-10 Syllabus for LOTE is an analytic syllabus. Nunan

(1988) describes an analytic syllabus as one where learners are presented with chunks

of language which may include structures of varying degrees of difficulty. The starting

point for syllabus design is not the grammatical system of the language, but the

communicative purposes for which the language is used" (p.28). Perhaps the most

defining feature of analytic syllabuses, as opposed to synthetic syllabuses, is that the

target language is presented in whole chunks at a time, in molar rather than molecular

units, without linguistic interference or control (Crookes & Gass 1993:11). The

rationale behind presenting whole chunks of language in this fashion can be found

succinctly defined in Crookes & Gass (1993) in their statement of the principles upon

which the analytic syllabus is based: (a) the learners' presumed ability to perceive

regularities in the input and induce rules and/or (b) the continued availability to learners

of innate knowledge of linguistic universals and the ways language can vary, knowledge

which can be reactivated by exposure to natural samples of L2" (p. 11). Based on these

assumptions, those being taught using the Queensland Syllabus are presented with

whole chunks of language.

The task-based syllabus can take various forms, as will be seen below. The Queensland

French Syllabus is of the TBLT (Task-Based Language Teaching) type and assumes a

strong approach to TBI, as is evidenced below.

2.1.2 Models of TBI

There is a variety of different approaches to task based syllabuses, which I will attempt

to cover briefly, in order to situate the Queensland Syllabus amongst them. To begin

with, a very broad classification that many authors use is the opposition between a weak

or strong approach to task-based instruction. A weak approach is one where tasks are

used, alongside other resources, as a method of instruction, while a strong approach to

task-based instruction uses tasks as the unit of language teaching (Skehan 1996b: 39)


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and everything is thus based around tasks. To draw on an example module, Moon

Residence, provided on the syllabus CD (see Appendix 1A), the unit is structured

around the final synthesizing task where students are asked to construct a moon

residence, outlining design features, as well as describing the daily routine of someone

living on the moon. All other tasks in the unit are constructed in such a way as to expose

the students to the necessary language knowledge to be able to successfully complete the

final task. Ellis (2003: 27) summarises the weak and strong approaches to TBI, using

different terminology, as follows:

Some methodologists have simply incorporated tasks into traditional language

based approaches to teaching. Others, more radically, have treated tasks as units

of teaching in their own right and have designed whole courses around them.

These two ways of using tasks can be referred to respectively as task supported

language teaching and task-based language teaching.

The Queensland French 4-10 Syllabus adopts a strong, task-based language teaching

approach in that tasks are central to the organization of the syllabus.

To break down the classification of task-based syllabuses still further, many researchers

make reference to various different types of task-based syllabuses. Unfortunately, space

does not permit me to cover in detail every approach; however a brief description of

each will enable the Queensland context to be situated amongst these other methods.

Long and Crookes (1992) offer three different types of task based syllabuses: procedural

syllabuses, process syllabuses and task-based language teaching. Ellis (2003) also makes

these distinctions, as well as the addition of another type of pedagogy, humanistic

teaching. Drawing on work by Moskowitz (1977), Ellis summarises humanistic

teaching, saying humanistic principles of education emphasize the achievement of

students full potential for growth by acknowledging the importance of the affective

dimension in learning as well as the cognitive (2003:31). In essence, activities of a

humanistic nature involve discussing students feelings and personal information,

forming the focus of the syllabus.


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Programs claiming to have a procedural syllabus approach to task-based instruction are

those programs modeled on the Bangalore Madras project led by Prabhu in 1979-1984,

which was seemingly the earliest attempt at a true task-based syllabus. An important

point to note is that Prabhus model of the task-based syllabus (1987), while appearing

similar to regular communicative syllabuses in terms of the proposed tasks, was actually

quite radically different in that the focus was on task completion, rather than focusing on

the language used (Long & Crookes 1992). The Bangalore Project, as it is often

referred to in the literature, was the start of the popularization of TBL (task-based

learning). Growing out of a dissatisfaction with structural teaching in English as a

Foreign Language (EFL) in India, Prabhu and his associates saw the main issue to be

addressed was a need for a change in methodology (Beretta and Davies 1985).

