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eRIC MARGOLIS

The Changing Hidden Curriculum

A Personal Recollection

C H a P t e r s e v e n t e e n

Throughoutmy school yearswewere taught andpracticed“duckandcover” in caseofnuclearattack .Iwasin9thgradewhentheCubanMissileCrisishadeveryonewonder-

ingifnuclearwarwasimminent;wewereoldenoughtoknowthatNewYorkCitywouldbegroundzeroandthathidingunderourdesksorgoingdowntothebasementwouldnotsaveus .Iwasin11thgradeEnglishclass,perhapsdiscussingA Separate PeacebyJohnKnowles,whentheschoolloudspeakerscameonwithwhatsoundedlikerandomshouting .Finally,avoicebrokethroughandannouncedthatPresidentKennedyhadbeenshotinDallas .Wewereina stateof shock,manycried, schoolwasdismissed .For twodaysnearlyeveryone in thecountrywasgluedtothetelevision,wesawJackRubyshootLeeHarveyOswald .Whatwashappeningtoourcountry?Itook11thgradebiologyfromAnneSchwerner .HersonMichaelwasoneofthecivilrightsactivistsregisteringBlackstovoteinMississippi .MichaelSchwerner,JamesChaney,andAndrewGoodmandisappearedonJune21,1964andtheirbodieswerenotdiscoveredfortwomonths .IattendedthememorialserviceatatempleinNewRochelle .Westoodoutsidebecausethereweresomanymourners .In1965MalcolmXwasassassinatedinfrontofahugecrowdinHarlem;abouttwoweekslaterwewatchedTVinhorroronceagainasAlabamaStateTroopersbeatcivilrightsworkersonabridgeinSelma,Alabama .Thenextday,quietlyandawayfromthecameras,thefirst3500marinesarrivedinVietnamastheUnitedStatesbegantotakeoverthefightfromtheFrench .Civilrightsandthewardominatedmyschoolyears—asitdidothersofmygeneration .

I started college in1965 at theStateUniversityofNewYork,NewPaltz .Tuitionwasaround$100 .00aquarterandthehiddencurriculainhighereducationcouldscarcelyhavebeenmoredifferentthanitistoday .InthosedaystheneedforgrowthinHigherEducationintheUnitedStateswasspurredbythecoldwarandthedesireto“beattheRussians .”Within

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aspanoftenyearstheSovietslaunchedthefirstartificialsatelliteinEarth’sorbit(Sputnikin1957),thefirstanimalinspace(adogin1960),andthefirsthumanspaceman(YuriGagarinin1961) .Otherthingswerehappening .TheGIBillhadprovedsuccessfulinenrollingreturn-ingservicemenandwomenincollege;theirchildren,bornfrom1946onward,werethe“babyboom”andwerereachingcollegeage .Inotherwords,highereducationwasagrowthindustrydefinedasasocialbenefit .Aslater,theU .S .worriedaboutitspost-warplaceintheworldandgrowing competition from the Communist “bloc” wanted rocket scientists, engineers, andphysicists,butalsowantedtoproduceeducatedpeoplefluent inforeignlanguages,history,foreignrelations,sociologyandanthropologywhocouldserveasessentialpartsofthestateideologicalapparatus .1TheUnitedStatesclearlysawtheneedtoprojectsoftaswellashardpower .SoftpowerlikethePeaceCorpsandthe“greenrevolution”workedhandinglovewiththemaintenanceofamassivemilitarypresence in thecountriesdefeated inWorldWar II,JapanandGermany,butalsoKorea,thePhilippines,andsoon .Militaryandtechnologicaldevelopmentinatomicweaponsandrocketrycontinuedatincreasinglevelsintheprojectionofhardpower .

Duringmyfouryears incollege,theStateUniversityofNewYorkgrewatanamazingpace,allsupportedbytaxpayerfunding .TheRepublicangovernor,NelsonRockefeller,“wasthedrivingforceinturningtheStateUniversityofNewYorkintothelargestsystemofpublichighereducationintheUnitedStates .Underhisgovernorshipitgrewfrom29campusesand38,000full-timestudentsto72campusesand232,000full-timestudents”(StateofNewYork,Public Papers of Nelson A. Rockefeller,Fifty-thirdGovernoroftheStateofNewYork,vol .15,1973Albany,NY:StateofNewYork,1973,p .1380) .1

