Masaryk University in Brno

Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

Reflections of British Society in the Campus Novel

(B.A. Thesis)

Irena Žampachová

Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A.

Brno, April 2006

I hereby declare that I have worked on this B.A. Thesis independently, using only

the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

26th April 2006 in Brno:

... … … … … … … … … … … … …

I wish to express many thanks to my supervisor, doc. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc.,

M.A., for her kind and valuable advice and help.

Contents

1. Introduction 51.1. The Thesis 51.2. Campus Novel 6

2. Post-war Period; Kingsley Amis 72.1. British Society After the Second World War 72.2. The Movement; Angry Young Men 82.3. Kingsley Amis – Lucky Jim (1954) 9

2.3.1. Biography of Kingsley Amis 92.3.2. Lucky Jim – Brief Summary of the Plot 92.3.3. Lucky Jim – Reflections of British Society 10

3. The Permissive Sixties; Malcolm Bradbury 163.1. The Age of Affluence and Liberal Society in Britain 163.2. Malcolm Bradbury – The History Man (1975) 18

3.2.1. Biography of Malcolm Bradbury 183.2.2. The History Man – Brief Summary of the Plot 193.2.3. The History Man – Reflections of British Society 20

4. The Ungovernable 1970s and Thatcherism; David Lodge 254.1. The Turbulent Seventies, the Iron Lady 254.2. David Lodge – Nice Work (1988) 28

4.2.1. Biography of David Lodge 284.2.2. Nice Work – Brief Summary of the Plot 284.2.3. Nice Work – Reflections of British Society 29

5. Conclusion 34

Bibliography 36

1. Introduction

1.1. The Thesis

The main intention of this thesis is to show the interrelation between society and

literature. In my opinion historical context contributes to the shaping of a literary work,

therefore knowledge of social and historical background is vital for the better understanding

of a text. That is why I adopt the approach of literary historians and will focus on the social

context in particular. Literary history studies elements that contribute to the composition of

literary works, such as the author’s life, the culture and ideas of the author’s contemporary

world, and the literary tradition (Stevens, p. 46). I will examine the social and

autobiographical elements in three novels by Kingsley Amis, Malcolm Bradbury, and David

Lodge. However, I do not claim that it is possible to judge a literary work only according to

its social and historical background. There are always more influences and thus there will

always be manifold interpretations.

As the renowned sociologist Giddens put it “no culture could exist without a society,

and equally no society could exist without culture” (p. 35). Considering literature as a

significant part of culture, I completely agree with the sociologist – there is an interconnection

between the two spheres. The authors under examination were undoubtedly influenced by the

world around them and in retrospect their writing had effect on the people. Moreover, in this

case it is obvious that the authors drew inspiration from the circles they, all being university

professors, knew intimately – the academic world. I will illustrate the reflections of society in

the campus novels Lucky Jim (1954) by Kingsley Amis, The History Man (1975) by Malcolm

Bradbury, and Nice Work (1988) by David Lodge. Along with social factors I will also

concentrate on the historical and political aspects of British society and on the situation in

5

education, too. Structure, style or any such elements of fiction will not be in the focus of my

attention.

The text of the thesis is divided into chapters in chronological order, therefore the

post-war time and the period of the 1950s will first be discussed in connection with Kingsley

Amis’s Lucky Jim. Then the next decade and Bradbury’s novel The History Man will be dealt

with and finally I will focus on the 1970s and the 1980s together with David Lodge’s Nice

Work.

1.2. Campus Novel

The campus novel has become a very popular genre in Britain and the USA since

Amis’s pioneer Lucky Jim, published in 1954. This kind of novel is characterised by being set

at a university and professors, rather than students are in the focus of the author’s attention

(Hilský, p. 104). The university staff are ridiculed by writers for various reasons: Amis

satirizes the dons in order to criticize the Establishment and the system of education;

Bradbury and Lodge are not concerned with the authorities so much as Amis and employ

parody in order to mock trendiness or naivety of the professors. The plot is usually set in a

provincial university and the hero is a member of the staff. The setting of campus novels is

important in one particular aspect: those who know the academic world and its laws can

appreciate the parody better than those who are not familiar with the academic context. The

readership is thus, in a way, limited (Hilský, p. 104).

6

2. Post-war Period; Kingsley Amis

2.1. British Society After the Second World War

The period from 1945 up to the end of the 1950s was the prelude to the radical

change in social attitudes in Britain in the 1960s. There were many factors contributing to the

reshaping of society: both World Wars were a severe blow to the British Empire in the

economic sense and the Second World War in particular highlighted huge social problems.

Britain was gradually losing its position as a global power. The Empire started breaking up

and by 1964 most of the colonies became independent. Britain had to focus on its own affairs

and the post-war Labour government realized the urgency of social reforms, being inspired by

the Beveridge Report. This report, published in 1942, described the social problems as five

“giants”: want, sickness, squalor, ignorance, and idleness (Marwick, p. 46). The government

passed a number social-reform laws, such as The Education Act in 1944, The National

Insurance and The National Health Service Acts (both in 1946), and the Housing Acts and

Rent Control Acts of 1946 and 1949 respectively. Britain became a welfare state and served

as the best example of social democratic planning (Jones, p. 1).

People of lower and working-class origin benefited most from these innovations.

The new health service was free to all citizens and housing was gradually improved. The 1944

Education Act was of importance in particular as it established a statutory school-leaving age

of 16 and abolished fees in secondary schools. Moreover, it provided the possibility of

university scholarships for those who could not otherwise afford going to university.

Education has always been a vital factor in determining social mobility. Soon there appeared

young scholarship graduates of lower-class origin on the scene, Kingsley Amis being among

them. The upper-class intellectuals reacted to this new generation with contempt. The sense of

being under threat from these new intellectuals was present in many comments such as the

7

one made by W. Somerset Maugham: “They do not go to university to acquire culture, but to

get a job, and when they have got one, scamp it. They have no manners, and are woefully

unable to deal with any social predicament. Their idea of a celebration is to go to a public

house and drink six beers. […] They are scum.” (qtd. in Morrison, p. 59). Paradoxically,

Amis was awarded the prestigious Somerset Maugham Award for Lucky Jim in 1955

(Bradford, p.108). The upper class did not favour the social change, but as the government

became involved in the social and economic field more than ever before, the process of

levelling society was natural and inevitable.

2.2. The Movement; Angry Young Men

Kingsley Amis was associated with two groupings in the post-war time: “The

Movement” and the “Angry Young Men”, both being inventions of journalists, because the

artists themselves did not form any kind of association. Since 1956 nine British poets,

including Amis, D. J. Enright, Thom Gunn, Donald Davie, Philip Larkin, and John Wain have

been linked with the former group (Morrison, p. 3). They were labelled The Movement

according to the article title “In the Movement”, published on 1st October 1954 in the

Spectator (Morrison, p. 1). The article commented on the emergence of poets (of whom many

wrote prose, too) who were against the traditional system and values. They also reacted

against Modernist trends and foreignness.