Prior to Prabhus work, in the state education system of India, English was taught

through a method referred to as S-O-S (Structural Oral Situational). Introduced between

1955 and 1965, in brief, the S-O-S method consisted of

the use of structurally and lexically graded syllabuses, situational presentation of

all new teaching items, balanced attention to the four skills (but with listening

and speaking preceding reading and writing), and a great deal of controlled

practice using techniques such as the substitution table and choral repetition

(Prabhu 1987: 10).

A significant amount of time and money was spent in implementing the S-O-S

methodology which remained the preferred methodology for more than ten years.

Around 1975, by which time S-O-S was a well established methodology, it began to

receive various criticisms and its intellectual momentum started to wear out (Prabhu

1987:12). There was concern that outside the classroom environment, students were not

able to use the language, nor achieve sufficient grammatical accuracy or situational

appropriateness in their language, despite several years of learning by the S-O-S

pedagogy (Prabhu 1987). So began a shift from pedagogy primarily of form-focused


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instruction, to one where students were more focused on meaning and communicating

and so began the Bangalore Project which was based on the assumption that the

linguistic code is learnt better if, in the process of learning it, learners attention is not on

the code itself but on some problem of meaning or message involving the use of the

code (Prabhu 1987:78). The background to the Bangalore project holds much relevance

as it mirrored what was happening in other foreign language classrooms around the

world.

Another style of task-based instruction is the process syllabus defined as having a

social and problemsolving orientation, with explicit provision for the expression of

individual learning styles and preferences (Long & Crookes 1992:38). The process

syllabus has strong influences from other subject areas and is, in essence, a syllabus

whereby the learners are given a problem and expected to solve it. The focus is on the

learner and learning process, more so than the language used. Breen and Candlin are two

of the key researchers on the process syllabus, and both are advocates of a syllabus

where the content is negotiated with the learners, based on individual needs and thus,

learner-centredness is a key tenet in this type of syllabus.

As can be seen, these syllabus types are moving away from the traditional synthetic

syllabuses, to more analytic syllabuses. The final category Task-Based Language

Teaching is closest in orientation to the Queensland French Syllabus and the one on

which the most time shall be spent. A necessary starting point is defining the word

task in task-based language teaching, or TBI as it is usually referred to in this thesis.

2.1.3 Definition of task

The word task appears throughout the second language literature but the meaning

varies greatly among different authors and, as concluded by Cook (2001:221) the

concept of the task is, then, fairly variable; no two people seem to have quite the same

definition. It is also useful to note here that the term task and activity are often used

interchangeably although, as will be seen, the two are quite different when defined in


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relation to TBI. The term activity tends to refer to those exercises that are shorter in

length, possibly stand alone without linking to a larger task. An activity may simply be a

grammatical exercise to assist with focus on form. It is important to define which

meaning of the word task is used in task-based instruction and in particular, when the

term task appears in the 2000 French Syllabus for Queensland. While the word task

has been used in the past to mean anything from a cloze exercise, to writing an essay, the

fundamental element of the task in task-based instruction is that it be meaning focused.

The definition used to inform the syllabus3 can be found in Nunan (1989) the task is a

piece of meaning focused work involving learners in comprehending, producing and/or

interacting in the target language, and [] tasks are analysed or categorized according

to their goals, input data, activities, settings and roles (p.11). To further enhance this

definition, Breen refers to a task as a springboard for learning work. In a broad sense, it

is a structured plan for the provision of opportunities for the refinement of knowledge

and capabilities entailed in a new language and its use during communication" (Breen

1989:187). A number of authors (eg. Crawford 1999, Skehan 1996, Carr 2005 among

others) suggest another classifying feature of tasks is that they are comparable to real life

language use. Ellis (2003) discusses the link to the real world, asserting that many tasks

occurring in the classroom will not be performed outside however he makes the

important point that the kind of language behaviour they [tasks] elicit corresponds to

the kind of communicative behaviour that arises from performing real-world tasks (p.