Thespaceraceandglobalcoldwarcompetitionunderlayone(notso)hiddencurriculum;therewereothersthatweremuchhardertosee .Aholdoverfrompastpracticeswasthenotionthatcollegesanduniversitiesweretoactin loco parentis;thatis,toactintheplaceofthepar-ent .Inreallifethismeantstudents,boysandgirlsastheywereconsideredatthetime,livedinsexsegregateddormitoriesandwereforbiddentovisitoneanother’sroomsexceptforanoccasionalSundayvisitwhenthehallswerepatrolledandcuriousrulesenforced(doorsopen,threefeetontheflooratalltimes . . .) .Girlshadtobeinthedormitoryby11:00pmonweek-days(maybemidnightonweekends),andnoalcoholwaspermitted .Agreatamountoftimeandeffortwasinvestedbybothsidesofthemoralityplay;theadministrationhadsystemsofmonitorstomakesuretheruleswereobeyed,“boysandgirls”developedelaboratewaystobeatthesystemsotheycouldhavesex,signingeachotherinandout,meetinginthewoods,get-tingmotelroomsoffcampus .Asimilarstrugglewentonoveralcohol .ThelegalagetodrinkinNewYorkwas18atthetime,andshopsintownwereonlytoogladtoselltoanyonewithadriver’slicense—ofcoursethismeantthe18-year-oldinthegroupwouldbuyforeveryone .Numerous schemes to smugglebooze into thedormswere successful . Simultaneously, andseeminglynationwide,collegestudentsdiscoveredmarijuana .Thiswassomethingcollegeanduniversityadministratorswerenotpreparedforanditputtheminabind .Ontheonehand,in loco parentissuggestedthedutytoprotectthestudents;ontheotherhand,thiswasnotsimpleuniversityrulebreakingbutratherfederalrulebreaking .Mostcollegetownsbecame,ineffect,youthghettos,placeswheretheusualpracticesoflawenforcementweresuspended .

Anotherhiddencurriculumwascourserequirements .AtNewPaltz,andmanyothercol-legesanduniversities,theentirefreshmanandsophomoreyearsconsistedofrequiredclassesthatwereconsideredfoundational .Math,philosophy(mostlyGreek),threetermsofaforeign

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language,introductiontopsychology(Iwasplanningtomajorinpsychology;ratsandTmazespushedme to sociology), introduction to sociology, three termsofhistory—if I remembercorrectlytheywereU .S .,World,andoneyoucouldchoose .ItookAfricanhistorytaughtbyaNigerianprofessor .Threetermsofliterature—U .S .andWorldagain,Ithink,andmychoiceofAsianliterature .Inanycaseithadbeendecidedlongagothatstudents’brainshadtobefurnishedwith certain informationand trained in certainwaysof thinking—like amusclethatneededtobeexercised .Onlyafterthefirsttwoyearswereweallowedtopursue“elective”coursesinourmajor .Wereceivedreportcards,buttherewasnowayforstudentstoevaluateeithercoursesorfaculty .

Perhaps themost important “hidden” curriculum is rightup there in thename “StateUniversity .”Buildingswerebuiltandownedbythestateandpaidforbywillingtaxpayers .Theparentsofthebabyboomers,whohadlivedthroughtheDepressionandfoughtWorldWarII,believedineducationasasocialbenefit .Theywantedtheirchildrentohavetheop-portunities forhighereducation thatbeforehadbeengenerallyavailableonly to theupperclasses .2Theuniversitiescooperatedwiththestateandfederalgovernmentsinmyriadways,fromsmallgrantstosubsidiesformassiveprojectsliketheLawrenceLivermoreNationalLabo-ratory foundedby theUniversityofCalifornia in1962and fundedby theDepartmentofEnergy .OnevisiblepresenceonnearlyeverycampuswastheReserveOfficersTrainingCorps(ROTC),withanancientheritagegoingbacktotheMorrillActof1862thatcreatedtheland-grantcollegesandrequiredmilitarytrainingasanelementofthecurriculum .Studentsreceiveastipendorscholarshipandtakeelectiveclassesinmilitarytactics .ROTCunitswere(andaretoday)oftenvisiblemarchingorpracticingonthecollegeoruniversitytrainingfields .

Inanearlieranthology(Margolis2001),myco-authorsandIemphasizedwhatMichaelApplecalledthe“strongformofthehiddencurriculum”whichreproducedrace,gender,andsocialclassinequalities(AppleandKing1977) .3Intheintroductionwealsodiscussedvariouswaysthatcurriculacanbehidden .Inthecaseofthecurriculadiscussedabove,theywerehid-deninplainsight:

InEdgarAllanPoe’sshortstory,“ThePurloinedLetter”aseasonedinvestigatorhasbeencalleduponbytheFrenchpolicetolendhisintuitiveskillstosolvingamystery .Heasksthepoliceabouttheirsearchforcriticalclues:“Ipresumeyoulookedtothemirrors,betweentheboardsand the plates, and you probed the beds and the bed-clothes, as well as the curtains andcarpets?”Towhichtheyreply:“Certainly;weopenedeverypackageandparcel;wenotonlyopenedeverybook,butweturnedovereveryleafineachvolume . . .Wealsomeasuredthethicknessofeverybook-cover,withthemostaccurateadmeasurement,andappliedtoeachthemostjealousscrutinyofthemicroscope . . .”Theinvestigatorcontinues:“Youexploredthefloorsbeneaththecarpets?Andthepaperonthewalls?Youlookedintothecellars?”Towhichthepoliceagainaffirm,“Wedid .”“Wellthen”speculatestheinvestigator,“perhapsthemysteryisalittletooplain .”4Inthissensesomeofthehiddencurriculumisintentionallyhiddeninplainsight,preciselysothatitwillremainundetected(Margolis,Soldatenko,Acker,andGair2001) .

Inessence,whiletheseelementsofthehiddencurriculumwerewellknowntopoliticaldeci-sionmakers,administration,andfacultytheyremainedhiddentostudentsas“justthewayschoolwas .”Studentsworkedtosubvertthesestructures,butdidnotconfrontthemdirectly .Thiswassoontochange .Allthatwashiddenwasrevealed,challenged,andchanged .