The title “Angry Young Men” is derived from the title of John Osborne’s play Look

Back in Anger (1957). Authors associated with this group wrote about the oppressed and

disillusioned young male hero of working or lower-class origin in the changing post-war time.

Other authors described as “angry” were Allan Sillitoe, Colin Wilson, and John Braine.

Despite Amis’s disagreement with being classified as a member of these two movements, the

label has stuck.

8

2.3. Kingsley Amis – Lucky Jim (1954)

2.3.1. Biography of Kingsley Amis

Kingsley William Amis was born in London in 1922. His parents were of lower

middle-class origin, Amis’s father worked as a senior clerk in the export department of

Colman’s Mustard. Amis was admitted to St. John’s College at Oxford due to a scholarship

provided by the welfare state. The Education Act of 1944 enabled people of lower-class origin

to receive better education and get opportunities to move up the social ladder, which was

exactly Amis’s experience. Jim Dixon, the hero of Lucky Jim, is also the “scholarship man” of

lower-class origin. When Amis completed his university studies, he worked as a lecturer in

English at Oxford, Swansea, and Cambridge, which probably provided the academic setting

for his novels (Literature Online). It is obvious that Amis drew inspiration from his life.

However, Amis himself claimed in an article Real and Made Up People, published in 1973 in

the Times Literary Supplement, that his characters and situations (with one exception) were

entirely fictional (Bien).

Amis’s work also includes poetry, literary criticism, journalism, television plays, and

the James Bond novel. Kingsley Amis was knighted in 1990 and died in 1995 at the age of 73

(Literature Online).

2.3.2. Lucky Jim – Brief Summary of the Plot

The novel Lucky Jim earned Kingsley Amis huge popularity among ordinary readers

as well as critics. The hero Jim Dixon became a prototype of the new post-war man who

rebels against conservative institutions and traditions. Walter Allen described the “new hero”

in his review of Lucky Jim: “He is consciously, even conscientiously, graceless. His face,

when not dead-pan, is set in a snarl of exasperation. […] He is at odds with his conventional

9

university education, though he comes generally from a famous university” (qtd. in Morrison,

pp. 52-3). Amis was categorized as an “angry young man” and his parody of middle-class

hypocrisy came to be one of the fundamental literary works of the 1950s.

Jim Dixon is a junior lecturer of medieval history at a provincial university and

struggles to keep his job. The paradox is that Jim hates his job, in fact. There is nothing of

interest in the subject for Jim; he is keener on drinking beer and picking up pretty girls at the

university. The object of Jim’s hatred and ridicule is the head of the department, Professor

Welch. He is the one who decides whether or not Jim will be unemployed the next year and

that is why Jim tries to make a good impression on him, although he hates the Professor. Jim

had been having bad luck from the beginning of his stay at the university and gradually makes

rather a bad impression on the whole Welch family. He is unwillingly pushed into pretentious

behaviour in relationships with the Welches and his neurotic colleague Margaret. Jim is

involved in many embarrassing events during the year and is sacked because of his

scandalous public lecture. As the title suggests, Jim is lucky and happy in the end, when he

gets a well-paid job in London and the girl he is in love with – Christine.

2.3.3. Lucky Jim: Reflections of British Society

Amis dismissed opinions that Lucky Jim was a class-conscious novel and that it

responded to social change. He said that “the social element in what I write has largely been

invented by reviewers” (qtd. in Morrison, p. 68). Patrick Swinden, in his study The English

Novel of History and Society 1940-1980 (1984), claims that the character Jim Dixon expresses

the author’s own dissatisfaction and annoyance with the world (p. 195). In my opinion the

characters in realist writing (and Amis is considered to be a realist writer) are not real, they

are the author’s inventions and have a particular purpose or point: the writer may use them as

a mouthpiece of his/her own views, for instance; therefore I agree with Swinden. However, I

10

am not trying to prove whether there is or is not a social element in the novel. The focus of

my attention is in the social context of the novel (which, I believe, actually shows there is a

social aspect incorporated in the text). The essential point of this analysis is to show the

representation of the class system, its members and their typical values and lifestyles in the

novel.

Although it is not directly expressed in the text, Jim is considered to be of lower or

working-class origin and to have gained his university degree due to a scholarship provided

by the welfare state. An argument to support this claim may be Jim’s aversion towards books

and intellectual staff in general. Jim is completely disinterested in – even disgusted by

medieval history and prefers forms of entertainment, particularly drinking beer, which are not

considered suitable for a university lecturer. In Britain accent has always been a factor

indicating one’s geographical and, above all, social origin. Jim’s flat northern accent (Amis,

p. 9) and his financial situation also contribute to the assumption that he does not come from

the middle or the upper class. He finds it difficult to manage on his salary and has his own

rationing on cigarettes and drinks. He can not even afford to buy a new pair of trousers when

they get damaged. The irony is that empty beer bottles represent Jim’s only sure method of

saving money (Amis, p. 155). Typical forms of middle-class entertainment, such as college

balls, are a waste of time and money for Jim.

Professor Welch and his family are members of the middle class. Mr. Welch is the

head of the History Department at the provincial university. Mrs. Welch’s occupation is not

mentioned, but I assume she has a well-paid job, probably even better-paid than her

husband’s, as it is suggested in the text (Amis, p. 66). They have two sons of whom Bertrand

is of importance. He is portrayed as a big-headed and ignorant would-be artist who looks

down on Jim. Amis depicts the Welches as hypocritical snobs who try so much to be higher

on the social ladder, but will never achieve it because of their rather low intellectual

11

capacities. The Welches nevertheless try to lead an intellectual lifestyle and indulge in high-

brow entertainment and that is why they become a target for Jim’s hatred and farce. Jim does

not suppress his natural feelings, however sometimes he is forced into pretensions in order to

keep the job. Bertrand and Jim become rivals as Jim falls in love with Bertrand’s girlfriend

Christine and his final victory over Bertrand could be perceived as a victory of genuineness

over pretensions.

Jim is also uncomfortable in the relationship with his colleague Margaret, who can

be classified as a member of the middle class according to her pretentious behaviour. She

would like to be more attractive, but will never be and is not able to realize it (just as the

Welches in their effort to become more sophisticated). Margaret wears arty clothes –

particularly the quasi-velvet shoes – and makes up too heavily (Amis, p. 43), but the mask

lacks refinement. She manipulates Jim and forces him into pretensions. At the ball, when the

prominent Gore-Urquhart appears on the scene, Margaret fawns upon him (Amis, p. 121) and

her overall behaviour is rather base.