6). Skehan (1996b) adds two other features of a task to the above description: Task

completion has some priority, and the assessment of task performance is in terms of task

outcome (p.38).

To further define a task, Ellis (2003:9-10) puts forward six criteria which he considers

need to be satisfied in order for something to be classified as a task. The Criterial

Features of a Task are as follows;

1. A task is a workplan

2. A task involves a primary focus on meaning

3. A task involves real world processes of language use

3The definition appeared in the environmental scan conducted by QSCC in 1997.


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4. A task can involve any of the four language skills

5. A task engages cognitive processes

6. A task has a clearly defined communicative outcome

Summarising this section, the task referred to in the Queensland syllabus is meaning-

focused, with relevance to the real world and it is something which engages learners in

using one or more of the four macroskills. Assessment of the task is based on quality of

task completion. On the whole, the Queensland syllabus favours tasks which fit with the

criteria outlined by Ellis above.

2.1.4 Theoretical underpinnings of TBI

Task-based instruction is fundamentally based on naturalistic language learning,

meaning that learners learn best when allowed to experience language for themselves

and essentially learning by doing, rather than by teacher instruction. Some TBI

researchers (eg. Ellis), stress the addition of in-context form-focused instruction, thus

aiming to compensate for the lack of focus on form in purely naturalistic learning. It is

hoped that by adding some relevant focus on form, the students attention will be drawn

to the form when needed in task completion, leading to an incorporation of it into their

interlanguage (Ellis, 2003). The Queensland program stresses the learners active

involvement in the learning process. In addition, the QSCC environmental scan (1997)

makes reference to learners developing internal grammars as they engage in task

completion.

In terms of rationalization for embeddedness, the use of content from other KLAs is just

one of many possible options which aims to provide real world links. Embedded content

has been chosen in order to link languages with the rest of the curriculum, as well as to

give students content which is relevant to their age and level.


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2.1.5 Review of studies of task-based programs and teacher reaction

There does not exist a great number of studies which focus on teacher reaction to TBI,

however in those studies accessed, there are several commonalities. It is important to

note that the Queensland situation, where content is embedded, is an unusual situation,

which thus presents an added dimension not covered in these other studies. The issue of

embeddedness will consequently be treated separately in section 2.2.

A useful starting point is the introduction of the target-oriented curriculum (TOC) in

Hong Kong. While the context is significantly different from the Queensland situation,

there are, nonetheless, some relevant parallels in teacher opinion on TBI. Carless (2003)

conducted case studies of three teachers in Hong Kong who were attempting to

implement a task-based curriculum. In contrast to Queensland, task-based instruction in

Hong Kong takes on the form of a weak approach (Skehan, 1996a) with tasks being

similar to the production stage of the PPP method (Carless 2003), and as such tasks are

more structured than in the Queensland situation.

Carless discusses six issues which he found to be of significance in how teachers

implemented the TOC which are relevant to the Queensland situation. The issues

identified were:

1. Teacher beliefs

Teacher beliefs and attitudes are a crucial factor in determining if a new

innovation will be implemented, and hence is also a factor which is very relevant

to the Queensland situation, and is examined in some detail in this study.

2. Teacher understandings

This point is concerned with teacher understanding of what is entailed in task-

based instruction. A teachers interpretation of a particular methodology is

integral to how it is implemented.

3. The syllabus time available


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Time constraints are certainly an issue in both contexts. In Hong Kong, all three

teachers in the study expressed concern with having insufficient time to cover the

syllabus and this was exacerbated by the need to include tasks into class time. In

the Queensland situation, where tasks form the basis of the syllabus, and are not

in addition to it, the issue is slightly different. It is a matter of whether or not

there is sufficient class time to effectively teach via task-based instruction.

4. The textbook and the topic

Teachers in Hong Kong place great importance on covering the textbook, and the

same can no doubt be said of some Queensland teachers, making this an issue

relevant to both contexts. Results were inconclusive in relation to the effect of

different topics on task-based instruction, however two out of the three teachers

in Carlesss study believed topics had an impact on student motivation and ease

with which task-based instruction could be implemented.

