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Choosing a Research Strategy 2

Philosophy of Research DesignReviewing the Literature

Sources of Data

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Concreteexperience

Reflectiveobservation

Theorydevelopment

Activeexperiment-

ation

Kolb’s Learning Cycle

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� Begins with data & looks for patterns in the data

� eg. People who are risk averse in personal lives more likely to be loyal

� Forms hypothesis and tests this in data collected subsequently

� eg. Brand loyalty increases with age

INDUCTION DEDUCTION

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T. Kuhn - a philosophical template or framework that guides the production of knowledge

Concerns beliefs about what can be known about the world and how we can come to know it

Research Paradigm

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Ontology what can be known about the world

Epistemology relationship between the knower and the known

Methodology how the knower goes about the task of knowing

Involves assumptions about:

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Two Fundamental Approaches

Positivismand

Phenomenology

Lets look at both these in some detail

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Positivism - 5 Stages

This approach owes much to what is called scientific method - this approach has five

sequential stages Deducing a hypothesis from relevant theory Operationalising the hypothesis in terms of

variables that may have cause and effect Testing the hypothesis through experiment or

some other form of enquiry Confirming or denying the hypothesis Modification of theory in the light of the

evidence

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Distinguishing features of Positivism

The method is deductive It seeks to explain causal relationships

between variables It would normally require quantitative

data It employs controls to allow for the

testing of the hypothesis It uses a highly structured methodology

to facilitate replication

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Easterby-Smith lists 8 features

Independence - the observer is independent Value-freedom - objectivity in the study Causality - identify causal relationships to

explain human behaviour Hypothetico-deductive - science proceeds

through refutation Operationalisation - quantitative

methodology

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Easterby-Smith’s 8 features cont.

Reductionism - problems are understood better if they can be reduced to simple elements

Generalisation - in order to make general statements in social science we need sufficient sample sizes

Cross-sectional analysis - regularities can be most easily identified by making comparisons of variations across samples

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Phenomenology An approach to research based on the way

people experience social phenomena in the world in which they live.

Focuses on meanings that subjects attach to social phenomena and is concerned with the context in which the events are taking place

Focuses on small samples and uses the techniques of qualitative data to understand the the subject’s behaviour

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Phenomenology – three reasons for its use

Easterby-Smith offers us three reasons for using such an approach

It enables the researcher to take a more informed decision about research design

It enables the researcher to think about what will work for them and what are you looking for in terms of understanding the research questions you want answering

Access to data may constraint the research approach

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The two approaches compared 1

Positivism – advantages Economical collection of

large amounts of data Clear theoretical focus

for the researcher at the outset

Greater opportunity for the researcher to retain control of the process

Easily comparable data

Phenomenology - advantages

Facilitates the understanding of the how and why questions

Enables the researcher to be alive to changes that occur

Good at understanding social pressures

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The two approaches compared 2

Positivism – disadvantages Inflexible - direction often

cannot be changed once data collection has started

Weak at understanding social processes

Often fails to uncover the meanings people attach to social phenomena

Phenomenology - disadvantages

Data collection can be time consuming

Data analysis is difficult Researcher has to live with

the uncertainty that clear patterns may not emerge

Generally perceived as less credible by non-researchers

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the world is external & objective

observer is independent

science is value-free

focus on facts

look for causality & fundamental facts

deductive

operationalise concepts to measure

world is socially constructed & subjective

observer is part of what is observed

science is driven by human interests

focus on meanings

try to understand what is happening

inductive

multiple methods to establish different views

Positivist Paradigm Phenomenological Paradigm

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Applicability of Different Research Strategies

Research Typical Form of Researcher’s Focus onStrategy Research Questions Control of Events Contemporary Events

Experiment How, Why, To What Yes YesEffect

Survey Who, What, Why, No/Some YesWhere, How ManyHow Much etc.

Archival Who, What, Where, No Yes/NoAnalysis How Many, How Much

Historical How, Why, Who No No

Case Study How, Why, Who No Yes

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Research is independent

large samples

testing theories

experimental design

verification

Research is involved

small numbers

generating theories

fieldwork methods

falsification

Choices & Issues in Research Design

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Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure?

Will the measure yield the same results on different occasions?

What is the probability that patterns observed in a sample will also be present in the wider population from which the sample is drawn?

Has the researcher gained full access to the knowledge and meanings of informants?

Will similar observations be made by different researchers on different occasions?

How likely is it that ideas & theories generated in one setting will also apply in other settings?

Positivist Paradigm

Phenomenological Paradigm

VALIDITY

RELIABILITY

GENERALIS - ABILITY

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Are paradigms incommensurable?

Is a middle ground possible?

Are they recognisable in the research literature?

Are you expected to ‘choose’ one?

Key Issues

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Usually a Hybrid Strategy A small scale phenomenological type

study to identify the key attributes and variables. This could be creating and developing case studies

A larger scale quantitative study designed to verify or measure key attributes that emerge from the case studies and any model that may be developed

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Research Approaches Positivist or Phenomenological

Research Strategies action research case studies experiments surveys

Research Techniques documents observation interviews questionnaires

Research Approaches, Strategies & Techniques

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to further refine research question(s) & objectives

to highlight research possibilities that have been overlooked

to discover explicit recommendations for further research

to help avoid repetition

to sample current opinions

to provide an insight into appropriate research strategies & methodologies

Purposes of the Literature Review

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show how your research relates to previously published research

assess strengths & weaknesses of previous work (including omissions or bias)

justify your arguments by referencing previous research

through clear referencing enable readers to find the original work you cite

Content of the Critical Review

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start at general level

provide a brief overview of key ideas

summarise in brief, compare & contrast the work of key writers

narrow down to highlight the work most relevant to your research

provide a detailed account of these findings

highlight those issues where your research will provide fresh insights

lead the reader into subsequent sections of your research report which explore these issues

Structure of the Review

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Primary Literature Sources first occurrence of a piece of work eg. reports,

conference reports, market research reports, unpublished work

Secondary Literature Sources subsequent publication of primary literature eg.

books & journals

Tertiary Literature Sources search tools designed to help locate primary &

secondary literature eg. indexes, abstracts, encyclopaedias & bibliographies

Literature Sources Available

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Journals refereed academic journals professional journals trade journals

Newspapers topical events, new business developments Financial Times industrial sector reports

Books

Secondary Literature Sources

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Reports Mintel & Keynote government reports academic reports

Conference proceedings often around themed conferences

Theses Index to Theses British Reports, Translations and Theses

Primary Literature Sources

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Selected References:

Refer to the following: Jack Meredith (1993), Theory Building

Through Conceptual Models - IJOPM, Vol. 15, No 3.

Chad Perry (1998), Processes of a Case Study Methodology for Postgraduate Research in Marketing - EJM, Vol. 32, 9/10, pp 785-802.

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What we want you to do Form groups and re-arrange the geography of

the classroom Think about your research proposals for this

module – MB450 Consider the merits and de-merits of each

approach Discuss your approach and research questions

with your colleagues Prepare to share this with the rest of us in a

plenary session