Christine’s uncle Gore-Urquhart is the representative of the upper class. He is one of

the old school and his formal behaviour puzzles Jim, because he has probably had no

experience of meeting such a distinguished person before. Therefore at the ball, when Gore-

Urquhart stands up as other people join his table, Jim wonders whether he is about to oppose

their approach by physical force (Amis, p. 109). Gore-Urquhart is a kind of a fairy-tale

character: throughout the novel he quietly sympathises with Jim and in the end helps Jim to

get what he always wanted: a well-paid job in London. There is one interesting thing about

Gore-Urquhart: he has a strong Lowland-Scottish accent (Amis, p. 109). This fact suggests

that although Gore-Urquhart is a member of the upper class he wants to be distinguished from

the English aristocracy.

12

The clash between Jim and the Professor comes at Welch’s arty weekend, which is

supposed to be a party full of sophisticated entertainment, such as part-songs, play-reading,

recitations, and a chamber concert (Amis, p. 23). The Welches try to show off their intellect

as much as possible and some journalists are expected to turn up at the party too. Jim is

horrified – he can neither sing nor read music – but accepts the invitation in order to improve

his impression on the Professor. Instead, Jim spoils everything he can. Jim’s interests differ

from those of the Welches: he longs for a pint of beer. Jim’s colleague Margaret is too

anxious to go to a pub in the middle of the party, but Jim does not care what others think and

later on gets drunk in a pub. The gulf between the “simple” Jim and the “sophisticated”

Welches is obvious.

At the beginning Jim believes he must try his best to stay at the university as he has

no chance of getting another job, though he hates lecturing. Later Jim realizes he is no longer

able to stand the absent-minded Welch and his pretentious middle-class family and at his end-

of-term public lecture, being drunk as a lord, dismisses Welch’s values (Amis, p. 227). The

Professor idealizes the historical period of Medieval England and believes the old days were

better. Welch looks back on the magnificent history of the British Empire, whereas Jim has

both feet on the ground and lives in the reality of the 1950s.

There are many indications of Jim’s disinterest in the traditional subject of history

earlier than his open outburst at the public lecture. When Jim leaves his office after being

sacked, he collects only two or three reference books and some lecture notes instead of the

many tomes appropriate for a university lecturer (Amis, p. 230). Jim explains to his colleague

Beesley why he chose medieval history when studying at university. The reason was simple –

it was the easiest way to get a degree.

No wonder W. Somerset Maugham was furious when Lucky Jim was published;

such an attack on the university institution was undoubtedly impudent and deserved the

13

criticism. The situation reflects the reality of the British post-war educational system, when

the less bright students were admitted to university and thus could get a degree, although they

did not deserve it. Jim’s colleague Beesley is dissatisfied with this situation and criticizes the

authorities, which prefer quantity to quality (Amis, p. 170). However, criticism is not aimed at

the low achievements of students only, the teaching staff are attacked too. Professor Welch is

described as an absent-minded person who is not capable of being the head of a university

department. Jim is wondering how a person such as Welch could ever become a Professor of

History.

The effective tools Amis uses to ridicule the middle class are irony and satire.

Countless examples can be found throughout the text. Bertrand is ridiculed for his effort to

distinguish himself from others, as he pronounces some words in a very peculiar way (Amis,

p. 51). There are many local worthies coming to Jim’s public lecture, but when it actually

starts, Jim notices one of them is missing. Jim assumes the knighted physician came for the

drink only (Amis, p. 222). The main target of Jim’s ridicule is Welch. Jim has a scale of faces

which express his inner disgust, and uses them very much in connection with the Professor or

the university. The scene when Jim meets Welch in front of the library door, which the

Professor is unable to open, is extremely ridiculous. In addition, Jim observes the remains of

an egg-yolk on Welch’s tie, which adds to the picture of Welch’s clumsiness and stupidity

(Amis, p. 172).

The Movement authors expressed their aversion to abroad and such feelings can be

perceived in Lucky Jim, too. Morrison explains this “little Englandism” as a result of the post-

war socio-political climate, when the British Empire gradually dissolved and the government

focused primarily on the recovery from the Second World War (p. 60). Jim despises the fact

that Welch’s sons have French names, although they are not French. There is one more

allusion to the anti-foreignness, in this case anti-French again, in the text. When the reading of

14

an Anouilh’s play is on the programme at the Welches’ art weekend, Jim has to endure it and

later on wonders, why a French and not an English playwright was chosen (Amis, p. 44).

I have already mentioned some aspects of the situation in British post-war education

and now I will summarize them. Jim Dixon, a beneficiary of the new welfare state legislation,

graduated due to a scholarship. He would have probably never studied at a university without

the state grant. Now he has a degree and a lecturing job but is satisfied neither with the salary

nor the contents of the job. Jim feels uncomfortable in his position and lacks self-confidence,

but nevertheless he must persist, because he fears he would not get another job as he has no

other qualifications. He is trapped. At the time Lucky Jim was published many young

graduates of lower-class origin, who were not appreciated accordingly by society, identified

with Jim Dixon. This new generation of graduates was called the Angry Young Men. Britain

was slowly recovering from the Second World War and the government adopted new policies:

its aim was to provide the people with social security and help them get a better education and

jobs. The old generation of “true” intellectuals argued that university standards were falling

and the new graduates were ungrateful, but the Labour government wanted to gain support

among the numerous working-class people and continued to promote social-reform

legislation. The post-war economic situation was miserable. Britain had immense debts and

the period of austerity was not over yet. Unemployment reached a peak of 800,000 in 1947

and rationing lasted up to the 1950s (Marwick, p. 19). “Angry” men as well as others had few

opportunities to get jobs in the post-war time and that is why Jim stays at the university –

simply because of economic necessity (Amis, p. 26).

The novel Lucky Jim reflects the post-war social structure in Britain despite Amis’s

contrary declarations. The Division of society into social classes and their characteristics can

be demonstrated on the characters of Jim Dixon (lower class), the Welches and Margaret

(middle class), and Gore-Urquhart (upper class). Moreover, some autobiographical elements

15

are obvious in the novel, above all the character of Jim Dixon and the setting in the academic

world.

3. The Permissive Sixties; Malcolm Bradbury

3.1. The Age of Affluence and Liberal Society in Britain

The time of post-war austerity was followed by a period of rapid progress and

affluence in the 1960s. The growth of the consumer society could already be seen in the mid-

fifties (Ford, p. 17), but it was primarily in the 1960’s when this type of the society evolved.

Although the economic situation was still unstable, the average person’s living standards rose,

people became richer and could enjoy greater freedom. Improvements arrived in various

areas: incomes, housing, technology, entertainment, education, family relationships and social

attitudes in general. The sense of revolution and new expectations vibrated in the air.

Weekly wages rose an incredible 88% between 1955 and 1969 (taking inflation into

account) (Marwick, p. 114). Housing improved as the old slums had been cleared away and

new houses were built. More people could afford to buy property. Innovations in technology

constituted probably the most important factor in the change of the British lifestyle.

Television became a form of entertainment for people of all social levels and had an important

cultural influence on them (Ford, pp. 13, 15). The fact that by 1971 91% of families had a

television proves the widespread popularity of this invention (Marwick, p. 117).

