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CHAPTER 4

Party OrganizationsParty Organizations

Party organization in the United States exists in a Party organization in the United States exists in a great variety of forms, and the type of great variety of forms, and the type of organization depends upon a variety of factors:organization depends upon a variety of factors:

the level of government involved (e.g. local, the level of government involved (e.g. local, state, or state, or national)national)

the type of governmental regulations under the type of governmental regulations under which it which it must operatemust operate

the extent of interparty competition that existsthe extent of interparty competition that exists

the clientele or bases of party supportthe clientele or bases of party support

regional and local traditionsregional and local traditions

the nature of the electoratethe nature of the electorate


Generally American political parties are Generally American political parties are cadrecadre parties rather than parties rather than mass membershipmass membership parties parties Cadre parties are characterized by a small Cadre parties are characterized by a small number number of leaders and activists who maintain of leaders and activists who maintain the the organization, recruit candidates, seek organization, recruit candidates, seek to influence to influence nominations, and campaign for the nominations, and campaign for the party’s nomineesparty’s nominees The American cadre type party is organized to The American cadre type party is organized to carry carry out its primary task—the winning of out its primary task—the winning of electionselections Therefore, party organization is built around Therefore, party organization is built around geographic election districts, starting with the basic geographic election districts, starting with the basic

unit of election administration, the precinctunit of election administration, the precinct Party organization can be described as a system Party organization can be described as a system of of layers of organization (Figure 4.1.)layers of organization (Figure 4.1.)

Figure 4.1. Layers of Party Organization in the Figure 4.1. Layers of Party Organization in the United StatesUnited States

Congressional Campaign Committee

State Senate Campaign Committee

Senatorial Campaign Committee

State House of Representatives

Campaign Committee

National Committee and

Chair/Headquarters Staff

State Committee and

Chair/Headquarters Staff

Congressional Districtand

State Legislative District Committees

County Committees (Townships in Northeast; Parishes in

Louisiana; Districts in Alaska)

Rural Areas Town, Village Rural Township Committees

Urban Areas City Committee

Ward Committee

Precinct Leaders


This layered organizational structure is called This layered organizational structure is called stratarchystratarchy, “an organization with layers, or , “an organization with layers, or

strata, of strata, of control rather than centralized control rather than centralized leadership from the leadership from the top down.”top down.”

A special component of stratarchy is A special component of stratarchy is reciprocal reciprocal deferencedeference, which means that there , which means that there is a tolerance of is a tolerance of autonomy between the autonomy between the layers of organizationlayers of organization

The loosely structured system of formal party The loosely structured system of formal party organization is supplemented by individual organization is supplemented by individual

candidate organizations, party-allied groups, candidate organizations, party-allied groups, and and campaign consultantscampaign consultants Together they form a Together they form a networknetwork

The National PartiesThe National Parties

The National CommitteesThe National Committees

Represent the party organizations of the fifty Represent the party organizations of the fifty states states plus ex officio representation for plus ex officio representation for important elected important elected officials and organized officials and organized interestsinterests

The national committee can be an effective The national committee can be an effective catalyst catalyst for stimulating the party for stimulating the party organization, even though organization, even though its formal powers its formal powers are limitedare limited

The RNC and the DNC differ in their degrees of The RNC and the DNC differ in their degrees of institutionalization and professionalization, institutionalization and professionalization,

which is which is reflected by differences in party reflected by differences in party receipts (Figure receipts (Figure 4.2.)4.2.)

Figure 4.2. National Party Receipts, 1976-2004 Figure 4.2. National Party Receipts, 1976-2004 (Combined Receipts of National, Congressional, (Combined Receipts of National, Congressional,

and Senatorial Committees in Millions)and Senatorial Committees in Millions)

Source: Federal Election Commission

65.9 81.1104.1

164.9

207120.4

245.9

191.4 192.1

321.2

657.1

576.2

2015.1

347.8

43.1

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004

Par

ty R

ecei

pts

(in

Mil

lio

ns)