5. Preparation and the available resources

Hong Kong teachers and Queensland teachers alike have heavy workloads and

often textbook based learning will require less preparation time than task-based

instruction, hence the reason some teachers may show a preference for textbook

over task-based education, an issue prevalent in both contexts.

6. The language proficiency of students.

Teachers in Carlesss study had a mixed view on this issue, but Carlesss own

interpretation of it is that students with higher ability are able to complete tasks

on a wider variety of topics and also, they have more language at their disposal,

thus reducing the time spent on task preparation, and thereby increasing time

available for tasks. Like the 6 or 7 year old Hong Kong students, many of the

students taught using the 4-10 Syllabus in Queensland are beginning students, so

the ability level of the students is also an issue in the Queensland context


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Similar findings to Carless were also reported in a study conducted by Jennings & Doyle

(1996) who investigated the implementation of a task-based approach in a small, private

EFL school in Ireland. Materials were a key concern, with reference made to the desire

for a textbook by the students and the difficulty in locating appropriate materials for the

course. Teacher preparation time was also a concern for the teachers involved in my

study. On a more positive note, higher teacher motivation was reported, as well as

increased co-operation between teachers. Learner centredness and the use of authentic

materials were also cited as positives by the teachers in my study.

As can be seen, although different contexts were investigated, similar issues arose in

both studies and as will be seen in the chapters to follow, also amongst Queensland

teachers.

2.1.6 Issues associated with task-based instruction

TBI is controversial for a variety of reasons. This section discusses some of these

concerns as they appear in the literature and how the Queensland syllabus has attempted

to address these issues.

2.1.6.1 Naturalistic language learning

An important characteristic of both TBI in a broad sense, and the Queensland context

specifically, is a focus on naturalistic language learning. While many see naturalistic

language learning as a positive, there are those who see this as one of the pitfalls of TBI.

Swan, in discussing naturalistic language learning, states the role of instruction in a

typical language classroom is not, surely, to attempt the impossible task of replicating

the conditions of natural acquisition, but to compensate for their absence (2005:393).

He further expands his lack of support for naturalistic learning that characterizes TBI,

saying this naturalistic slant constitutes something of a straitjacket, tending to limit the

approach to doing what it does best- promoting more accurate, fluent and complex use

of what has already been learnt- at the expense of a principled focus on new linguistic


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material (p. 388). Basically, students with a limited knowledge of the language, such as

the majority of learners being taught via the 2000 Syllabus in Queensland, see the goal

as task completion by whatever means necessary, and so will come to rely on already

learnt language, at the expense of developing new language. Skehan (1996b:58) also

notes this as a real danger of TBI, task-based learning, a current vogue in

communicative language teaching, contains dangers if implemented without care. In

particular, it is likely to create pressure for immediate communication rather than

interlanguage change and growth.

Some researchers (for example Swan 2005) express concerns about where new language

input is derived from when teachers use a strong task-based approach. Consequently,

several researchers argue for a more rounded view of TBI (eg. Seedhouse 1999, Swan

2005), not completely discrediting the advantages of TBI, but instead suggesting that

TBI be one of many tools available to classroom teachers, rather than the sole basis for

the syllabus. Effectively, these researchers are in support of a weak approach to TBI.

Swan (2005) presents an argument against the use of a strong version of TBI, claiming

that while TBI may successfully develop learners command of what is known, it is

considerably less effective for the systematic teaching of new language (p. 376). He

questions where new language input is supposed to come from, arguing that a limited

amount will come from interaction among students during the tasks, but this is not a

reliable form as it is unlikely that students will gain much new language in this way. He

suggests that some new language will come from pre-teaching, but he very clearly

discredits this, as one of the characteristics of TBI is to not give the learners specific

language. Instead learners must be permitted to use their choice of language in order to

complete the task (Willis 1996a). Swan (2005) expresses a considerable amount of

skepticism in regards to where new input will come from in TBI stating, it seems to be

commonly taken for granted that structures and lexis will be made available for learning

(and presumably learnt) through interaction, task materials, focus on form, teacher

intervention, pre-teaching, or simply the rich input felt to be associated with TBI; but

these assumptions are not for the most part given detailed attention or subjected to

testing (p. 389). The Queensland program averts this problem via the use of the


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enhancing phase where students should be given the chance to work with new

language and structures, before being expected to perform tasks for assessment.