Many labour-saving devices made life easier, such as washing machines and vacuum

cleaners. The automobile boom came in the early sixties and the number of car owners has

risen ever since (Marwick, p. 118). As life was becoming easier people had more time to

spend on leisure activities. Football grew popular and new sports and leisure centres were

built (Marwick, p. 152). People could also spend more money on gambling and in 1961 the

16

first betting shop was opened (The Hutchinson Encyclopedia, p. 377). Immigrants made

themselves visible by opening authentic restaurants, so that British people could taste cuisines

from all over the world. Indian restaurants in particular came to be in demand.

In the sphere of education the change from the traditional to the innovative arrived.

The idea of comprehensive schools promoting equal opportunities was introduced in the post-

war time (Ford, p. 31). However, the expansion of comprehensives came in the sixties, under

the Labour government of Harold Wilson, when the number of these schools increased ten-

fold (Sked, p. 249). Some colleges were up-graded or even became full universities (Marwick,

p. 150). New universities were built outside the city centres. Another innovation was the

establishment of the Open University in 1969 (Marwick, p. 178) which provided extramural

degree courses for virtually anybody. The relationships between parents and children also

underwent a modification – the most important members of a family were the kids and they

were considered to be equal partners to their parents.

The true revolution arrived in sexual attitudes. First the “Lady Chatterley’s Lover”

trial in 1960 indicated the relaxation of old-fashioned morals (Marwick, p. 147). Then various

acts passed by Parliament during the sixties only confirmed what was obvious in the changing

atmosphere: more freedom in sexual matters. In 1967 the Abortion Act and in 1969 the

Divorce Reform Act were passed. Homosexual intercourse was no longer a criminal offence

and contraception started being provided by the National Health Service (NHS) (Marwick, pp.

147-8). The sexual revolution was associated with the young generation in particular. Youths

have always rebelled against traditions and authorities. In this period the young people

expressed their defiance by wearing miniskirts and hot pants, having pre-marital sex, and

listening to The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. Various youth cultures evolved during the

sixties, most notably the Mods and the Rockers (Ford, p. 21).

17

New fields of study were introduced. Richard Hoggart established a Centre for

Contemporary Cultural Studies at Birmingham University in 1964 (Ford, p. 34) and focused

its attention towards subcultures as well. Sociology became a fashionable subject at the time

(Ford, p. 22). People started being more concerned with human rights; the feminist movement

was revived in the late sixties and gradually gained strength and importance. What is more,

“alternatives” were trendy, such as alternative medicine or organic farming. The intellectual

left rose in the sixties in correspondence with the election of a Labour government in 1964.

The left was also a driving force behind the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND).

The period of the 1960s was a time of massive improvement in the social,

educational, and economic spheres in Britain. However, there was a negative side to it, too.

More people became dependent on tranquillisers and alcohol and youths started

experimenting with dangerous drugs, such as LSD (Marwick, p. 142). Manifestations of racist

attitudes towards immigrants occurred and the young radicals were often connected with

aggressive actions and anarchy. Moreover, the whole world was under threat of a nuclear war.

3.2. Malcolm Bradbury – The History Man (1975)

3.2.1. Biography of Malcolm Bradbury

Malcolm Stanley Bradbury, the British novelist, dramatist, scriptwriter, poet, and

critic, was born in Sheffield in 1932. His father worked as a railway clerk and Bradbury

admitted he was of lower-middle-class background. As well as Kingsley Amis, Bradbury

received a scholarship and studied English at the University of Leicester. He finished his

postgraduate study at universities in London and Manchester and also received the Fulbright

Scholarship to study in the USA. He met David Lodge while working at Birmingham

University in the 1960s. Bradbury later worked at universities all over Britain and was a very

18

active person in British intellectual society. He was awarded Commander of the British

Empire in 1991 and was knighted in 2000. Malcolm Bradbury died in 2000 (Literature

Online).

3.2.2. The History Man – Brief Summary of the Plot

Malcolm Bradbury brilliantly depicted the atmosphere of the revolutionary sixties in

Britain on an ordinary middle-class couple in the novel. The Kirks undergo their own little

revolution along with the society. Howard Kirk, a lecturer in sociology in one of the newly

built campuses, converts from conservative beliefs to radical ones and gains a reputation as a

great “revolutionary”. He enjoys affairs with his students as well as colleagues while being

married to Barbara. She does not object to Howard’s promiscuity; on the contrary Barbara

respects it and herself has a lover in London. A lot of attention is paid to the intellectual

transformation of the Kirks. As the author put it “they were conventional nothings”

(Bradbury, p. 21), but after Barbara’s “accidental” affair with an Egyptian both Howard and

Barbara open their eyes and see the world from a different point of view. They feel new

enthusiasm and consciousness, start experimenting in sex and making new friends of various

political, social, and religious beliefs. The Kirks’ parties grow famous for being mixtures of

people of all sorts.

Howard is portrayed as a self-centred and pretentious person promoting radicalism,

him being still somehow conservative in the sense of holding a traditional post. He firmly

insists on his left-wing radical opinions. Barbara too is associated with the trendy tendencies

of the sixties. The ending is rather pessimistic: it is the year 1972 and Barbara, completely

unnoticed, commits suicide in her own house full of partying people. At the same time

Howard makes love to one of his colleagues in the study. This tragedy shows that

permissiveness and affluence do not protect the people from depression and scepticism and

19

that neither the sexual revolution nor any radical movement can rid the people of the

miserable reality of everyday life.

3.2.3. The History Man – Reflections of British Society

The social change which began after the Second World War accelerated in the

1960s. People recovered from the war and became full of new expectations and hopes. The

principal focus in this analysis is therefore on the radical change in British society during the

period and its reflections in the campus novel The History Man by Malcolm Bradbury. The

author’s critical point of view on the transforming society will also be examined, as it plays a

significant role in understanding the work.

Howard was born in the north of England and grew up in a conservative working-

class family. His parents, as did Howard, saw higher education as a means of getting up the

social ladder (Bradbury, p. 23). Howard earned a scholarship and studied sociology, which

was not yet fashionable at that time. Howard Kirk resembles Amis’s character Jim Dixon in

two respects: social background and university scholarship. However, Howard finally is

appreciated by the society as he is offered a well-paid job and gains wide recognition from

others. I believe this is so because the differences between classes had been gradually

levelling since the Second World War, in addition it was fashionable to promote classlessness

and equality in the sixties. I also suggest that Bradbury, as well as Amis, was inspired by his

own experiences when writing the novel because the hero again is a scholarship graduate of

lower-class origin and the novel is set at a campus.