Cracksbegantoappearastectonicplatesshifted .Ifyouwereoldenoughat18togotoVietnam,whycouldn’tyouvote?Whywasyourgirlfriendorboyfriendnotabletovisityourroom?Whydidyouhavetotakeastringof“meaningless”courseworkwhentheworldoutsidetheivorytowerseemedtobegoingupinflames?WhyweretheresofewBlacks,PuertoRicans,orChicanosoncampus?Whyweretherenoclassesoncivilrights,Blackhistory,women’sstud-ies,orAmericaninvolvementinforeignwars?Whydidstudentsnothavetherighttodemon-strateoncampus?TVandtheglossymagazinephotographsinTimeandLifewerecentralinspreadingthewarinVietnam,brutalityagainstthecivilrightsmovement,andhighlightedagrowingstudentmovement .Inaremarkableshortperiodoftimemanyoftheelementsofthehiddencurriculawouldbebroughtintothefullglareofthemedia,challenged,andchanged .

Oneofthefirstbreakoutsfromthehiddencurriculumoftheuniversityasanivorytower(isolatedand insulated frompolitical life) tookplace as early as1960when four freshmenfromthehistoricallyblackland-grantuniversity,NorthCarolinaAgriculturalandTechnicalStateUniversityinGreensboro,satdownatthe“white’sonly”lunchcounterinWoolworth’s,orderedcupsofcoffee,andrefusedtoleavewhenorderedtodoso .Theystayedalldayandthefollowingday .Thenumberofstudents“sitting-in”reached20ormore;itwasupto60thenextday .Thestudentswereattackedbywhiteswhopouredketchupandotherfoodonthem,andsometimesbeatthemphysically .Nevertheless,themovementspreadrapidlytoothercitiesandothersegregatedcorporations .Eventually,financialpressure,thepowerofnon-violentre-sistance,andnationaltelevisioncoverageforcedmanynationalcorporationstoendJimCrowpractices .

Inthesameyearthatthesit-insbeganinearnest,TheSharonStatementwaswrittenbyagroupofyoungconservativeactivists .ThenamewasdrawnfromthenameofWilliamF .Buckley’sestateinSharon,Connecticut,andthestatementwasthefoundingdocumentforYoungAmericans forFreedom(YAF) .Articulatingwhat they termed“transcendentvalues”thestatementsupportedindividualism(“God-givenfreewill”),smallgovernment,themarketeconomy, andmost intensely the existential threatof “internationalCommunism” arguingthatthe“UnitedStatesshouldstressvictoryover,ratherthanco-existencewiththismenace .”5

In1962ameetingwasheld atPortHuron,Michigan .Attendeesweremostly studentactivistsfromtheleft;manywerefromthelaborandcivilrightsmovement,includingTomHayden,whowas a secretary forStudents for aDemocraticSociety (SDS) .ThemanifestowrittenatthatmeetingcametobecalledthePortHuronStatement .Itralliedagainstalien-ationandtheemphasizedneedforpoliticalactivisminsupportofcivilrightsandagainstthecoldWarideologythatproducedfearofnuclearannihilation .6Itwasaddressedprimarilyatapathetic,middle-class,white,andprivilegedyouths,manyofwhomwere,orwouldsoonbe-come,collegestudents .SDSstoodfor“Afreeuniversityinafreesociety .”Acentralargumentwas that“theAmericanpolitical system isnot thedemocraticmodelofwhich itsglorifiersspeak .Inactualityitfrustratesdemocracybyconfusingtheindividualcitizen,paralyzingpolicydiscussion,andconsolidatingtheirresponsiblepowerofmilitaryandbusinessinterests .”7

TheSharonStatementandthePortHuronStatementsettheinternalpoliticalbattlesintheUnitedStateswellintothe21stcentury .Battlestookplaceoncampusesaswellasinthegeneralbodypolitic(Klatch1999) .

What had begun as ideological doctrine from both left and right soon morphed intopractice .The1964/65freespeechmovement(FSM)attheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeleygalvanizedandpoliticizedstudentsacrossthecountry,andbaffledschooladministrators .Like


the“sit-ins”thestudentmovementalsostartedasasmall-scaleeventandrapidlygrewintoanationalmovementforstudentpowerthateventuallyexposedandtheneliminatedthein loco parentiscurriculum .InOctober1964aBerkeleydeanannouncedthatstudentscouldnolon-gersetuptablestoadvocateorcollectmoneyfor“outside”politicalorganizationsotherthanthenationalDemocraticorRepublicanparties .JackWeinberg,aformergraduatestudent,wassittingatthetablesupportingCORE(TheCongressofRacialEquality) .WhenJackfailedtoshowhisIDcardtothecampuspolicehewasarrestedandputinapolicecar .ThousandsofstudentsspontaneouslysurroundedthepolicecarinwhichWeinbergwasdetained,andthecardidnotmovefor32hours .Ashecontinuedhisonemansit-in,speakerafterspeakerstoodontopofthepolicecartoadvocateforfreespeech .ThemostfamousspeechwasmadeontheSproulHallstepsonDecember2,1964byastudentactivistandcivilrightsworker,MarioSavio:

