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CHAPTER Twenty-four World War I

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Page 1: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

CHAPTERTwenty-four

World War I

Page 2: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Introduction

• A twentieth-century war

• The expectations and reality of war

Page 3: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The July Crisis

• Alliances• Triple Entente (Allied Powers)—Britain,

France, and Russia• Triple Alliance (Central Powers)—Germany,

Austria-Hungary, and Italy

Page 4: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The July Crisis

• Threats to peace• Economic, military, and political advantage• Scramble for colonies• The arms race• Technology

Page 5: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The July Crisis

• The Balkans• The Austro-Hungarians and the Ottomans• Great powers tried to avoid direct

intervention• The First Balkan War (1912)

• Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro against the Ottomans

• The Second Balkan War (1913)• Fought over the spoils of the 1912 war

Page 6: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The July Crisis

• The Austro-Hungarian Empire—the Dual Monarchy• Ethnic conflict• Bosnian Serbs hoped to secede and join the

independent kingdom of Serbia• The Bosnian Serb underground war

Page 7: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The July Crisis

• Summer 1914• June 28, 1914—Franz Ferdinand and his wife

assassinated at Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip• July—Austria issued an ultimatum

• A punitive campaign to restore order in Bosnia and crush Serbia

• The demands were deliberately unreasonable• The Serbs mobilized their army• July 28, 1914—Austria declared war• Austria saw the conflict as a chance to reassert its

authority• Russia saw the conflict as a way to regain the tsar’s

authority• July 30, 1914—Russia mobilized its troops to fight

Austria and Germany

Page 8: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The July Crisis

• Diplomatic maneuvers• Germany

• Detailed war plans• Kaiser Wilhelm II sent an ultimatum to Russia

• Germany demanded to know French intentions• August 1, 1914—Germany declared war on Russia• August 3, 1914—Germany declared war on France• August 4, 1914—Germany invaded Belgium• The British response

• Secret pacts with France• August 4—Britain reluctantly entered the war against

Germany• A “tragedy of miscalculation”

• Little diplomatic communication• Austrian mismanagement• The lure of the first strike

Page 9: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Marne and its Consequences

• General observations• War as national glory and spiritual renewal• War put centuries of progress at risk• Bankers and financiers were most opposed

to war—financial chaos would result• For the young there was the excitement of

enlistment• “Over by Christmas”

• A short, limited, and decisive war• Size and bigger armies• Speed and quick offensives

Page 10: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Marne and its Consequences

• German war plans• Schlieffen and von Moltke• Attack France first, neutralize the Western

Front, then attack Russia• Problems

• The plan overestimated physical and logistical capabilities

• The speed of movement was too much for the troops• Supply lines could not keep up• The resistance of the Belgian army• Frequent changes made to the plan

• Troops sent to the Eastern Front• Attacked Paris from the northeast instead of the

southwest

Page 11: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Marne and its Consequences

• The Battle of the Marne• Joffre led the Germans into a trap• British and French counteroffensives• German retreat• The race to the sea• The Western Front

• The Great Powers dug in• Trench warfare

Page 12: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Stalemate, 1915

• The search for new partners• Ottomans joined Germany and Austria in

1914• Italy joined the Allies in May 1915• Major effect was to expand the war

geographically

Page 13: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Stalemate, 1915

• Gallipoli and naval warfare• Turkish intervention

• Threatened Russia’s supply lines• Endangered British control of the Suez Canal

• Churchill argued for a naval offensive in the Dardanelles

• Gallipoli landing (April 25, 1915)• Incompetent naval leadership• Lacked adequate planning, supply lines, and maps• Fought for seven months and then the British

withdrew• Major Allied defeat

Page 14: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Stalemate, 1915

• A war of attrition• The nature of modern war• The total mobilization of resources• The Allies imposed a naval blockade on

Germany• Germany responded with submarine

warfare• Germans sank the Lusitania (May 7, 1915)

• Almost 1,200 killed• Provoked the animosity of the United States

• The blockade strained Germany’s national economy

Page 15: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Stalemate, 1915

• Trench warfare• Life in the trenches—the “scratch holes”• Twenty-five thousand miles of trenches

along the Western Front• Attack, support, and reserve trenches

• “Wastage”• Seven thousand British soldiers killed daily

Page 16: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Stalemate, 1915

• Trench warfare• New weapons

• Artillery, machine guns, and barbed wire• Exploding bullets and liquid fire• Poison gas