The opportunity for Howard to move southwest to Watermouth and get a perspective

lecturing job comes in 1967 (Bradbury, p. 36). The sharp contrast between the north and the

south is pointed out, as Birmingham is working-class and dull whereas Watermouth bourgeois

and trendy (Bradbury, p. 38). The city of Watermouth seems to be full of amiable radicalism

20

and Howard is especially pleased by the fact that sociology is taken seriously at the

university. In the 1960s sociology was becoming immensely popular at the newly established

campuses in particular (Bradbury, p. 34). In the excited atmosphere of the late sixties both

Howard and Barbara firmly establish their reputation of a radical open-minded couple in

Watermouth. Barbara discusses contraceptive methods openly with her guests. Howard

sympathises with the socialist groups at the university during the turbulent time of 1968, this

being at variance with the conservative Vice-Chancellor (Bradbury, p. 48). The Kirks hanker

after anything radical and get it.

Howard is the main hero and represents the changing society in his personal

transformation. He dismisses his old-fashioned opinions and gets carried away by liberation

and emancipation. During the 1960s the advertising industry started prospering as the

importance of image rose (Ford, p. 17) and people realized that personal images should be

cultivated as well. Howard is well aware of this fact. He expresses his allegiance to the

radicalism and the left wing by wearing a leather jacket (Bradbury, p. 28) and a Zapata

moustache (Bradbury, p. 51). The students also use clothes as a way of showing their

allegiance to various movements, e.g. work-clothes come into fashion as the socialist Marxist

and Maoist groups gain a huge support (Bradbury, p. 64).

Various students’ socialist organizations respect Howard as the true revolutionary

hero and his reputation is even more strengthened after a politically-biased scandal involving

Howard and one of his students (Bradbury, p. 229). Howard fuels his image by being

promiscuous, drinking alcohol and smoking marihuana (Bradbury, p. 90), which became a

very popular drug among the youths as well as the intellectuals holding traditional posts

(Marwick, p. 143). Howard is also conscious of women’s emancipation and does everything

in fairness and together with his wife Barbara (Bradbury, p. 219).

21

Howard may give the impression of a perfect man – he is intelligent, out-going, and

successful. However, it is important to bear in mind that Bradbury employs satire in the

characterisation of Howard in order to express his own disapproving attitude towards the

radicalism of the 1960s (Hilský, p. 109). In Bradbury’s view it is not possible to retain liberal

values in such a decaying environment. Bradbury dismisses the sexual revolution as a means

of gaining complete intellectual freedom. In fact, he blames the permissive society for the

general feeling of frustration and desperation among the people (Hilský, p. 112). Bradbury

satirizes Howard to emphasize his pseudo-radicalism and thus mocks him in a brilliant way.

Barbara stays in the shadow of her husband, although she undergoes a thorough

change as well – from the dull housewife to the radical emancipator. As she discovers the new

energies Barbara becomes an out-going person and gets interested in the trendy movements.

Probably the most progressive aspect of her lifestyle is her promiscuity. The sixties are

remembered as the time of the sexual revolution in particular. The fact that Barbara’s love

affairs are openly tolerated by her husband (and vice versa) is evidence of the relaxation of

the sexual morale. Sexual matters were no longer taboo in society and were accepted on the

television and in the newspapers (Ford, p. 15). The women’s magazine discussing types of

orgasm (which Barbara buys on her way to London) may serve as an example of this

phenomenon (Bradbury, p. 193).

Barbara is involved in the latest activities: she attends a course of commercial

French (Bradbury, p. 99), gets into healthy food (Bradbury, p. 28), and joins a feminist

movement (Bradbury, p. 50). She seems to be happy with her attractive lifestyle and the

reasons for ending her life are not quite obvious. In my opinion Barbara feels depressed under

the huge pressure of the new age and is in fact disappointed with the modern way of her life.

Ford argues that at the time middle-class women became dependent on alcohol and

tranquilisers because the modern innovations such as supermarkets and motorways caused a

22

loss of locality (p. 33). Moreover, the relaxed sexual morals of the permissive society

contributed to the loss of intimacy in sexual relations which surely was depressing (Hilský, p.

112). Bradbury’s intention of the tragic denouement may have been to show the negative

effects of the overwhelming progress.

Another two female characters are worth mentioning: Howard’s colleague Melissa

Todoroff and his student Felicity Phee. Todoroff is an American lecturer studying English

women in Watermouth (Bradbury, p. 146) and her sweeping feministic attitudes put Todoroff

a step ahead of the British female emancipators. Felicity Phee has not identified with any

movement yet, but is in the phase of exploring the possibilities: one day she is a lesbian

(Bradbury, p. 84), another day she is a Hare Krishna believer (Bradbury, p. 220). There

existed manifold radical groups and youth cultures in the 1960s and it was very important for

the young people to belong somewhere in order to assert their identities.

Although the Kirks’ children Celia and Martin appear on the scene only a few times,

it is possible to see the relaxed relationship between them and their parents. It is against

Howard’s principles to exercise his parental authority over the children (Bradbury, p. 100).

When the daughter admits she had been rude to her teacher, no punishment follows; on the

contrary Howard sympathises with Celia and is pleased with her “hereditary” radicalism.

Celia in particular is influenced by Howard. She combines her father’s sophisticated

vocabulary with inappropriate words, such as “cornflake fascism” (Bradbury, p. 100). The

Kirks represent the evolving type of benevolent family.

The structure of the campus is frequently commented on. The University of

Watermouth was established in the late fifties (Bradbury, p. 63) and since then expanded into

a giant complex. In reality many new universities developed in the fifties and the sixties and

education enjoyed a period of unusual boom. The Watermouth campus was designed by the

Finnish architect Jop Kaakinen whose cold concrete-glass architecture style was in concord

23

with the modern time (Bradbury, p. 34). Kaakinen incorporated a democratic vision into the

arrangement of the campus canteen, its aim being to unite the students with the teachers by

projecting one huge room for all. Although Kaakinen removed the physical obstacles, the

financial differences remained and that is why the students still ate separately in the cheaper

section of the canteen (Bradbury, p. 148). The multi-denominational chapel built within the

university (Bradbury, p. 64) might be perceived as another sign of the creator’s equality

dream.

The progress towards modernization is visible not only in the architecture, but also

in the technological inventions introduced at the university. The audio-visual equipment helps

the professors to be more effective (Bradbury, p. 128). A Computing Centre is established at

the campus in 1970 and identity cards are issued to everyone (Bradbury, p. 65).

The new universities were often built outside the city centres and were self-sufficient

in many respects. The geographical distance and the services such as the post office,

supermarket, halls, and pubs present at the campus contributed to the sense of an enclosed

intellectual community. On the other hand feelings of isolation within the university grew as

the numbers of students and staff rapidly increased. The campus in Watermouth serves as an

example of this phenomenon (Bradbury, p. 64).

The city of Watermouth gives the impression of a trendy touristy place. Yet there are

unsightly slum clearance areas where the homeless and drug-takers squat (Bradbury, p. 41).