There’satimewhentheoperationofthemachinebecomessoodious—makesyousosickatheart—thatyoucan’ttakepart .Youcan’tevenpassivelytakepart .Andyou’vegottoputyourbodiesuponthegearsanduponthewheels,uponthelevers,uponalltheapparatus,andyou’vegottomakeitstop .Andyou’vegottoindicatetothepeoplewhorunit,tothepeoplewhoownit,thatunlessyou’refree,themachinewillbepreventedfromworkingatall .8

InthenextstageofthedevelopingdemonstrationthousandsofstudentsoccupiedSproulHall;theysat-ininshiftsandattendedclasses,includingnewlyorganized“teach-ins”wherefree speech,civil rights,andthebeginningof theVietnamWarwereopenlydiscussed .OnDecember4thalmost800studentsinSproulHallwerearrested,butmostwerereleasedontheirownrecognizance .TheUniversitychosetofilemoreseriouschargesagainstthosewhomtheyperceivedas“leaders .”Inresponse,CalstudentsbasicallyshutdowntheUniversityandtheadministrationbackeddown .Politicalorganizingwas“allowed;”theFSMandbranchesofSDSspreadtoothercampusesandmanyoftheoldin loco parentis rulesfell .Collegestudentscameintotheirownas“adults”freetoexpressopinions,eventuallyevaluatingtheircoursesandprofessors,livinginco-eddorms,andsoon .

AmericaninvolvementintheVietnamWarincreasedsteadily,andtelevisionbroughtitintoeverylivingroomanddormitory .OntherightthewarwasperceivedasanessentialbattleagainsttheCommunistmenace .OntheleftthewarwasseenasanimperialistadventurethatservedtheinterestsoftheMilitaryIndustrialComplexthataRepublicanPresidentandheroofWorldWarII,DwightEisenhower,hadwarnedagainstinhisfarewelladdress .Ikewascon-cernedthatrevolvingdoorsandtightrelationshipsbetweenCongress,themilitary,andhugedefensecontractorswouldcreateapermanentwartimestate .9

TwoofthereasonstheVietnamWarbecameaflashpointoncampuswerefirstthedraft,andsecondtheconcernthatinsteadofbeing“free”theuniversitywasincreasinglyentangledwiththemilitaryindustrialcomplex—notonlyinhugeinvestmentsliketheLawrenceLiver-moreNationalLaboratory,but inmyriadsmallgrants to individualprofessorsandcampuslaboratories .Theroleofthehiddencurriculumofrelationsbetweenauniversitysupposedlydedicatedtotheopenpursuitofknowledge,andauniversitythatmanysawasanarmofapermanentwartimestate,becamehighlyvisibleandincreasinglycontentious .

Asthewarescalatedthedraftbecamethemostobviouselementoftheoncehiddencur-riculum .Fromthebeginningcollegestudentshadbeengivendraftdeferments .Thisseparatedmiddle-classmalesfromtheirworking-classbrethrenandcausedmanytogotocollegewho


mightnothaveotherwise .In1966thegovernmentwentonesteptoofarbyrequiringstudentstotakeanachievementtypetestcalledthe“studentdraftdefermenttest .”Presumablythein-tentwastoseparate“worthy”studentsfromthosewhowereescapingthedraft .Oncampusesacrossthecountrytherewasmassiveresistancetotheveryconcept;manyrefusedtotaketheexamandmanypicketedthetestingsites .The“test”wasonlyofferedonce .Butitopenedawindowontherelationshipbetweentheuniversityandthemilitary .SacredcowslikeROTCcametobequestioned,andinmanycasesweremovedoffcampus .

The Hidden Curricula ChangeThereisneitherspacehere,norneed,towriteabouttheturbulenthistoryofthe1960sandearly70s .Instead,Iwillturntothedirecteffectofthepoliticalbattlesonhiddencurriculaintheuniversity .Ithasbeensaidthattherightwonthepoliticalwarwhiletheleftwonthecul-turalwar .Inuniversitypoliticsthereismuchtruthinthisobservation .Hippiesandleftiststu-dentsbroughtsex,drugs,androckandrolloncampusandorganizedanti-war,civilrights,andstudentpowermarches,demonstrations,andhumanbe-ins .ButRonaldReaganwaselectedGovernorofCalifornia,atleastpartlybypromisingtocleanup“themessatBerkeley .”ClarkKerr,asChancelloroftheCaliforniasystem,soughttoprotectprotestingstudentsfrombeingexpelled,andwasfiredforbeing“toolenient”bytheconservativeboardofregents .10Nonethe-less,therewouldbenoreturntoauniversityactingassurrogateparentsandpolicingstudentmorality .Norwouldthenexusofuniversityresearchwiththemilitarybeinterrupted;insteaditgrewandstrengthened .