2.1.6.2 The role of focus on form in TBI

Like the definition of task, the role of focus on form in TBI also varies according to

authors consulted. Some researchers emphasize a focus on meaning, with focus on form

taking a secondary role. One such example is the framework for task-based learning

proposed by Willis (1996a). She suggests that learners start by completing the task using

whatever language they already have, which is followed by a discussion and comparison

with other students. This stage can also involve hearing or reading other versions of the

completed task. At the end of the cycle, the students attention is then drawn to the

forms used. The Queensland program takes a different stance, with sessions dedicated to

focus on form occurring in the preparatory stages, as the need arises for task completion.

The syllabus states that it is helpful for learners to practice language in integrated

sessions of form-focused instruction (QSCC 2000:8). Students learning via the

Queensland program experience sessions of focus on form as they arise and are

necessary in task completion, rather than afterwards, as suggested in the Willis model.

The syllabus explains the rationale behind this approach to focus on form in that the

speed of language acquisition is increased, as well as greater accuracy, when form-

focused instruction takes place in context, as it occurs.

Recently there has been some research conducted on the effect of planning on task

completion. One such example is the work of Yuan & Ellis (2003). They investigated

different amounts of planning and the impact this had on task completion. They

concluded that the more planning that was able to take place, the more accurate the work

produced would be, as students had more time to attend to accuracy and complexity. As

will be seen in the section to follow, striking a balance between the goals of fluency,

accuracy and complexity can be quite a challenge for program designers. The

Queensland syllabus expects that students will have significant preparation time, with

tasks often conducted over several lessons. This is expected to result in more accurate


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and complex use of language, whilst also assisting with fluency when tasks are

presented.

2.1.6.3 Fluency, accuracy and complexity

Skehan (1996b) discusses a grave concern for students being taught via TBI. There are

three goals of language instruction, these being fluency, accuracy and complexity and it

is striking a balance between these three goals that poses a great problem for learners, as

they are not able to focus on everything at the same time. Fluency is often favoured over

the other two goals (Willis 1996b) as it is what is most needed for task completion. Both

Skehan (1996b) and Willis (1996b) discuss the danger in doing nothing but tasks as it

may lead to a situation where some learners become adept at task completion strategies

and manage to get by on very limited use of the target language (p. 55). Skehan

discusses the use of communication strategies used by learners taught via TBI:

The central problem for the foreign language learner, taught by task-based

means, is that learners operate under pressure of time and under the need to get

meanings across. This approach places a premium on communication strategies

linked to lexicalized communication. These strategies provide an effective

incentive for learners to make best use of the language they already have. But

they do not encourage a focus on form. They do not provide an incentive for

structural change towards an interlanguage system with greater complexity.

(Skehan 1996a:22)

In other words, students are able to complete the task sufficiently, but the goal of new

language acquisition, which is of course of central importance, is not being achieved as

students have learnt how to get by using these communicative strategies. To view this

another way however, communication strategies are also a very necessary part of

conversation. Swan (2005) acknowledges this same point but adds that perhaps TBI is

an appropriate method of instruction for more advanced learners who may know more

language than they use fluently and/or accurately (p. 388). He suggests that


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appropriately designed TBI may be an ideal corrective, combining communicative

practice with a focus on pushed output which encourages them to process material

syntactically, stretch their interlanguage, and thus gain a genuine control of previously

learnt material (p. 388). As will be seen, teachers are not always satisfied with the

balance struck between fluency, accuracy and complexity in the syllabus.