The slums are the remains of the old housing which was mostly pulled down after the Second

World War and replaced by new houses; however in this case the Watermouth council did not

have sufficient money for the demolition. One of the Kirks’ many radical steps is to repair one

of the empty slums and live in there.

The British multicultural issue is tackled in the novel as well. After the dissolution

of the British Empire many foreigners arrived in Britain to settle. It was particularly easy for

24

those who came from the former colonies because they still had British citizenship. Thus

Indians, Pakistanis, and Africans started flowing to the British Isles in the post-war time and

as a result the British people’s anxiety gradually rose (Marwick, p. 163). When the numbers

of immigrants started growing rapidly, countermeasures were implemented but they did not

prevent the spread of racism among the English. Enoch Powel’s open call for repatriation of

the newcomers in 1968 highlighted the troublesome situation and started a huge media debate.

When Howard’s colleague Henry gets hurt, he is treated by an Indian doctor.

Henry’s comments on the doctor’s level of English suggest his disapproving attitude towards

immigrants (Bradbury, p. 167). The British people did not realize at first that the newcomers

enriched their culture in a way. At the Watermouth campus the students listened to reggae in

the pub (Bradbury, p. 164), Indian music resounded through the Kirks’ house during the party

(Bradbury, p. 89), and Indian rugs decorated some British households (Bradbury, p. 183).

In the early 1970s the revolutionary atmosphere disappeared and disillusionment

spread among the people. At one of the Kirks’ parties in 1972 Melissa Todoroff, the radical

American, disputes with Howard about the loss of enthusiasm and authenticity (Bradbury, p.

227). She argues that nobody cares about the radical problems of the age any longer. Again

Bradbury’s argument against the fashionable radicalism of the sixties and seventies in Britain

is voiced in Melissa’s opinion (Hilský, p. 112).

4. The Ungovernable 1970s and Thatcher’s Revolution; David Lodge

4.1. The Turbulent Seventies, the Iron Lady

The people lost their illusions of the affluent society when the economic crisis

arrived in the mid-1970s (Marwick, p. 185). The seventies were a rather depressing period full

of confrontations and violence. The economic situation changed for the worse, scepticism

25

rose together with unemployment. The socialist welfare state was in ruins and a remedy was

urgently needed as the discontent culminated in strikes and protests in 1979. When Margaret

Thatcher became the Prime Minister the same year she introduced radical right-wing reforms

(Marwick, p. 14) and together with her monetarist policies Thatcher cured economic

depression in Britain. The term “Thatcher’s revolution” is sometimes used to describe the

economic miracle of the 1980s.

The gap between the industrial north and the south which focused on trade grew and

so did the differences between the poor and the rich. In the political sense British society

polarized accordingly into the left and the right wings (Ford, p. 41). Unemployment increased

all over Britain; however in the northern industrial areas the numbers of jobless were the

highest. Factories went bankrupt and were closed down and the people were unable to re-

qualify for other occupations. The issues of immigrant labour and racism were also connected

with this phenomenon. The newcomers from the Commonwealth often became subjects of

abuse and were forced to do the work of which the whites were scornful. Their education was

not accepted in Britain and that is why they had to take on the low-paid jobs in order to earn

their living (Marwick, p. 164). The immigrants were not recognized by the whites and the

manifestations of racism towards them became frequent. The British citizens blamed the

immigrants for their own desperate financial situation and for the shortage of jobs (Marwick,

p. 218).

Privatization under Thatcher’s government constituted a great improvement in the

economic situation. The huge sums of money invested by the former governments in the state

companies gradually started to return in the form of taxes from the privatized enterprises

(Harantová). On the other hand Thatcher was criticized for some of her radical steps, the cuts

in public spending in particular. These reductions had a negative impact, among other areas,

on education. The higher fees, reduction of the university staff, and low salaries led to a fall in

26

morale (Sked, pp. 348-9). In response to the cuts the Oxford University refused Margaret

Thatcher to be awarded an honorary doctorate, which is traditionally given to all the graduates

who become the British Prime Minister (Harantová).

Although Thatcher called for the return of traditional values, the transformation of

society towards liberalism continued. Above all the relationships between the sexes and

within the family became more tolerant than ever. The women’s liberation campaign

expanded as the “Second Feminist Wave” reached Britain in the 1970s. Female writers

asserted themselves, most notably the critic Germaine Greer with her revolutionary book The

Female Eunuch (1970) (Marwick, p. 150). The Sex Discrimination Act and the Equal Pay Act

were passed in the mid-seventies and contributed to the growing confidence of women,

although any direct results of the new laws were not evident yet (Ford, p. 37).

Youth cultures were mainly associated with the working class and were undergoing

constant changes, thus the Punks and the Rastafarians appeared in the seventies and later the

Skinheads re-emerged to fight with the Punks (Ford, pp. 20-1). During the period of the 1980s

a new phenomenon evolved: the yuppies. They were the young urban professional people

employed in finance or the service trades (Marwick, p. 286) and supported Thatcher’s Tory

Party. Their considerable salaries afforded them to lead a luxurious lifestyle. The yuppies

were in sharp contrast with the discontented and often violent youth movements.

Margaret Thatcher stayed in office for 11 years and 209 days (Harantová). Her

reforms helped the country to recover from the economic crisis and re-established prosperous

Britain. The social transformation proceeded through the seventies and the eighties

accompanied by a disturbing development: the rise of discontent and violence connected with

it. Hooliganism spread all over Britain (Marwick, p. 351), strikes were held in protest against

governments, riots took place in socially deprived areas (Jones, p. 25), and above all the IRA

27

bomb attacks killed over 3,000 people in the years between 1969 and 1994 (The Hutchinson

Encyclopedia, p. 191).

4.2. David Lodge – Nice Work (1988)

4.2.1. Biography of David Lodge

David Lodge was born in London in 1935. He is not an exception in terms of social

background and education among the three authors who are in the focus of my attention – his

father was a dance-band musician. Lodge also benefited from the post-war innovations of

secondary and college education. He studied English at University College London and then

lectured at University of Birmingham throughout the 1960s and 1970s, which probably

provided the setting for some of his campus novels (e.g. the Rummidge University in Nice

Work; Lodge, p. 7). Besides the academic theme Lodge, being brought up in a Catholic

family, incorporates Catholicism in his novels, too. There is again no doubt about the

autobiographical elements in his work. David Lodge writes full time and lives in Birmingham

(Literature Online).

4.2.2. Nice Work – Brief Summary of the Plot

Lodge puts industry and academia in contrast and at the same time skilfully depicts

the atmosphere of the 1980s in the novel. Victor Wilcox, a Managing Director of an

engineering company in Rummidge, is the representative of the pragmatic industrial world. It

is the Industry year 1986 and the government introduces the “Shadow Scheme” aiming at

bringing universities closer to industry. Therefore Robyn Penrose, an ambitious temporary

lecturer in Women’s Studies, is appointed the shadow and is supposed to follow Victor at his

work to learn more about the manufacturing processes. The clash between the two characters

28

is inevitable as their values are poles apart. Robyn’s naive socialist idea about a university for

people of all social classes and colours (Lodge, p. 347) is crushed as she observes the foundry

where mostly coloured people have to work under horrible conditions (Lodge, p. 121). Victor

on the other hand cares only for money and profits.