Democratic Committees Republican Committees


The National ChairsThe National Chairs Because the national committees are unwieldy Because the national committees are unwieldy in in size and only meet twice a year, the size and only meet twice a year, the national chairnational chair plays a key role in determining how plays a key role in determining how the committee the committee will operatewill operate The national chairs serve on a fulltime basis, and The national chairs serve on a fulltime basis, and

their job is to create a headquarters capable of their job is to create a headquarters capable of providing the services needed to win electionsproviding the services needed to win elections Frequently, a major responsibility of the national Frequently, a major responsibility of the national chair is maintaining or restoring a sense of party chair is maintaining or restoring a sense of party unity, through mediation among various factionsunity, through mediation among various factions Generally the chair of the party that controls the Generally the chair of the party that controls the White House has less flexibility and independence White House has less flexibility and independence than the chair of the opposition partythan the chair of the opposition party


The actual work of the national committees The actual work of the national committees includes:includes: Fund-raising Fund-raising of “hard money”—funds raised in of “hard money”—funds raised in accordance with Federal Election Campaign Act accordance with Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) restrictions(FECA) restrictions

AssistanceAssistance to state and local party organizations to state and local party organizations

Campaign activitiesCampaign activities, such as supporting the , such as supporting the presidential nominees’ campaignspresidential nominees’ campaigns

CommunicationsCommunications, such as campaign advertising, such as campaign advertising

Planning, and managing the national Planning, and managing the national conventionsconventions

ResearchResearch to provide issue background to to provide issue background to candidates candidates and party leadersand party leaders


Party Integration in Election CampaignsParty Integration in Election Campaigns

Large-scale transfers of party funds from the Large-scale transfers of party funds from the national committees to state parties were national committees to state parties were

previously previously encouraged by provisions of the encouraged by provisions of the FECAFECA

After the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act After the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of (BCRA) of 2002, party spending went through a 2002, party spending went through a number of number of changes which profoundly changes which profoundly affected party affected party organizations:organizations:

-- national parties raised more hard moneynational parties raised more hard money

-- transfers to state parties declinedtransfers to state parties declined

-- state parties did not advertisestate parties did not advertise

-- parties continued to make strategic transfersparties continued to make strategic transfers

Figure 4.3. State Expenditures, 2000 and Figure 4.3. State Expenditures, 2000 and 20042004

Source: Raymond J LaRaja, “State and Local Parties,” in Michael J. Malbin, ed., Election after Reform: Money, Politics, and the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006).

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Media Grassroots Mobilization Administration Unidentified

Mil

lio

ns

Sp

ent

2000 2004

Figure 4.4. National-to-State Party Figure 4.4. National-to-State Party Transfers, 2003-2004Transfers, 2003-2004

Source: Federal Election Commission

Transfers to States by DNC and RNC

More than $2,000,000 (11) $1,000,000 to $2,000,000 (11)$200,000 to $1,000,000 (14) $0 to $200,000 (14)


The Hill CommitteesThe Hill Committees

Congressional and senatorial campaign Congressional and senatorial campaign committees committees (“Hill Committees”) are increasingly (“Hill Committees”) are increasingly important important elements of the national partyelements of the national party

The members of these committees are members The members of these committees are members of of the House and Senatethe House and Senate

The Hill committees focus on holding their parties’ The Hill committees focus on holding their parties’ marginal seats by assisting targeted candidatesmarginal seats by assisting targeted candidates

Through Through coordinated expenditurescoordinated expenditures, the hill , the hill committees are also permitted by the FECA to make committees are also permitted by the FECA to make

expenditures in support of their parties’ candidatesexpenditures in support of their parties’ candidates

Figure 4.5. Allocations of National Party Funds in Figure 4.5. Allocations of National Party Funds in U.S. House and Senate Elections, 2002: U.S. House and Senate Elections, 2002:

Concentrating on Competitive Races Where There Concentrating on Competitive Races Where There Is a Chance to WinIs a Chance to Win

Source: Adapted from Federal Election Commission data analyzed by Paul S. Herrnson, Congressional Elections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2004), p. 101.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

