c hapter sixteen social psychology © 2012 john wiley & sons, inc. all rights reserved
TRANSCRIPT
© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter SixteenSocial Psychology
© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social Psychology
Study of how others influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions
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OUR THOUGHTS ABOUT OTHERS
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Attributions
AttributionHow we explain our own
and others’ actions
Mistaken Attributions Fundamental attribution
error (FAE)Self-serving bias
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Fundamental Attribution Error
Attributing people’s behavior to internal (dispositional) causes rather than external (situational) factors; related to the actor-observer bias
Explanations for the FAE:Saliency Bias Focusing on the most noticeable (salient) factors when
explaining the causes of behaviorJust-World PhenomenonTendency to believe that people generally get what
they deserve
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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Self-serving Bias
Taking credit for our successes and externalizing our failures
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Culture and Attribution
Collectivistic cultures tend to be more aware of situational constraints for others
Less likely to experience the FAE and self-serving bias
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Attitudes
Learned predisposition to respond cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally to a particular object
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Cognitive Dissonance
Unpleasant tension and anxiety caused by a discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior
A way to create attitude change
ANIMATIONAttitudes and
Cognitive Dissonance
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Cognitive DissonanceFestinger and Carlsmith (1959)
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Cognitive DissonanceFestinger and Carlsmith (1959)
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Cognitive Dissonance: An Example
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Cognitive Dissonance: Summary
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OUR FEELINGS ABOUT OTHERS
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Prejudice and Discrimination
Prejudice A learned, generally negative, attitude toward members
of a groupThree components:1. Thoughts (stereotypes)2. Feelings/Emotions3. Behavioral tendencies (possible discrimination)
Implicit BiasHidden, automatic attitude that may serve as a guide to
behaviors independent of a person’s awareness or control
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Prejudice and Discrimination
Stereotype A set of beliefs about the characteristics of
people in a group that is generalized to all group members; the cognitive component of prejudice
Discrimination Negative behaviors directed at members of a
group
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Prejudice and Discrimination
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Major Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination
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Stereotypes and Classification
Ingroup Favoritism• Viewing members of the
ingroup more positively than members of an outgroup
Outgroup Homogeneity Effect• Judging members of an
outgroup as more alike and less diverse than members of the ingroup
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Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination
Cooperation and Common Goals Encourage cooperation and not competitionIntergroup Contact Close interaction, interdependence, equal statusCognitive RetrainingPerspective taking, focus on similaritiesCognitive DissonanceExamples that don’t conform to prejudiced views
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Interpersonal Attraction
Positive feelings toward anotherThree key factors:1. Physical attractiveness2. Proximity3. Similarity
WILEY VIDEOWishful Seeing
WILEY VIDEOGender and Love
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Physical Attractiveness
• Factor in initial liking• Physically attractive individuals of all ages
receive more positive interactions, success, and health benefits
• Perceived attractiveness is also influenced by nonphysical traits
• Matching hypothesis—people of equal attractiveness tend to select each other as partners
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Flirting
Women• Often initiate• Glances• Smile• Hand gestures• Primping• Sit straighter• Body orientation• Whispers• Touches• Play behaviors
Men• Make the first approach• Look for clear signals
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Proximity
Attraction based on geographic closeness
Important for initial liking
Mere exposure—repeated exposure increases liking, unless it is a negative stimulus
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Similarity
Major factor in long-term relationshipsPrefer similarity in many different aspects of life
and personhood“Birds of a feather flock together”Need complementarity—attraction toward
those with qualities we admire but personally lack
Need compatibility—attraction based on sharing similar needs
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Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
Three Components of Love IntimacyPassionCommitment
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Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
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Types of Love
Romantic• Intense feeling of attraction
to another within an erotic context and with future expectations
• Near universal• Typically short lived• Largely based on mystery
and fantasy• Interference can increase
these feelings
Companionate• Strong and lasting attraction
characterized by trust, caring, tolerance, and friendship
• Grows stronger with time• Overlook each
other’s faults
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Culture and Attractiveness
Some universals:Men—maturity, ambitiousness, financial
resources (suggest support for partner and family)
Women—looks and youth (suggest fertility)Also differences in what is considered beautiful
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OUR ACTIONS TOWARD OTHERS
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Social Influence
Which line (A, B, or C) matches the line on the right (X)?
Two primary types of social influence:• Conformity • Obedience
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Conformity
Changing behavior because of real or imagined group pressureNormative Social InfluenceConforming to group pressure out of a need for approval and
acceptanceNormCultural rule of behavior prescribing what is acceptable in a given situation
Informational Social InfluenceConforming because of a need for information and directionReference Groups People we conform to because we like and admire them and
want to be like them
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Obedience
Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure
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Milgram’s Studies of Obedience
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Milgram’s Studies of Obedience
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Obedience
Four factors in obedience:1. Legitimacy and closeness of the authority
figure2. Remoteness of the victim3. Assignment of responsibility4. Modeling or imitating others
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Reducing Destructive Obedience
• Socialization• Power of the situation—e.g.,
roles• Groupthink• Foot-in-the-door—small
requests build to larger requests
• Relaxed moral guard• Disobedient models
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Group Processes
Group membershipGroup decision making
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Group Membership
RolesStanford Prison Study (Zimbardo)
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Group Membership
Deindividuation—reduced self-consciousness, inhibition, and personal responsibility that sometimes occurs in a group, particularly when the members feel anonymous
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Group Decision Making
Group Polarization• Group’s movement toward
either riskier or more conservative behavior, depending on the members’ initial dominant tendency
Groupthink• Faulty decision making that
occurs when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement and avoids inconsistent information
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Groupthink
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Groupthink
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Groupthink
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Aggression
Any behavior intended to harm another living being
Some approaches for reducing aggression:• Catharsis
typically doesn’t help• Incompatible responses• Improve social and communication skills
WILEY VIDEOTeen
Steroids
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Aggression
Biological Factors• Instincts• Genes• Brain and Nervous System• Substance Abuse and Other
Mental Disorders• Hormones and
Neurotransmitters
Psychosocial Factors• Aversive Stimuli• Frustration-Aggression
Hypothesis—blocking of a desired goal (frustration) creates anger that may lead to aggression
• Culture and Learning• Violent Media
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Altruism
Actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helper
Explanatory models:1. Evolutionary—favors survival of
one’s genes2. Egoistic—motivated by
anticipated gain3. Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis—
due to empathy for someone in need
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Altruism
Altruism and Decision Making
Diffusion of Responsibility—dilution (diffusion) of personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members
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