Many misunderstandings arise between Robyn and Victor, but throughout the term

they come to know each other better and eventually end up in bed together. Victor falls in

love with Robyn and wants to leave his family, but Robyn is not interested in him any more.

They realize the Shadow Scheme enriched both of them and stay friends. Victor is fired when

the factory is sold to a bigger company and despite the difficulties Victor reunites with his

wife Marjorie. Meanwhile Robyn inherits a huge sum of money and accepts the offer of

prolonged lectureship at the Rummidge University. Finally Victor decides to launch a new

business being backed by Robyn’s capital.

4.2.3. Nice Work – Reflections of British Society

When the novels Lucky Jim and Nice Work are compared in terms of social aspects

the immense progress of British society over nearly four decades can be perceived very

clearly. In the 1980s life became more comfortable and at the same time more hectic. The

horrors of the Second World War were forgotten as the British people entered the modern era

of technological innovations and higher living standards. In the study of Lodge’s novel Nice

Work the emphasis will be put on further developments in the areas discussed before, i.e. the

economic situation, housing, education, immigration, and social attitudes.

Victor Wilcox and Robyn Penrose inhabit two completely different worlds, although

they both live in northern Britain in the 1980s. Victor believes in materialism whereas Robyn

in social equality. Lodge demonstrates the division of British society on these two characters

and the clash of the conservative and the socialist values is therefore a crucial element in the

29

novel. Victor recognizes traditional Victorian values; Robyn argues that they are hypocritical

(Lodge, p. 242). The study of women writers is useless in Vic’s opinion; Robyn considers this

subject to be important (Lodge, p. 114). Victor sees everything in financial terms whereas

Robyn cares for happiness and justice (Lodge, pp. 115-6). The fact that in the end Victor

starts reading women writers and accepts financial support from Robyn proves the victory of

Robyn and her ideology according to Hilský and suggests Lodge’s preference for the socialist

and feminist rather than the conservative opinions (Hilský, p. 122).

However, Victor and Robyn have one thing in common: the constant worry about

their jobs (Lodge, pp. 13, 54). Vic’s task as a Managing Director is to reorganize the factory

so that it makes a profit. Despite the severe competition Victor makes slow progress, but in

the end is defeated by a bigger company. Although the West Midlands (that is where

Rummidge – in the real terms Birmingham – lies) enjoyed a boom in the motor industry

during the Second World War and afterwards (Marwick, p. 193), British manufacturing was

outclassed by the new industrial giants of the Far East in the 1970s (Ford, p. 41) which caused

the factory closures and the rise in unemployment in the West Midlands and elsewhere.

There is a connection between unemployment in the industry and the issues of

immigration and racism in the novel. As I mentioned before, many immigrants settled in

Britain after the Second World War and constituted a significant part of the manufacturing

workforce. The author presents the delicate issues on the case of an Indian worker Danny

Ram and the managers’ attitude towards him. Danny is ineffective, perhaps because of

insufficient training, and that is why the management plots to sack him. At the meeting

socially minded Robyn stands up for Danny and shocks the managers with her disapproval

(Lodge, pp. 143-4). The solidarity of the coloured workers is demonstrated as the only means

of achieving workers’ rights (Lodge, p. 155).

30

The author’s criticism of Thatcher’s policies regarding education is evident in the

instability of Robyn’s post depending on state subsidies. Even though Robyn is popular

among her students and recognized by her colleagues, the Dean of Rummidge University

cannot afford to keep Robyn for more than three years because of the money shortage (Lodge,

p. 64). Robyn in her left-wing radical sentiment rejects passive acceptance of the government

measures and joins the picket line in the strike. Lodge blames Thatcher for the lack of

university posts and the devastation of higher education (Lodge, p. 50).

The wave of new theories however was not affected by the cuts in public spending.

Feminist critical theory and women writers were recognized and taught as subjects at

universities (Lodge, p. 114). Literary criticism based on the revolutionary post-structuralism

evolved in the 1980s and influenced Robyn in particular (Lodge, p. 46). Cultural studies

focused on the pop culture and multiculturalism as well and other subjects such as

Commonwealth Literature were introduced (Lodge, p. 351).

The young generation is criticised for its aggressive and graceless behaviour. Again

Thatcher’s measures and the consequent unemployment are blamed for the discontent among

the jobless youths (Lodge, p. 241). The conservative Victor is disappointed with his children

who care neither about education nor a proper occupation and take everything for granted.

Raymond, a college dropout, finds drinking alcohol and lounging around the best

entertainment. Vic’s daughter Sandra does not even want to go to university (Lodge, pp. 238-

9).

The disappearance of the “authoritative father” and the tendency towards greater

tolerance towards children meant that youths could enjoy more freedom and comfort without

actually deserving it, as is demonstrated by Victor’s children. What was the most important

thing for the young generation? To belong to a particular group and assert their identities.

Raymond identifies himself with the Punks. Among the peculiarities of this youth culture

31

were safety-pin jewellery and brightly coloured hair in cockatoo plumes (Ford, p. 21). Sandra

does not seem to belong to any particular group but also cares about clothes and hairstyles

very much. Robyn agrees that adopting a certain image is very important for young people’s

self-expression (Lodge, p. 238).

Robyn also has an image – of a radical feminist. She supports movements promoting

the legalization of marihuana, animal rights, abortion or nuclear disarmament (Lodge, p. 45).

Robyn leads an attractive lifestyle just as Barbara in the novel The History Man but seems to

be genuinely happy with it as she asserts herself in society. Robyn is successful at work as

well as in her relationship with her boyfriend Charles. They swap the traditional roles: Charles

undertakes the role of a house-husband and stays in Robyn’s shadow (Lodge, p. 45). They

eventually split up and Robyn comes to the conclusion that she does not need a man to

complete her (Lodge, p. 380).

The author’s parody can be perceived in his demonstration of social progress on

such a basic thing as a toilet. Victor’s grandparents lived in a back-to-back house with an

outside toilet in the post-war time. His parents had an indoor toilet. Owing to his hard work

and conservative values Victor worked his way up to a house with four toilets (Lodge, p. 16).

The right-wing yuppies’ snobbery becomes an object of Lodge’s ridicule as well. Robyn’s

brother Basil and his girlfriend Debbie work in finance in London. Particularly Debbie’s

attempt at looking like a noble lady is ridiculed. Robyn quickly reveals her true nature by

observing her behaviour and accent: Debbie is dull and of lower-class background (Lodge, p.

181).