HouseDemocrats

HouseRepublicans

SenateDemocrats

SenateRepublicans

Percent Allocated

Open Seat Candidates With LittleChance

Challengers With Little Chance

Safe Incumbents

Strong Open Seat Candidates

Strong Challengers

Vulnerable Incumbents

Open Seat Candidate with Little Chance

Challengers with Little Chance

Safe Incumbents

Strong Open Seat Candidates

Strong Challengers

Vulnerable Incumbents

Per

cen

t A

lloca

ted

100%

80%

90%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%House

DemocratsHouse

RepublicansSenate

DemocratsSenate

Republicans


Party-Allied GroupsParty-Allied Groups In addition to the formal, legally constituted In addition to the formal, legally constituted party party organizations such as the national or organizations such as the national or the hill the hill committees, the organizational committees, the organizational resource base of the resource base of the parties also includes parties also includes other organizationsother organizations Traditionally, the Democratic Party has had a Traditionally, the Democratic Party has had a strong strong connection to labor unions, whereas connection to labor unions, whereas the Republican the Republican Party had a strong connection Party had a strong connection to corporationsto corporations In recent elections, party-allied groups, often In recent elections, party-allied groups, often with with interest in special issues, have been interest in special issues, have been extensively extensively involved in campaigns involved in campaigns However, these groups have their own agenda, However, these groups have their own agenda, and and maintain an autonomous maintain an autonomous organizational structureorganizational structure


““Think Tanks” and ConsultantsThink Tanks” and Consultants

Yet another addition to the formal, legally Yet another addition to the formal, legally constituted party organizations is the Washington constituted party organizations is the Washington public-policy research organizations called public-policy research organizations called “think “think tanks”tanks”

These are an important source used for the These are an important source used for the formulation and promotion of policy proposalsformulation and promotion of policy proposals

Political consultantsPolitical consultants have also become a prominent have also become a prominent element in the structure of the party organizationselement in the structure of the party organizations

To win elections, party organizations need the To win elections, party organizations need the technical/professional skills and the personalized technical/professional skills and the personalized candidate services that consultants can providecandidate services that consultants can provide

State PartiesState Parties

There is a tendency in the United States for There is a tendency in the United States for extensive statutory regulation of parties by extensive statutory regulation of parties by

the the states, with great variation among states, with great variation among statesstates

The legal position of state parties has much in The legal position of state parties has much in common with that of public utilities, as they common with that of public utilities, as they

perform perform essential public functions under the essential public functions under the protection of the protection of the lawlaw

The legal position of the parties is in the The legal position of the parties is in the process of process of modification as a result of a series modification as a result of a series of recent of recent Supreme Court decisionsSupreme Court decisions


The State CommitteesThe State Committees

In each of the states there is a Republican and In each of the states there is a Republican and Democratic state committee, the members of which Democratic state committee, the members of which

may represent counties, congressional districts, may represent counties, congressional districts, legislative districts or party auxiliary groupslegislative districts or party auxiliary groups Because the size of state committees is often Because the size of state committees is often unwieldy and their meetings infrequent, many state unwieldy and their meetings infrequent, many state

parties rely heavily upon an executive committeeparties rely heavily upon an executive committee The responsibilities of the state committees The responsibilities of the state committees include include overseeing the work of the state chair overseeing the work of the state chair and the and the headquarters staff, calling of state headquarters staff, calling of state conventions, conventions, adopting party policies, supervising adopting party policies, supervising platform platform drafting, fundraising, and assisting drafting, fundraising, and assisting candidatescandidates


The Role of the GovernorThe Role of the Governor

In a nationwide study, most state party chairs In a nationwide study, most state party chairs considered the governor’s role in party affairs considered the governor’s role in party affairs

to be to be advisory rather than controllingadvisory rather than controlling

In some states, however, the governor plays a In some states, however, the governor plays a substantial role in the selection of their substantial role in the selection of their

party’s state party’s state chairchair

Most commonly the governor and state chair Most commonly the governor and state chair consult consult on appointments, candidate on appointments, candidate recruitments, fund-recruitments, fundraising, and other major raising, and other major party activitiesparty activities