Requiredcoursework,generaleducationrequirements,hadlongbeenstakesinastrugglebetween“traditionalists”whobelievedcertaincourseswereessentialscaffoldingforahighereducation degree and “progressives” who thought students should have freedom of choicetodecideontheireducationalinterests .Famously,theUniversityofChicagoandColumbiaUniversityhadthemostrigorouscorerequirementswhileCornellandBrownledinopenen-rolmentandstudent-drivencourses .Inundergraduateeducationthenumberofrequiredcorecoursestendedtoshrinkasanagreementwasreachedbetweenthosewhosawschoolasapathtoemploymentandthosewhosawhighereducationasaplaceforintellectualexperimentationandadvocatedforfreedomofchoice .Whiletheirgoalsweredisparate,theyagreedthattwoyearsofrequiredcredithourswastoomuch .11

Astheoldhiddenagendasandpracticeswereexposedbynewgenerationsofscholars,andbystudentsnolongercontenttosimplyfollowalong,itbecameessentialfortheUniversitytofindnewwaystohidemanyelementsofthecurriculumonceagain .Accusationsofracism,classism,andsexismandalonghistoryofdiscriminatorypracticesbyfaculty“goodoldboy”networksweredealtwithbytwodevelopments:affirmativeactioninstudentrecruitmentandfacultyhiringandthedevelopmentofinterdisciplinarystudies,suchasethnicandwomen’sstudiesprograms .

Beginningin1961theterm“affirmativeaction”begantobeusedinprogramsdesigned,amongotherthings,toopeneducationalopportunitiesforstudentsofcolorandtoincreasethepresenceofwomenoncampus .12AdmissionsinmostcollegesanduniversitieshadbeentrulyahiddenprocessinwhichSATorothertestscoreswereused,buttherewasampleroomforindividualfacultyandadmissioncommitteestomakeselectionsbasedonunspokencri-teria .IntheIvyLeaguesandotherprestigiousinstitutions“legacy”admissionswere(andare)


common;i .e .,studentswhoseparentshadattendedthesameinstitutionwerefarmorelikelytobeadmitted .Evenifnotdiscriminatoryonpurpose,thesepolicieshadtheeffectofpro-ducingincomingclasseshomogeneousintermsofrace,socialclass,andgender .Studentsofcolorandthosefromblue-collarbackgrounds,olderstudents,orstudentswhowerethefirstintheirfamilytoattendcollege,facedbarrierstoadmissionaswellastosuccessinattainingdegrees .Certainmajors—engineering,math,andthenon-biologicalsciences—tendedtohavegenderedhiddencurricula:aperceivedhostilitythatmarginalizedwomen .13Universitiessetupofficesofaffirmativeactionthatmonitoredadmissionsproceduresandoutcomes .Thegoalwastoeliminatebarrierstounder-representedgroupsandmakeadmissionspoliciestransparent .

Affirmativeactionprogramsproducedacounter-narrativeamongconservativefacultyandstudentsthatstudentsofcolororwomenwouldnothavebeenadmitted“ontheirownaca-demicmerits .”Affirmativeactionwasseenas“reversediscrimination”inwhichmorequalifiedwhitemalesweredeniedadmissiontoprovideroomfor theunderqualified in thenameofpoliticalcorrectness .Alternately,itwassaidbysomethatwell-qualifiedwomenandstudentsofcolorwouldsufferfromthestigmaofbeingperceivedas“affirmativeaction”cases(Bloom1987;Rodriguez [1982]1983;Steal1991;Sykes1988) .Bothsides recognized thatmostlyhiddenadmissionsandhiringpracticesshapedthefacultyandstudentbody—indeedtheuni-versityitself .ThisbattlehasbeenfoughtinscholarshipandinthecourtsformorethanhalfacenturywithopposingsideshavingbeenlargelydeterminedbytheSharonandPortHuronideologicalstatements .

Simultaneously,effortsfrominsideandoutsidetheuniversitycreatedwholenewdepart-mentsandprogramswiththeirownformalandhiddencurricula .Women’sstudies,Blackstud-ies,Chicanostudies,andAsian/PacificIslanderstudiesprogramsstruggledtobeestablished—oftenwithpressureonuniversityadministrationsfromcommunityactiongroups .Thenamesofethnicstudiesprogramschangedaspoliticalwordusagechange;e .g .,BlackstudiesbecameAfricanAmericanStudies(andnowatASU,AfricanandAfricanAmericanStudies;Chicana/oStudieswasre-brandedTransborderStudies14) .Moreorlessatthesametime,existingcourseworkinhistory,thesocialsciences,andhumanitiesbegantochangetheformalcurriculumtoincludeuntold(hidden)storiesofworkers,women,immigrants,andminoritygroups .Along-sidethesedevelopmentsgrewaconservativewhisperingcampaignandeventuallyaliteraturethattheseprogramswere“crapcourses”thattheywereanti-male,anti-whitepeople—ines-sencethattheyhadcreatedtheirownhiddencurriculumofdiscriminatorypractices(Bloom1987;Sykes1988;Steal1991) .InaninterestinganalysisofthedevelopmentofChicanoStud-iesprograms,MichaelSoldatenkopointedoutthatwhatactuallyhappenedwasthatthenewprogramsweredisciplinedbytheacademy .Programssoughttobecomedepartments,facultyheld eachotherup to “rigorous” tenure andpromotionpolicies, for exampledowngradingpublicationsin“Chicano”journalsinfavorofmainstreamdisciplinaryjournalsinthesocialsciencesorhumanities(Soldatenko1998,1999) .

Often,insteadofdisestablishinggoodoldboynetworks,parallelgoodoldgirlandethnicstudiesnetworksweredeveloped .Thehiddencurriculumofraceandgenderhadbecomefarless visible,but itdidnotdisappear .Nonetheless, the routinizationof thesenewacademicdisciplinestookmuchofthefuryoutofcivilrightsattacksontheacademy .

