c82sad prejudice and discrimination. what is prejudice? prejudice: an unfavorable attitude towards a...
TRANSCRIPT
C82SAD Prejudice C82SAD Prejudice and Discriminationand Discrimination
What is Prejudice?What is Prejudice?
• PrejudicePrejudice: An unfavorable attitude : An unfavorable attitude towards a social group and its towards a social group and its membersmembers
• DiscriminationDiscrimination: Singling out : Singling out members of a social group for members of a social group for prejudice based on attributes of their prejudice based on attributes of their group membershipgroup membership
• DehumanisationDehumanisation: Stripping people : Stripping people of their dignity and humanityof their dignity and humanity
Prejudice and the Prejudice and the Bystander EffectBystander Effect
0102030405060708090
100
White Black
Race of victim
No otherpotentialhelpersTwo otherpotentialhelpers
Per
cen
tag
e o
f p
arti
cip
ants
off
erin
g t
oai
d a
pp
aren
t vi
ctim
Source: Gaertner and Dovidio (1977)
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Sex stereotyping – social stereotypes of women as Sex stereotyping – social stereotypes of women as “nice and incompetent and men as competent but “nice and incompetent and men as competent but not so nice” prevail across cultures and in both not so nice” prevail across cultures and in both genders! (Fiske, 1998)genders! (Fiske, 1998)
• But research suggests that people do not actually But research suggests that people do not actually describe themselves in terms of this sex stereotype describe themselves in terms of this sex stereotype (Martin, 1987) (e.g., women and sex-(Martin, 1987) (e.g., women and sex-discrimination)discrimination)
• People actually represent the sexes as ‘subtypes’:People actually represent the sexes as ‘subtypes’: HousewifeHousewife Businessman Businessman Sexy womanSexy woman Macho man Macho man Career womanCareer woman Feminist/athlete/lesbianFeminist/athlete/lesbian
Men and women generally see women as more Men and women generally see women as more homogenous than men (Lorenzi-Cioldi et al., 1995)homogenous than men (Lorenzi-Cioldi et al., 1995)
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Why are there these differential stereotypes Why are there these differential stereotypes which prevail across genders?which prevail across genders?
• Sex rolesSex roles: Behaviour viewed as sex-: Behaviour viewed as sex-stereotypically appropriatestereotypically appropriate
• Socialisation into sex roles – so do sex Socialisation into sex roles – so do sex stereotypes reflect actual differences in stereotypes reflect actual differences in psychological factors or role assignment?psychological factors or role assignment?
• Very few differences on psychological Very few differences on psychological dimensions, but large differences in terms dimensions, but large differences in terms of perceptions of sex rolesof perceptions of sex roles
• Therefore certain roles are ‘sex typed’ Therefore certain roles are ‘sex typed’ (Eagly & Steffen, 1984)(Eagly & Steffen, 1984)
• E.g. role assignment in jobsE.g. role assignment in jobs
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and DiscriminationDiscrimination
WomenWomen MenMen
Restaurant serversRestaurant servers LawyersLawyers
Telephone operatorsTelephone operators DentistsDentists
SecretariesSecretaries Lorry driversLorry drivers
NursesNurses AccountantsAccountants
BabysittersBabysitters Business executivesBusiness executives
Dental hygienistsDental hygienists EngineersEngineers
LibrarianLibrarian
Nursery school Nursery school teachersteachers
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and DiscriminationDiscrimination
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Female Male
Sex of Target
Homemaker
Employee
No information
Ra
tin
gs
of
Ta
rge
t
Morefeminine
Moremasculine
Source: Eagly and Steffen (1984)
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Glass-ceiling effectGlass-ceiling effect: Stereotypes : Stereotypes prevent promotion due to competence prevent promotion due to competence perceptions e.g. female in upper perceptions e.g. female in upper management, males in flight attendantsmanagement, males in flight attendants
• Maintaining sex stereotypes: Media Maintaining sex stereotypes: Media largely responsible – unsubtle vs. subtlelargely responsible – unsubtle vs. subtle
• Face-ismFace-ism: Media depiction gives greater : Media depiction gives greater prominence to the head and less prominence to the head and less prominence to the body for men, but prominence to the body for men, but vice-versa for women (Archer et al., vice-versa for women (Archer et al., 1983)1983)
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and AttributionsAttributions
Successful task performance By a
WOMAN attributed to luck or an easy task
By a MAN attributed to ability or high level of effort
Performance viewed as less deserving of reward or recognition
Performance viewed as more deserving of reward or recognition
6
7
8
9
10
Masculine Feminine
Task
Female actor
Male actor
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and AttributionAttribution
Ra
tin
gs
of
Ta
rge
t
More toability
More toluck
Source: Deaux and Emswiller (1974)
Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Illegality of sexism means sex stereotypes Illegality of sexism means sex stereotypes are more subtle (Glick & Fiske, 1996)are more subtle (Glick & Fiske, 1996)
• Ambivalent sexism inventory. Sexists hold Ambivalent sexism inventory. Sexists hold benevolent and hostile attitudes towards benevolent and hostile attitudes towards different ‘subtypes’different ‘subtypes’
• Benevolent attitudes towards traditional womenBenevolent attitudes towards traditional women• Hostile attitudes towards non-traditional womenHostile attitudes towards non-traditional women