• First used by the Germans at the second battle of Ypres (April 1915)

• Physically devastating and psychologically disturbing• Gas took more lives but did not alter the stalemate

Page 17: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Slaughter in the Trenches: The Great Battles, 1916–1917

• General observations• Bloodiest battles occurred during 1916–

1917• Military planners refused to alter traditional

offensive strategies• The “cult of the offensive”• Poor communication between command

and the front line• Firepower outpaced mobility

Page 18: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Slaughter in the Trenches: The Great Battles, 1916–1917

• Verdun (February 1916)• Verdun as symbol of French strength• Germany’s goal was to break French morale• The battle

• One million shells fired on the first day• Ten-month struggle• Offensive and counteroffensive

• By June, 400,000 French and German soldiers were killed

• The advantage fell to the French, but there was no clear victor

Page 19: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Slaughter in the Trenches: The Great Battles, 1916–1917

• The Somme (June–November 1916)• Britain on the offensive

• The idea was to destroy the German trenches

• German trenches withstood the attack• Brutal fighting

• Hand-to-hand combat• Twenty thousand British killed on the first day• By November, 1.1 million British, German, and

French soldiers were dead

• Neither side won

Page 20: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Slaughter in the Trenches: The Great Battles, 1916–1917

• Other battles

Page 21: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

War of Empires

• Europe’s colonies provided soldiers and material support

• Britain and France• Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and

South Africa• One and a half million Indian troops served

as British forces (Western Front and Middle East)

Page 22: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

War of Empires

• Britain and France• French Empire (North and West Africa) sent

607,000 to fight with the Allies• Colonies as theaters for armed engagement

• Allies pushed the Turks out of Egypt in 1916• Lawrence of Arabia• British encourage Arab nationalism• Balfour Declaration and European Zionism• War drew Europe into the Middle East

Page 23: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

War of Empires

• The Irish revolt• British vulnerability• Sinn Féin (“Ourselves Alone”)

• Formed in 1900 for Irish independence

• Home rule bill passed Parliament (1912)• “Irish question” tabled with outbreak of war• The Easter Revolt (1916)

• Dublin• Revolt as military disaster• The British executed the rebels in public

Page 24: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

War of Empires

• The Irish revolt• New home rule bill (1920)• Dominion status granted to Catholic Ireland

in 1921• Civil war• Irish Free State established (1937) • Irish Republic (1945)

Page 25: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Home Front

• The costs of war—money and manpower

• Mobilizing the home front• Single goal of military victory• Total war• Civilians were essential to the war economy

• Produced munitions• Purchased war bonds• Tax hikes, inflation, and material privation

(rationing)

Page 26: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Home Front

• Women in the war• Women as symbols of change• Massive numbers entered the munitions

industry• Women entered clerical and service sectors• New opportunities

• Breaking down restrictions• Vera Brittain, Testament of Youth

Page 27: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Home Front

• Women in the war• Long-term changes

• Women sent home after the war• Governments pass “natalist” policies

• Encouraging women to marry and raise children

• Birth control• Universal suffrage—Britain (1918), United States

(1919), France (1945)

Page 28: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Home Front

• Mobilizing resources• Mobilizing men and money• Conscription

• France called up 8 million men (two-thirds of the population of men aged eighteen to forty)

• British introduced conscription in 1916

• Financing the war• Allies borrowed from Britain, who borrowed from

the United States• Germany printed its own money

• Dramatic rise in inflation

Page 29: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Home Front

• The strains of war, 1917• Declining morale of the troops

• Troops saw their commanders’ strategies as futile

• On the home front• Shortages of basic supplies (clothing, food, and fuel)

• From restraint to direct control• Government regulation of working hours and wages• Political dissent, violence, and large-scale riots• Industrial strikes

• Governments pushed to their limits

Page 30: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• Disillusionment with Nicholas II as general

Page 31: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• World War I and the February Revolution• Russia was unable to sustain the political

strains of extended warfare• Russian army was poorly trained and

undersupplied• Domestic discontent

• Nicholas faced liberal opposition from the Duma• Soldiers were unwilling to fight• Militant labor movement and a rebellious urban

population

Page 32: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• World War I and the February Revolution• February 23, 1917—International Women’s

Day (Petrograd)• Women marched demanding food, fuel, and

political reform• Within a few days, a mass strike of 300,000

people• Nicholas sent in the police and military• Sixty thousand troops stationed in Petrograd

sided with the revolt• Nicholas abdicated on March 2, 1917

Page 33: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• World War I and the February Revolution• New centers of power