Theanti-warmovementsthatsprangfromthewarinVietnamandlaterCambodiawereperhaps an evenbigger threat tohidden curricula that connected the “multiversity” to thegrowingmilitaryindustrialcongressionalcomplex .Asthewarragedontherewererepeated


callstomoveROTCoffcampusandmanyuniversitiesdidjustthat,e .g .,Harvardin1969andStanfordin1971 .(Evenwhenthewarended,theanti-ROTCpolicycontinuedinobjectiontothe“don’task,don’ttell”policyforgaysinthemilitarythatPresidentClintoninstitutedin1993 .)Ithadbeenthepracticeforrecruitersfromeachbranchofthearmedservicestocometocampusesandsetuptablestopromotetheirbranchandinducecollegestudentstoenlist .Demonstratorsblockedthetables,chantedanti-warslogans,andinsomecasessprayedbloodontherecruiters .Theybecameaflashpoint .Studentdemonstratorsalsoconfrontedthedraftdirectly—chanting“hellno,wewon’tgo”andburningtheirdraftcards .

Thelong-termsolutiontothis,bothforthegovernmentandforacademia,wastheso-called“AllVolunteerArmy .”Nixonhadpromisedtoendthedraftinhis1968campaignandfiveyearslaterthisbecameareality .Thebrutefactthatmiddle-classcollegestudentsnolon-gerhadtofearbeingdraftedwasabrilliantstrategyinreducingoppositiontowarstheU .S .enteredinto .Ineffectitdepoliticizedthecampus .Whilethe“ShockandAwe”attackonIraqdidprovokewidespreadanti-wardemonstrations,theyhadneithertheimpactnortheholdingpoweroftheVietnamprotests .15Asthehiddencurriculumoflinksbetweencolleges/universi-tiesandthemilitarybecamelessandlessvisibleonceagain,nocampuseswereshutdown;noadministrationbuildingoccupied .After40years,in2011HarvardwelcomedbackROTC .16

Themoralityofmilitary support foruniversity researchhadbeencontroversial at leastsinceWorldWarIIandthedevelopmentoftheatomicbomb .TheSDScallfor“afreeuni-versity in a free society” impliedopposition to secret researchprojects .Theverynotionof“science”requiresopenpublishingofresultssothattheycanbe“replicated”andtested .Secretscienceisanoxymoron .Similarly,therewasawarenessandmuchcriticismoftheCIAsponsor-shipofsocialscienceresearchintheColdWar,counter-insurgency,andwarsofnationallibera-tion,aswellasdomesticspyingprogramsintheU .S .likeCOINTELPRO .Manyacademicslearned through the Freedom of Information Act and the multi-volume “Church Report”thattheyhadbeenthesubjectofwarrantlesssurveillancebytheFBIandCIA(UnitedStatesSenate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to IntelligenceActivities) .17IntherecentwarsintheMid-eastandCentralAsiatheU .S .armyrecruitedU .S .academics—anthropologistsandothersocialscientists—intowhattheytermed“theHumanTerrainSystem .”Theyweretobe“embedded”withArmyunitsto“recruit,train,deploy,andsupportanembeddedoperationally focusedsocio-culturalcapability;conductoperationallyrelevantsocio-culturalresearchandanalysis;developandmaintainasocio-culturalknowledgebase,inordertoenableoperationaldecision-making,enhanceoperationaleffectiveness,andpreserveandsharesocio-culturalinstitutionalknowledge .”18Muchuniversityresearchisnowprivatelyfundedbylargeelectronics,pharmaceutical,andothercorporationswithpatentandintellectualpropertyrightsnegotiatedbetweentheuniversityadministrationandthefundingcorporation .Inincreasinglycommonpractice,openpublicationofresearchfindingsisbecom-ingtightlycontrolledas“tradesecrets .”

AboveandbeyondtheongoingrelationsbetweenacademiaandtheMilitaryIndustrialComplex, the singlemost importantchange in thehiddencurriculum inhighereducationwasachangeinthepublicallyperceivedmissionoftheinstitution .Whereeducationduringthecoldwarerawasseenasabroadsocialbenefitandstatecollegesanduniversitiesperceivedaspublicgoods,acollegeeducationcametobedefinedasapersonalbenefit .Ingoodorbadeconomictimesstate legislaturesbegantocutbackontheircontributionstohighereduca-tion .PellGrants,basedonneed,wereincreasinglyreplacedbyasystemofgovernment-backed


loans .PellGrants,whichdonothavetoberepaid,arecappedat$5,500forthe2011schoolyear .Thecostoftuitionhasbeenrisingsteadily .AccordingtotheCollegeBoard:

Publicfour-yearcollegescharge,onaverage,$7,605peryearintuitionandfeesforin-statestudents .Theaveragesurchargeforfull-timeout-of-statestudentsattheseinstitutionsis$11,990 .Privatenonprofitfour-yearcollegescharge,onaverage,$27,293peryearintuitionandfees .Tuitionisonlyaportionofcollegecosts;ontopofthatonemustaddcostssuchasliv-ingexpenses,texts,andsupplies .Thus,thereisanincreasinggapbetweenwhatthePellGrantmightcoverandthecostofcollege,agapincreasinglycoveredbyloans;somearedirectfeder-allyfinancedlow-interestloans,othersliketheFederalFamilyEducationLoanProgramaremadebyprivatebanksbutbackedbythegovernment .19AccordingtotheAtlantic, studentloanshavegrownby511%since1999 .20