• Recent reviews suggest that there are no Recent reviews suggest that there are no longer tendencies to devalue women’s longer tendencies to devalue women’s work and a positive female stereotype is work and a positive female stereotype is emerging (Eagly & Mladinic, 1994)emerging (Eagly & Mladinic, 1994)
RacismRacism
• RacismRacism: Prejudice and discrimination : Prejudice and discrimination against people based on ethnicity or raceagainst people based on ethnicity or race
• Much research focused on anti-black Much research focused on anti-black attitudes among whites in the United attitudes among whites in the United StatesStates
• Dramatic reduction in unfavorable Dramatic reduction in unfavorable attitudes since 1930’sattitudes since 1930’s
• Similar reduction toward ethnic Similar reduction toward ethnic minorities in Britain and Western Europeminorities in Britain and Western Europe
RacismRacism
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1933 1951 1967 1982 1993
Year
‘Superstitious’
‘Lazy’
‘Ignorant’
Perc
en
tag
e o
f w
hit
e r
esp
on
den
ts s
ele
ctin
g t
rait
Source: Dovidio et al. (1996)
‘‘New’ RacismNew’ Racism
• Racial stereotypes have not gone away but Racial stereotypes have not gone away but changedchanged
• Devine and Elliot (1995): 45% of white Americans Devine and Elliot (1995): 45% of white Americans perceived African-Americans as lazy and 25% perceived African-Americans as lazy and 25% characterised the group as athletic, rhythmic, low characterised the group as athletic, rhythmic, low intelligence, criminal, hostile, and loudintelligence, criminal, hostile, and loud
• Theories of new racism suggest that people Theories of new racism suggest that people experience conflict between prejudiced attitudes experience conflict between prejudiced attitudes and modern egalitarian valuesand modern egalitarian values
• E.g. Gaertner and Dovidio’s (1986) notion of E.g. Gaertner and Dovidio’s (1986) notion of aversiveaversive racism suggests that racist attitudes are racism suggests that racist attitudes are expressed when egalitarian values are weak and expressed when egalitarian values are weak and people are in homogenous groups where people are in homogenous groups where prejudiced values are acceptedprejudiced values are accepted
‘‘New’ RacismNew’ Racism
500
550
600650
700
750
800
850
900950
1000
Negative Positive
Words
Black targetWhite target
Reacti
on
tim
e (
mil
lise
con
ds)
Source: Gaertner and McLaughlin (1983)
Indicative of well-concealed prejudice (Hogg & Vaughan,
2005)
Forms of DiscriminationForms of Discrimination
• Reluctance to helpReluctance to help: passively or actively : passively or actively declining to help other groups improve their declining to help other groups improve their position in society (e.g., Gaertner & Dovidio, position in society (e.g., Gaertner & Dovidio, 1977’s Bystander effect)1977’s Bystander effect)
• TokenismTokenism: Practice of publicly making small : Practice of publicly making small concessions to a minority group to deflect concessions to a minority group to deflect accusations of prejudice and discriminationaccusations of prejudice and discrimination
• Reverse discriminationReverse discrimination: Practice of publicly : Practice of publicly being prejudiced in favour of a minority in being prejudiced in favour of a minority in order to deflect accusations of prejudice and order to deflect accusations of prejudice and discriminationdiscrimination
TokenismTokenism
70
75
80
85
90
95
Organisationalcommitment
Jobsatisfaction
Dependent measure
Hired as tokenwomanHired on ability
Rep
ort
ed
com
mit
men
t/sa
tisf
acti
on
Source: Gaertner and McLaughlin (1983)
Theories of Prejudice and Theories of Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Mere exposure effectMere exposure effect: Zajonc (1968): Zajonc (1968)• People’s attitudes towards other improve with People’s attitudes towards other improve with
direct contact and familiarity (Perlman & direct contact and familiarity (Perlman & Oskamp, 1971)Oskamp, 1971)
• Tajfel (1981) believes this is not the case and Tajfel (1981) believes this is not the case and that prejudices are learned early in life before that prejudices are learned early in life before exposureexposure
• Barrett and Short (1992) found that children Barrett and Short (1992) found that children had clear preferences for European nations had clear preferences for European nations despite not having contact with anyone from despite not having contact with anyone from those culturesthose cultures
• Parental modeling, instrumental/operant Parental modeling, instrumental/operant conditioning and classical conditioning may be conditioning and classical conditioning may be responsible for these learned predjudicesresponsible for these learned predjudices
Theories of Prejudice and Theories of Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Frustration aggression hypothesisFrustration aggression hypothesis: Dollard : Dollard et al. (1939)et al. (1939)
• All frustration leads to aggression and all aggression All frustration leads to aggression and all aggression arises from frustrationarises from frustration
• Catharsis was the reason why people performed Catharsis was the reason why people performed psychological activities and if frustrated these had to be psychological activities and if frustrated these had to be vented elsewhere e.g. frustrationvented elsewhere e.g. frustrationaggressionaggression
• Target of aggression usually source of frustration but if Target of aggression usually source of frustration but if unavailable a unavailable a specificspecific ‘scapegoat’ is targeted – process ‘scapegoat’ is targeted – process known as known as displacementdisplacement