2.1.6.4 The impact of time

Another factor pertinent to the success of TBI is time. Mentioned by several researchers

(eg. Carless 2003, Swan 2005), a significant amount of class time is necessary in order

to TBI to be an effective method of instruction. The amount of time allocated to French

on a weekly basis has significant implications if this type of a program is to be

successful. Ellis (1990) makes a relevant point relating to syllabus design and time,

saying that we are making a syllabus to imitate what we do in the L1 but we have a

fraction of the time to work with and this could be a possible reason for the

ineffectiveness of many methods. Swan (2005) discusses the 3hpw learner, and

conclusions he reaches are equally valid for Queensland students, perhaps even more so,

as very few students in the Queensland context will be fortunate enough to even reach a

total of three hours each week, more commonly receiving about half that amount,

somewhere around 90 minutes which is the Education Queensland current mandated

minimum. Swan argues that in a 3hpw situation, a purely task-based approach can

neither ensure that language learners encounter all the most common and useful

language items, nor prevent much of what they do notice from being inadequately

processed and rapidly forgotten (p.393). The three teachers in Carlesss (2003) study

also mention inadequate time allocated to their subject and the pressure this places on

them to teach via TBI.

Time is a crucial factor, but not just in relation to the classroom. Carless discusses

another factor in the implementation of TBI in his context being a lack of time for

teachers to adequately prepare for TBI. He states that Hong Kong teachers have heavy

workloads and often textbook based learning will require less preparation time than task


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based instruction, hence some teachers may show a preference for textbook over task

based education. This is clearly also an issue prevalent in the Queensland context.

There are two opposing ways of viewing the time issue and the use of TBI in the

Queensland context. On the upside, students, especially primary students, who only

attend language classes once or twice a week and for around 90 minutes in total, are

possibly more likely to remember where they are at in terms of task completion, than say

where they are in terms of grammar exercises or other textbook related exercises, as

tasks may hold greater interest value. Students may retain more from a task as they are

engaged with the personal creation of a product, whereas grammar exercises most likely

will not hold as much significance outside the classroom.

On the downside of the time situation, there are limited opportunities for focused

instruction, thus limiting the amount of language that students are able to cover in class.

Couple this with the time taken for task completion, and students have even fewer

chances for new language input.

2.1.6.5 Learner centredness and the change of teacher role

A key issue in TBI is the change in teacher and student roles in the classroom. While the

communicative approach does involve students in playing an active part in the learning

process, it is still very teacher driven. TBI puts the teacher into the role of facilitator of

learning. The teacher is expected to guide students to self discovery of new knowledge.

Thus, students have become more active participants in the learning process. Willis

discusses one of the implications of this change, stating the biggest challenge for the

teacher used to a teacher-led PPP approach is to stand back, have faith and let learners

get on with their learning (Willis 1996b:61). Scrivener (1996) contrasts PPP with TBI,

making the point that with PPP the entire sequence of classroom events is described

from the teachers perspective; it is possible to plan a lesson entirely without reference

to the learners (p.80).


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A task based syllabus is naturally a more learner centred one and, as stated by Rubin

(1987), there has been a steadily growing interest in considering the task from the

learners point of view and in changing the focus of classrooms from a teacher centred

one to a learner centred one (p.15). Holec (1987) describes previous approaches by

saying that traditionally a majority of teachers and learners alike have tended to think

that the learners responsibility should be limited to being the beneficiary, so to speak, of

the process, its active manager being the teacher (p.147). In contrast, the current

syllabus requires students to work either individually or very often collaboratively, in

order to complete a task, the teachers role often to be simply to circulate and facilitate

the completion of a task by offering assistance and guidance where necessary, with

small amounts of whole class instruction, a greatly reduced amount to previous

syllabuses To quote from the syllabus, (QSCC 2000:11) a learner-centred approach to

learning and teaching views learning as the active construction of meaning, and teaching

as the act of guiding and facilitating learning. The shift in teacher role may be one of

the reasons for teacher resistance to this syllabus and as such, it is an issue which is

investigated in this study.

The importance of learner centredness can be summed up by Rubin (1987), when she

says

it is assumed that it is essential for students to be able to control their own

learning process so that they can learn outside the classroom once they are on

their own. If students are dependent on teachers to shape language to suit them

and to provide them with proper input, they cant begin to take charge of their

own learning when the teacher is not there (p.17).