InamodernversionoftheGIBill,universitiesincreasinglysawtheirmissionasahighersortofvocationaleducation;andstudentswereexpectedtoreapindividualrewardsbyget-tingadvanceddegrees .However,unliketheGIs,manywentdeeplyintodebttoattainthosedegrees .AccordingtoForbes:

. . .oneoutofevery10studentswhograduatedfromfour-yearcollegesanduniversitiesin2008(themostrecentyearforwhichdataisavailable)owed$40,000ormoreinloans,accord-ingtotheInstituteforCollegeAccessandSuccess .Overallmorethantwo-thirds(67%)ofstu-dentsearningdegreesfromthoseinstitutionscarriedloandebt,owinganaverage$23,200 .21

OneofmyEducationstudents(whowillremainanonymous)wrotethis,summarizingthedesperationofstudents,especiallythoseinthelow-wage“helping”professionsliketeachingandsocialwork:

1semesterofdoctoraltuitionatASU=$5,000 .Myyearlysalaryasahighschoolteacher—lessthan$40,000 .ThepossibilitythatIwillgettomentorastudentteacherfortheSpringsemes-terthatwillcoverthecostof6credithours—priceless!(fingerscrossed)

Withdebtspilingup,studentswerebasicallyeliminatedasathreattothestatusquo;theywereunlikelytobedemonstratingagainstwars,orforciviloranyotherrights .Asstudentsandtheirparentsassumedamuchgreatershareoftheeducationalcost,studentsbegantoseethem-selvesasconsumersofaservice—eroding“pedagogicalauthority”andcontributingtogradeinflation .22Insomewayschallengingthenotionthatthe“professorwasalwaysright”helpedbalancethehiddencurriculaoftheivorytower,butaswithanyonewhoispayingforaservice,student/consumersexpectednotonlytobeserved“education”butalsotobeentertainedinwaysthatGeorgeRitzerandotherstermedMcDonaldization .IntheMcUniversitystudents“ . . .seethemselvesasconsumersofeducationinmuchthesamewayastheyareconsumersinthemall(includingthecybermall)”(Ritzer2002,p .19) .RitzertermedMcUniversities“ca-thedralsofconsumption .”Heargued(asMaxWeberwouldhave)thattheyarealsorationalbureaucraticstructuresthatsimultaneouslyproducedisenchantment(Ritzer2002,p .20) .Tocounterdisenchantment,McUniversitiescreatethreekindsofspectacle:

1 .Thecreationofsimulations—“elaboratefakes,designedtoamazeanddelightconsumers”—because“thereal,theauthentic,isdifficulttoworkwith .”


2 . “Implosion”which“involves the eliminationofboundariesbetweenextantphenomenasothattheycollapseinononeanother .”HisexampleisthewaythatthemeparksandmallsbecameoneandthesameinplaceslikeTheMallofAmerica—in“TheNewAmericanUniver-sity”dormitorieshavebecomecountryclubs(discussedbelow) .

3 .“Themanipulationoftimeandspace .”Timecompressionmeansthatthingsthatusedtotakeweeks,saywritingaresearchpaper,canbedoneinanevening(nothinginthatstatementimpliesquality .)AfinalcomponentofMcDonaldizationis“edutainment”:

. . .classestaughtbyclosedcircuittelevisionoronlinemakeitpossibleforstudentsacrossthecountrytotakecoursesatagivenuniversity .Thesecoursescanbetaken . . .attheleisureofthestudent .Anduniversitiespourfundsintobuildingimmensefacilitiessuchasstadiumsandathleticcenterswiththeattentionofattractingstudents .(Ritzer2002,pp .20,21)

McDonaldization of Higher Education: The New American University as a Case in Point

Fulldisclosure:IamanAssociateProfessoratArizonaStateUniversity(ASU),andhavebeenteachingheresince1995;Ispeakfromexperienceandtheexperiencesofmycolleaguesandstudents .In2002MichaelM .CrowtookoveraspresidentofArizonaStateUniversity(ASU)andimmediatelysetaboutemployingthe“shockdoctrine”borrowedfrombusinessdesignedtodisruptthehiddencurriculaofuniversityculture .23Curiously,whenmanybusinessesaremovingtodiffusemodelsthatemploydistributedweb-likestructuresandsocialmedia,ASUandtheArizonaBoardofRegentschosetoimposeacommandandcontrolstructurereminis-centoftheoldfactorysystem .Usingavarietyofmeans,Crowsoughttodisruptandeliminateculturalpracticesincludingfacultygovernance(alreadyweakenedto“sharedgovernance”)andthestructureofdiscipline-baseddepartments,andreplacethetraditionaldiffusedandlooselycoupledpowerwithatop-downcontrolmodel .Hecirculatedapamphlettodeansandde-partmentheadsproducedbyaprivatemanagementfirm,Dallas-basedPritchett&Associates,titledHigh-Velocity Cultural Change: A Handbook for Managers .Theopeninglinesread:

Yourapproachtochangingthecultureshouldbehighlyoutofcharacterfortheorganization .Choosemethodsthatstandinstarkcontrasttostandardoperatingprocedures .Fromtheveryoutsetyoumustfreeyourselffromtheexistingcultureandconceiveaplanofactionthatstartstoliberatetheorganizationfromitspast .(PritchettandPound1993,p .3)