• Research is inconclusive as to whether displacement Research is inconclusive as to whether displacement always occurs, as some research has shown a always occurs, as some research has shown a generalisation response – direction of anger towards generalisation response – direction of anger towards irrelevantirrelevant other stimuli (Horowitz, 1973) other stimuli (Horowitz, 1973)
• Critics of frustration-aggression hypothesis suggest that it Critics of frustration-aggression hypothesis suggest that it does not take into account interpersonal communication – does not take into account interpersonal communication – people are passive victims of individual frustration and people are passive victims of individual frustration and angeranger
Theories of Prejudice and Theories of Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• The authoritarian personality: Adorno et al. The authoritarian personality: Adorno et al. (1950)(1950)
• Some people had ‘prejudiced’ or authoritarian Some people had ‘prejudiced’ or authoritarian personalities that caused discriminationpersonalities that caused discrimination
• Characteristics:Characteristics:– Respect for authorityRespect for authority– Obsession with rank and statusObsession with rank and status– Tendency to displace anger and resentment onto weaker Tendency to displace anger and resentment onto weaker
groupsgroups– Intolerance of uncertainty and ambiguityIntolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity– Need for a rigidly defined worldNeed for a rigidly defined world– Problems achieving intimacyProblems achieving intimacy
• Developed through excessively harsh and disciplinarian Developed through excessively harsh and disciplinarian practices to secure emotional dependencepractices to secure emotional dependence
• While it has attracted a lot of research, research has While it has attracted a lot of research, research has shown few differences between prejudiced and non-shown few differences between prejudiced and non-prejudiced people on authoritarian personality traits prejudiced people on authoritarian personality traits (Pettigrew, 1958; Minard, 1952)(Pettigrew, 1958; Minard, 1952)
• Fails to account for situational factors – cultures of Fails to account for situational factors – cultures of prejudice, relative deprivationprejudice, relative deprivation
Theories of Prejudice and Theories of Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Dogmatism and closed-Dogmatism and closed-mindednessmindedness: Rokeach (1948, 1960): Rokeach (1948, 1960)
• A more generalised ‘syndrome of intolerance’ A more generalised ‘syndrome of intolerance’ – cognitive style rather than traits per se – cognitive style rather than traits per se called dogmatism or closed-mindednesscalled dogmatism or closed-mindedness
• Characterised by being rigid and intolerant Characterised by being rigid and intolerant and predisposes people to be prejudicedand predisposes people to be prejudiced
• Correlates well with authoritarianism and Correlates well with authoritarianism and therefore suffers from same limitations – therefore suffers from same limitations – ignores situational and contextual factors ignores situational and contextual factors (Billig, 1976) (Billig, 1976)
Theories of Prejudice and Theories of Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Belief congruence theoryBelief congruence theory: Rokeach (1960): Rokeach (1960)• Similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony Similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony
among people while dissimilar beliefs promote dislike among people while dissimilar beliefs promote dislike and prejudiceand prejudice
• ““Belief is more important than ethnic or racial Belief is more important than ethnic or racial membership as a determinant of social discrimination” membership as a determinant of social discrimination” (Rokeach, 1960, p. 135)(Rokeach, 1960, p. 135)
• Research requiring people to report attitudes toward Research requiring people to report attitudes toward people of different race and similar or dissimilar people of different race and similar or dissimilar beliefs support this hypothesis (e.g., Rokeach & Mezei, beliefs support this hypothesis (e.g., Rokeach & Mezei, 1966)1966)
• But states that in situations of ‘institutionalised’ But states that in situations of ‘institutionalised’ prejudice belief congruence plays no partprejudice belief congruence plays no part
• Rokeach’s (1960) research designs might blur the Rokeach’s (1960) research designs might blur the boundaries between beliefs and race – no clear boundaries between beliefs and race – no clear consistencyconsistency
Belief Congruence Belief Congruence TheoryTheory
Institutionalised or socially sanctioned prejudice?
Interpersonal assessment of belief dominance
Negative attitude, dislike
Positive attitude, attraction
Friendly relations
Yes
No
Prejudice
Theories of Prejudice and Theories of Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination
• Social dominance theorySocial dominance theory: Pratto (1999): Pratto (1999)•Prejudice is attributed to an individual’s Prejudice is attributed to an individual’s
acceptance of a ideology that legitimises acceptance of a ideology that legitimises ingroup-serving hierarchy and domination, ingroup-serving hierarchy and domination, and rejects egalitarian ideologiesand rejects egalitarian ideologies
•An ‘individual differences’ explanations – An ‘individual differences’ explanations – people tend to desire their own group to be people tend to desire their own group to be dominant and therefore have a high ‘social dominant and therefore have a high ‘social dominance orientation’dominance orientation’
•This legitimises prejudice towards This legitimises prejudice towards outgroups as the ingroup is perceived as outgroups as the ingroup is perceived as dominantdominant