The Service-Oriented State Organization of the The Service-Oriented State Organization of the 2000s2000s

To survive and perform a meaningful role in To survive and perform a meaningful role in current current state politics, the parties had to adapt state politics, the parties had to adapt to an to an environment characterized by:environment characterized by:

-- an absence of large-scale patronagean absence of large-scale patronage

-- candidate-centered campaignscandidate-centered campaigns

-- heightened interparty competition for statewide heightened interparty competition for statewide officesoffices

-- strengthened national party organizationsstrengthened national party organizations

In adapting to these conditions, the state party In adapting to these conditions, the state party organizations have become service agencies to organizations have become service agencies to

their their candidates and local affiliatescandidates and local affiliates


Among the indicators of the evolution of most Among the indicators of the evolution of most state state parties into service organizations are:parties into service organizations are:

-- the establishment of the establishment of permanent headquarterspermanent headquarters

-- the increased use of the increased use of professional staffingprofessional staffing

-- significant expansion of state party significant expansion of state party budgetsbudgets

-- the expansion of party programs for support of the expansion of party programs for support of candidates candidates and party buildingand party building

Studies of state party organization have Studies of state party organization have shown that shown that on the whole Republicans tend on the whole Republicans tend to have stronger, to have stronger, more professionalized, and more professionalized, and better-financed state better-financed state organizations than the organizations than the DemocratsDemocrats


State Legislative Campaign CommitteesState Legislative Campaign Committees

These increasingly important organizations are These increasingly important organizations are fashioned after congressional and senatorial fashioned after congressional and senatorial campaign committees at the national level campaign committees at the national level

They are composed of incumbent legislators They are composed of incumbent legislators who who raise funds and hire staff to assist raise funds and hire staff to assist their parties’ their parties’ legislative candidateslegislative candidates

The most active legislative campaign The most active legislative campaign committees committees are found in states with high are found in states with high levels of interparty levels of interparty competition, high campaign competition, high campaign costs, and weak state costs, and weak state central committeescentral committees

County and Local PartiesCounty and Local Parties

The Party MachineThe Party Machine

The most familiar type of local party The most familiar type of local party organization is organization is the big city machine (e.g. the the big city machine (e.g. the Cook County Cook County Democratic Organization during Democratic Organization during the era of Mayor the era of Mayor Richard J. Daley)Richard J. Daley) Urban machines were most common in the Urban machines were most common in the late late 1800s into the mid-1900s1800s into the mid-1900s This organization was run as a hierarchy and This organization was run as a hierarchy and

sustained by patronage (votes for jobs)sustained by patronage (votes for jobs)

At their core, urban machines were inherently At their core, urban machines were inherently undemocratic, but they are often undemocratic, but they are often

remembered remembered fondly because of their attention fondly because of their attention to poor citizensto poor citizens

County and Local PartiesCounty and Local PartiesLocal Parties TodayLocal Parties Today

With few exceptions, urban machines have largely With few exceptions, urban machines have largely faded from the political landscapefaded from the political landscape

Instead, today’s local parties are based upon Instead, today’s local parties are based upon volunteers, have no permanent headquarters or volunteers, have no permanent headquarters or paid staff, and activity is not a year-round paid staff, and activity is not a year-round phenomenonphenomenon

The lack of a bureaucratic structure, however, The lack of a bureaucratic structure, however, does does not necessarily imply a low level of party not necessarily imply a low level of party activityactivity

As the fund-raising capacity of county parties has As the fund-raising capacity of county parties has increased, the national party committees have increased, the national party committees have

shown increased interest in assisting themshown increased interest in assisting them

Does Party Organization Make a Does Party Organization Make a Difference?Difference?