Rubin goes on further to discuss the importance of students being active in the

learning process whereby teachers do not simply hand them the information, but instead

students are required to work with the information and thus internalize in ways

meaningful to them. While this is not necessarily a new idea, having also been a feature

of inductive grammar, which dates back several decades, it is intensified in TBI. As


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such, learners do not all work with exactly the same language in an approach such as the

2000 syllabus, but complete individual or group projects, which differ from each other

and hence require different language. In essence, learners are actually more able to shape

their own learning experiences in a task-based approach. The downside to a more learner

centred method is that since this is currently an approach not shared by other subjects in

the curriculum, students do not yet have the necessary skills to work independently,

without constant teacher interference. Throughout the literature, there is evidence of the

need to instruct learners how to behave in such a situation. For example, Nunan and

Lamb (1996:12) state, learners need to be systematically taught the skills needed to

implement a learner centred approach to pedagogy. Cross (2005) paints a dire picture

when he says learners are affected by the impact of materials upon teachers because

unless teachers make the nature of communicative language teaching explicit to them,

they can become disruptive and uncooperative since the communicative approach

assumes a greater responsibility on the part of the learners for their own learning than

they might ordinarily expect (p. 18). While Cross is referring to the communicative

approach, this is equally applicable to TBI hence teachers opinions on the move to a

more learner centred syllabus, as well as how their students tend to react to it by being

either on or off task, are investigated by this study.

2.2 Embeddedness

As mentioned previously, the Queensland 4-10 LOTE Syllabus is an embedded syllabus,

in that it takes content from other KLAs (Key Learning Areas). As expressed in the

QSCC Environmental Scan for the 2000 Syllabus (QSCC 1997),

an embedded approach is suggested as an appropriate model of syllabus

development which will ensure a meaningful link with other curricular areas.

This means that the topics and tasks of the language program are based, where

appropriate and feasible, on key concepts and ideas in other curricular areas for

that year level, while still allowing for a discrete language component, and


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consideration of the social contexts within which learners may be expected to use

their language (p.15).

Initially appearing similar in orientation to an immersion program, it is necessary to

clarify the distinction between the goals of the two programs. The focus within such a

program [embedded program] is not the content per se, as in immersion, but on tasks

which draw on language and content to solve a communicative need (QSCC 1997:15).

The rationale behind this choice of content is the view of language is as a tool, which

can be used to communicate about something else. Thus the focus is on using language

for real communicative needs. This is added to by the links to other areas of the

curriculum as in immersion programs. The idea of pulling content from other subject

areas into the language syllabus comes originally from Widdowson (1979) in his work

on English for Specific Purposes (ESP). He states that a course which prepares students

for dealing with English use in scientific communication should present the language not

as something in isolation from what the student knows but as an aspect of something

with which they are already familiar(p.28). This is also the philosophy which underpins

the Queensland LOTE Syllabuses. Students are presented with content taken from the

other subject areas, with which they are already acquainted, and the French language is

thus used in order to access this content.

The use of embedded content, while serving to provide something meaningful and real

to talk about (Curtain & Dahlberg 2004:285), also raises some issues which are

problematic. One is whether teachers feel they are equipped with the necessary subject

knowledge to teach the content.

2.2.1 Teacher knowledge of other KLAs

Opinions vary on the importance of teacher knowledge of other areas when teaching

courses which employ content from other subjects. Klippel (2003) makes the distinction

between the type of knowledge required of teachers in immersion programs and content-

based programs. Those teaching immersion programs need both a good knowledge of


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the language, as well as a good knowledge of the other subject area. A content-based

program does not require the teacher to be as knowledgeable in the other subject area as

French is still the focus, with the content being secondary and merely a relevant reason

for using the language.

Ideally when embedded content is being taught, language teachers would have frequent

contact with other subject teachers, both to assist with subject knowledge and pedagogy,

as well as to identify concepts that can be reinforced or enriched in the language

classroom" (Curtain & Dahlberg 2004:285). Curtain & Dahlberg (2004) discuss the

frequent lack of professional preparation in specific content areas (p. 271) as a

problem for language teachers who are teaching a course where content is taken from

other subject areas and propose that this often results in teacher preparation time being

spent more on content, than language and cultural components. Widdowson (1979) also

asserts the importance of teachers knowing something of the subject specific pedagogy

in order to be able to effectively teach.