• Provisional government (mostly middle-class leaders in the Duma)

• Wanted to establish a democratic system under constitutional rule

• The Soviet• Pressed for social reform and the redistribution of land• Desired a negotiated settlement with Germany and

Austria

Page 34: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution• Bolsheviks

• Favored a centralized party of active revolutionaries

• Revolution would lead to a socialist regime

• February–October 1917• Bolshevik demands

• An immediate end to the war• Improvement in working conditions• Redistribution of aristocratic lands to the peasantry

Page 35: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution• October 1917

• Lenin announced that “all power has passed to the Soviets” (October 25)

• Provisional government flees the Winter Palace• A quick and bloodless revolution

Page 36: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution• The Bolsheviks in power

• Moved against all political opposition• Expelled parties who disagreed with the

Bolsheviks• The one-party dictatorship• Peasant soldiers returned home• The redistribution of land, the nationalization of

banks, and workers’ control of factories

Page 37: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution• The Bolsheviks and the war

• Negotiated a separate treaty with Germany at Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)

• Russia surrendered the Ukraine, Georgia, Finland, Polish territories, and the Baltic states

• Led to civil war

Page 38: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Russian Revolutions of 1917

• The Bolsheviks and the October Revolution• John Reed and “ten days that shook the

world”• The Allies—the revolution allowed Germany to

win the war on the Eastern Front• Conservatives—feared a wave of revolution

sweeping away other regimes• Socialists—startled to see a regime gain control

so quickly in such a backward country

Page 39: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• With Russia out of the war, Germany concentrated its efforts on the Western Front

• The Allies feared Germany would win the war before the United States entered the war (April 1917)

Page 40: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• Allied counteroffensive (July and August)• New tanks and the “creeping barrage”• American troops• The German army was pushed into Belgium• The dismantling of the Central Powers• Germany fought alone

Page 41: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• Germany surrendered on November 3, 1918• On the verge of civil war• Bavarian republic (November 8)• Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated• The war officially came to an end on

November 11, 1918

Page 42: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• The United States as a world power• A fast and efficient wartime bureaucracy• Three hundred thousand soldiers shipped

“over there” per month• Food and supplies• American intervention prompted by

unrestricted warfare by German U-boats

Page 43: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• The United States as a world power• Woodrow Wilson

• Making the world safe for democracy• Banishing autocracy and militarism• Establishing a league of nations• Maintaining the international balance of power

Page 44: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• The peace settlement• Gone were the Russian, Austro-Hungarian,

and German empires• Rise of the United States as world power• Thirty nations attended the conference

(January 1919)• More countries had investments in the war• Delegates attended to redress national as well

as international issues• Conflicting aims made the peace process difficult

Page 45: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• The peace settlement• David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau,

Vittorio Orlando, and Woodrow Wilson• Five treaties were signed, one with each of

the defeated nations• Woodrow Wilson and the Fourteen Points

• An end to secret diplomacy• Freedom of the seas• Removal of international tariffs• Reduction of national armaments• League of Nations

Page 46: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• The peace settlement• German losses

• Alsace-Lorraine to France• Gave up territories to Denmark and Poland• Gave coal mines in the Saar to France for fifteen years• Danzig put under the control of the League of Nations• Abolition of the air force, reduced the navy• Capped the army at 100,000 volunteers• All soldiers and fortifications to be removed from the Rhine

valley• Article 231

• The “war-guilt” provision

• Reparations

Page 47: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• The peace settlement• Other treaties

• Based on Allies’ strategic interests and on the principle of self-determination

• Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were created• Poland was reestablished• Austria was separated from Hungary

• Boundaries did not follow ethnic divisions• Guaranteed future problems of the 1930s

• The Ottoman Empire• The creation of modern Turkey• The “mandate system”• Continued attitude of western superiority

Page 48: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

The Road to German Defeat, 1918

• The peace settlement• Covenant of the League of Nations

• An arbiter of world peace?

Page 49: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

Conclusion

• Nine million dead

• The “lost generation”

• Global political and social discontent

• Economic consequences—Europe displaced as the center of the world economy

• The rise of the United States and Japan

• Disillusionment and the decline of liberal democracy

Page 50: C HAPTER Twenty-four World War I. Introduction A twentieth-century war The expectations and reality of war

This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint for Chapter 24.

http://www.wwnorton.com/college/history/wciv_16e/brief


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