There is evidence that the party organization can There is evidence that the party organization can have a critical impact on election outcomeshave a critical impact on election outcomes

A strong party organization can provide the A strong party organization can provide the infrastructure for candidates and activists to:infrastructure for candidates and activists to:

1.1. continue the battle in the face of short-term defeats continue the battle in the face of short-term defeats and and enduring minority statusenduring minority status

2.2. take advantage of favorable circumstances when they take advantage of favorable circumstances when they arise (e.g. the retirement of a popular opposition party arise (e.g. the retirement of a popular opposition party incumbent, or low presidential approval ratings)incumbent, or low presidential approval ratings)

In spite of commentaries in the media about the In spite of commentaries in the media about the decline of parties, party canvassing of voters decline of parties, party canvassing of voters reaches approximately one-quarter of the reaches approximately one-quarter of the electorate electorate in election years and increases in election years and increases turnoutturnout

The Party ActivistsThe Party Activists

Party organizations require officers, workers, and Party organizations require officers, workers, and volunteers—political activists willing to give their volunteers—political activists willing to give their time, talents, and treasure for the success of the time, talents, and treasure for the success of the party and its candidatesparty and its candidates

Incentives to ParticipateIncentives to Participate

Direct material rewardsDirect material rewards, such as government , such as government jobs or jobs or “preferments” (preferential treatments)“preferments” (preferential treatments)

The prestige of winning and holding The prestige of winning and holding elected elected officeoffice

Social benefitsSocial benefits, such as friendships or solidarity, such as friendships or solidarity

Concern for Concern for issues and ideologyissues and ideology


The Distinctiveness of ActivistsThe Distinctiveness of Activists

Political activists are set apart from the Political activists are set apart from the average average citizen by their high levels of political citizen by their high levels of political participationparticipation

Other distinctive characteristics:Other distinctive characteristics:

-- activists tend to come from families that are active activists tend to come from families that are active and and interested in politicsinterested in politics

-- party activists are generally of relatively high party activists are generally of relatively high socioeconomic statussocioeconomic status

-- activists are much more likely to view the world activists are much more likely to view the world from an from an ideological perspective and to adopt a ideological perspective and to adopt a liberal or liberal or conservative position on conservative position on issues than ordinary voters issues than ordinary voters (Table 4.4.)(Table 4.4.)

Table 4.4. The Ideology of National Convention Table 4.4. The Ideology of National Convention Delegates, Party Voters, and All Voters: A Delegates, Party Voters, and All Voters: A

Comparison, 2004 (in percent)Comparison, 2004 (in percent)

Political Views Democratic Delegates

Democratic Voters All Voters

Republican Voters

Republican Delegates

Very liberal 22 12 7 2 1

Somewhat liberal 19 21 13 4 1

Moderate 52 52 34 30 33

Somewhat conservative 3 15 22 31 27

Very conservative * 4 13 25 33

* Less than 1 percent

Source: New York Times/CBS Poll


Party Organizations as Networks of Issue-Oriented Party Organizations as Networks of Issue-Oriented ActivistsActivists

Issues and ideological concerns have become so Issues and ideological concerns have become so important as a motivation for participation that important as a motivation for participation that party party organizations are increasingly becoming organizations are increasingly becoming “issue-“issue- based networks”based networks”

This trend has its source in a series of forces:This trend has its source in a series of forces:-- the emergence of a range of culture/social issues such the emergence of a range of culture/social issues such

as as abortion, women’s and gay rights, and abortion, women’s and gay rights, and environmentalismenvironmentalism

-- broad socioeconomic trends, such as rising levels of broad socioeconomic trends, such as rising levels of educational attainmenteducational attainment

-- the decline in the availability of patronage as an the decline in the availability of patronage as an incentiveincentive


Evidence shows that party organizations are Evidence shows that party organizations are becoming networks of issue activists, e.g. in becoming networks of issue activists, e.g. in

the the ideological positions of convention delegatesideological positions of convention delegates Issue-based groups are also becoming Issue-based groups are also becoming ensconced ensconced in the party organizational in the party organizational structurestructure The increasing involvement and influence of The increasing involvement and influence of issue-issue- oriented activists within the parties is oriented activists within the parties is causing causing conflicts between officeholders and conflicts between officeholders and party party organizationsorganizations

Activists are an important constituency of Activists are an important constituency of candidates, however, needed as campaign candidates, however, needed as campaign workers workers and for financial contributionsand for financial contributions

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