2.3 Teacher proficiency/qualifications

One aspect that is hypothesized as a reason for possible acceptance or non-acceptance ofthe 2000 Queensland French Syllabus by teachers is teacher proficiency in French. A

teacher with a higher proficiency will be more at ease with more challenging resources

and topics. Without a doubt, a proficient teacher is more desirable in any circumstance

but the issue of proficiency is one which is difficult to define. As stated in a NALSAS

report prepared by Norris entitled Language Teacher Proficiency or Teacher Language

Proficiency (Norris 1999), while recognizing that the quality and supply of proficient

language teachers is vital to the success of second/foreign language as a learning area,

there does, however, remain some considerable ambiguity about how to define

proficiency, let alone how to monitor it (Norris 1999:54). As discussed in the NALSAS

report, there are multiple interpretations of teacher proficiency


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the term language teacher proficiency of itself suggests an emphasis on

linguistic knowledge as opposed to pedagogical or cultural knowledge. It is clear,

however, that effective language teaching involves more than linguistic

competence. The multiple knowledges approach provides a more complete

picture of the interrelated components of language teacher proficiency (pp. 52-

53).

In addition to this confusion surrounding which factors are worthy of inclusion in

defining teacher proficiency, the NALSAS report also makes the point that there is

clearly a lot of debate about the proficiency levels required of second/foreign language

teachers teaching in specific program types and at different phases of schooling (p. 53).

For the purposes of this thesis teacher proficiency refers to linguistic knowledge, with

teacher knowledge of methodology treated as a separate issue.

While a LOTE proficiency interview does exist in Queensland for EQ teachers, not all

French teachers have such a rating and as evidenced both anecdotally and in this study,

there are French teachers with minimal proficiency in the language. Opie (2006) writes

about a district he has named Black Swan situated in rural Victoria. He makes the

point, which is equally relevant to the Queensland context, that if the proficiency of

LOTE teachers in his district were mandated to a particular level, the program might be

unable to continue its existence. As suggested by the title To be or not to be? That is the

Question in a bid to offer LOTE to all students as required by the government in

Victoria, as in Queensland, on the goal is the continuation of the language program, with

any available teachers who may or may not be suitably qualified or proficient and this is

obviously the focus in this case. In Queensland, similarly, LOTE is mandated which

may contribute to the reason why LOTE teaching positions are filled at times by anyone

available in order for the LOTE experience to remain a possibility for all students. Low

teacher proficiency often occurs when there is no available teacher who is suitably

qualified and it becomes necessary to place someone in the position in order to maintain

a language program. Westwood (2006) conducted an analysis of advertisements and

follow up survey of employers advertising for language teacher positions in a Sydney


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paper with the aim being to determine desirable attributes of language teachers. While

proficiency and qualifications were ranked as the top two desirable characteristics, there

were many other factors such as commitment to the schools ethos and ability to

contribute to the co-curricula program that were also deemed important attributes. While

Westwoods study involved mainly private schools, results nonetheless do offer possible

reasons why a teacher of low proficiency may be found in a language teaching position.

Proficiency becomes an issue for the study reported in this thesis because the survey in

this thesis investigates the link between proficiency level and ability to cope with the

heightened language demands of the 2000 French Syllabus, in comparison to previous

syllabuses.

2.4 Teachers and change

Naturally when an innovation is introduced there will be some resistance from teachers

because it involves stepping outside the familiar and comfortable, in order to try

something new. The difficulty with the implementation of a task-based syllabus in

Queensland is that it was quite different from what many teachers were doing in the

classroom previously, and subsequently, the move to TBI also involves a shift in

thinking. As expressed by Woodward (1996), changing techniques on the surface doesnot involve paradigm shift. Paradigm shift is about changing our view of learning or

language, teaching or training or all four. Its about changing categories, procedures and

views of the world (p.7).

2.4.1

candice sparks thesis task based

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