The yuppies and the upper class preferred living in the southwest of England

because their businesses were centred there. The sharp contrast between this part and the

industrial north of England is depicted in the novel. Firstly, there are hardly any black people

in the south. Secondly, there is no industry there. Thirdly, the result of the first two points is

32

the non-existence of the working class in southern England (Lodge, p. 305). A critical point is

made in Robyn’s comment that the upper class placed the industry far from London

intentionally (Lodge, p. 306). David Lodge has lived in Birmingham for a long time and was

surely very much aware of the problems connected with the jobless working class in the

1980s.

The policy of multiculturalism was adopted in Britain in the 1980s after the failure

of the immigration policies promoting assimilation and integration. Lodge raises this issue in

Nice Work and seems to be rather sceptical about this strategy. He believes the British way of

treating race differences must be changed first (Lodge, p. 384) and only then the process of

greater recognition of other ethnicities as equals can be successful. The scene when Robyn

gets lost in a deprived Rummidge district and is offered drugs by a West Indian shows the

desperate situation of the immigrants. Unemployment was high especially among the youths

and drug dealing was their only source of income (Marwick, p. 343). When Robyn remembers

the previous year’s rioting in the district (Lodge, p. 99) there is almost no doubt that Lodge

drew his inspiration from the brutal event which took place in Birmingham in 1985. On 9

September minorities revolted against earlier police interventions and as a result of the

violence two Asians were killed (Marwick, p. 343).

It was a paradox that although some people were living on or below the breadline,

others concerned themselves with animal rights or preserving the environment. What is more,

slimness became fashionable and women starved in order to be thin. On the other hand there

existed the poor people who had virtually nothing to eat. Victor’s wife Marjorie also becomes

influenced by the new cult of slimness and attends a “Weight Watchers’ club” (Lodge, p. 14).

She is a typical consumerist middle-class housewife whose hobby is spending her husband’s

money (Lodge, p. 238).

33

Robyn’s disappointment with no taboos left to break (Lodge, p. 43) is in comic

contrast with Victor’s personal revolution consisting of trying an unusual sexual position

(Lodge, p. 294). Although people were convinced that nothing new could ever surprise them

after experiencing the shocks of the sixties’ revolution, there still remained some taboos to be

broken. In the seventies sex became an ordinary conversation topic and shocking sexual

scenes appeared on television instead of Victor’s favourite soccer (Lodge, p. 161). Moreover,

earning one’s living as a topless model was considered an ordinary thing (Lodge, p. 36).

There are many paradoxes, or rather opposites in the novel Nice Work. Victor’s

long-lasting marriage and traditional family life is in sharp contrast with Robyn’s

independence and loose relationship with her partner. The class differences are pointed out,

especially in comparison of wealthy managers and businessmen with the poor blue-collar

workers. Lodge also touches on the race problems and unemployment. The overall tone of the

novel is anti-Thatcher as Lodge describes the impoverished higher education and lets Victor

(the Thatcher supporter) lose in the battle of conservative versus socialist values (Hilský, p.

122).

5. Conclusion

As described in the Introduction the principal goal of this thesis was to demonstrate

the reflections of British society in the campus novels written by Kingsley Amis, Malcolm

Bradbury, and David Lodge. The novels were written in the 1950s, 1970s and 1980s

respectively, which means that almost four decades of British history are discussed in the

thesis. Therefore my focus was primarily on the factors I considered the most important

concerning the topic, i.e. the social, economic, and partly autobiographic aspects.

34

The world changed immensely since the Second World War. New inventions were

introduced and most notably social attitudes were transformed. The people rejected Victorian

traditions and adopted the consumerist lifestyle. Social progress can be perceived in the

novels. The hero in Lucky Jim by Kingsley Amis is conventional and rebels against the old-

fashioned values only in his imagination. The author expresses his critical opinion on social

stratification and the authorities. The outburst of radicalism and the battle for intellectual

freedom is depicted in Bradbury’s novel The History Man. Finally the comparison of

conservative and radical opinions is the subject of Lodge’ Nice Work.

The autobiographic element is of importance as well, because the authors each

provide a critical picture of British higher education based on their own experience. Since I

believe that the literary characters are the authors’ inventions and have a particular purpose, it

is also possible to assume the authors’ personal attitudes towards the whole of society in the

campus novels. Amis, Bradbury as well as Lodge more or less satirize society. Amis criticizes

the Establishment and the pretentiousness of the middle-class members, whereas Bradbury

ridicules the tendencies of the permissive society. David Lodge attacks the conservative

government of Mrs. Thatcher and defends the socialist values.

The principal idea of this work is that history, society, and personal experience

reflect themselves in literary works. The overviews of the relevant historical periods and the

examples provided in the analyses of the campus novels by Kingsley Amis, Malcolm

Bradbury, and David Lodge seem to support the thesis sufficiently.

35

Bibliography

Primary Literature

Amis, Kingsley. Lucky Jim. United States: Penguin Books, 1976.

Bradbury, Malcolm. The History Man. London: Arrow Books, 1982.

Lodge, David. Nice Work. England: Penguin Books, 1989.

Secondary Literature

Amis, Kingsley. Literature Online. ProQuest Information and Learning Company. 1 Mar.

2006 <http://lion.chadwyck.co.uk>

Bien, Peter. “Lucky Him: The Life of Kingsley Amis.” World Literature Today 76 (2002):

101. Literature Online. ProQuest Information and Learning Company. 1 Mar. 2006

<http://lion.chadwyck.co.uk>

Bradbury, Malcolm, 1932-. Literature Online. ProQuest Information and Learning Company.

1 Mar. 2006 <http://lion.chadwyck.co.uk>

Bradford, Richard. Kingsley Amis. London: Edward Arnold, 1989.

Ford, Boris, ed. Modern Britain – The Cambridge Cultural History. Cambridge: Press

Syndicate of the U of Cambridge, 1992.

Giddens, Anthony. Introduction to Sociology. New York: Norton, 1991.

Harantová, Emílie. “Žena dodnes velebená i proklínaná.” MF Dnes 11 Feb. 2005: B/6.

Hilský, Martin. Současný britský román. Jinočany: H&H ve spolupráci s FF UK, 1992.

Jones, Bill, Dennis Kavanagh. British Politics Today. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1991.

Lodge, David, 1935-. Literature Online. ProQuest Information and Learning Company. 1

Mar. 2006 <http://lion.chadwyck.co.uk>

Marwick, Arthur. British Society Since 1945. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

36

Morrison, Blake. The Movement. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1980.

Sked, Alan, Chris Cook. Post-War Britain: A Political History. London: Penguin Books,

1990.

Stevens, Bonnie Klomp, Larry L. Stewart. A Guide to Literary Criticism and Research. Fort

Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1996.

Swinden, Patrick. The English Novel of History and Society, 1940-1980. London: Macmillan,

1984.

The Hutchinson Illustrated Encyclopedia of British History. Great Britain: Helicon, 2001.

37