Highvelocitydestructionofuniversitycultureandreplacingitwithacommandandcon-trolhierarchywereessentialtoMcDonaldizewhathadbeenamid-levelstateuniversity,albeitonewithResearchOnestatus .ASUwasre-branded“TheNewAmericanUniversity .”Soonafterhearrived,Crow,whohelddegreesinPublicPolicyandPublicAdministration(ScienceandTechnologyPolicy),calledtheentirefacultyoftheCollegeofEducation(COE)toameet-ing .Irememberitlikeitwasyesterday,becauseIknewfromthatmomentonthattheCOE’sdays were numbered—especially my program, Educational Leadership and Policy Studies(ELPS) .TheASUprogramwasoneofthetoptengraduateprogramsinpublicuniversitiesinthefield .OurfacultyincludedthreeRegentsProfessors,MaryLeeSmith,GeneV .Glass,andDavidBerliner,andanumberofotherhighlyaccomplishedpolicyresearchersincludingAlexMolnar,TerrenceWiley,andTeresaMcCarty .Thesescholarswere internationallyknownin


educationalpolicyresearch,andperhapsmoreimportantlyaspublicintellectuals .TheywerealsoatoddswithmanyofthepoliciesbeingpromotedbytheArizonaStateDepartmentofEducation,especiallythedevelopmentofunregulatedcharterschools,English-onlyinstruc-tion,andthedevelopmentofandtheuseof“highstakes”testsasbothgraduationrequire-mentsforK-12studentsandasawayofevaluatingteacher“merit .”Asageneralization,theCOEfacultysawattacksonpubliceducationasapolicyofright-wingpoliticians,ofwhichArizonahasnoshortage .

Themeetingwasheld ina lecturehall, facultyseated inthe“student”desksandCrowstandingatthepodiumonaraiseddais .OneofthemorejuniorfacultyaskedpresidentCrowwhathispositionasapolicyanalystwasonsomeof these issues .Red facedandobviouslyangry,CrowcamedownfromthedaisandshouteddirectlyatGlassandBerliner,whowereseatednexttoeachother .Iamparaphrasing,butthegistwasthat“Policyanalystsdonottakepositions .Theirjobistocollectdatafortherealdecisionmakerstouseinsettingpolicy .”ThefacultyremainedmutelyembarrassedwhileCrow’sangrytiradewentonforsometime .TheadversarialrelationshipbetweenASU’sCOEandtheconservativeofficialsattheStateDepart-mentofEducationwasclearlymorethanasorepointforCrow .Moreover,heclearlyintendedtodosomethingaboutit .

Berliner’sbookThe Manufactured Crisis (BerlinerandBiddle1995)exposedanddebunkedtheright-wingattackonpublicschools .AlexMolnar’sworkexcoriatedtheeffectofbusinesson public schools (Molnar 2001) . Through The Education Policy Research Unit (EPRU),Alexandhiscolleaguesquicklyanddirectlyattackedmisinformationdistributedbyright-wingthinktanks;GeneGlasshadcreatedoneofthefirstonline,peer-reviewedscholarlyjournalsineducation,Education Policy Analysis Archives(http://epaa .asu .edu/ojs/),whichfreelydistrib-utedagooddealofpolicyanalysissimilarlycounteringattacksonpublicschoolsanddisprov-ingmanyoftheclaimsbythosewhoadvocatedmarket-basedschoolreforms likevouchersandcharterschools .GlassandBerlinerhadeachpublishedpeer-reviewedpapersshowingthatso-calledcharterschoolsoperatedtoincreaseracialandsocialclasssegregation .AndSmithwasexaminingtheArizonaschoolcontroversiesas“politicalspectacle”(Smith,Miller-Kahn,Hei-necke,andJarvis2004) .Atthetime,Thomas“Tom”HornehadrecentlyreplacedLisaGrahamKeeganastheStateSuperintendentofPublicInstructionforArizona .

In1995Keeganhadlaidplanstodevelopatestrequiredforstudentstograduatehighschool,and the followingyear the legislatureestablishedAIMS, theArizonaInstrument toMeasureStandards .In1999,thefirstofficialyearofthetest,nineoutoftensophomoresfailedthemathexam .24Asoneoftheforemoststatisticiansineducationalresearch,Glasstestifiedincourtthat,evenifthecurriculumandtheexaminationquestionswereinalignment,therewasnoscientificbasisforwheretosetthe“cutpoint”forpassingorfailure .Itwaspurelyapoliticaldecisionwhether60,70,or80percentofstudents“passed”theexam .

BothKeeganandHornepushedextremelyconservativeagendasmandatingEnglishOnlyinstruction,advocatedforschoolvouchersortaxrefundsforparentssendingtheirchildrentoprivate(includingreligious)schools,andeventuallybanningEthnicStudiesinK-12schools .TheadversarialrelationshipbetweenEducationalPolicyStudiesatASUandtheStateDepart-mentofEducationwas,inmyopinion,afactormotivatingCrow’sanger,whichatthetimeseemedbothoutofcontrolandinappropriateforhisfirstmeetingwithmorethan100facultymembersofoneofthelargestandmostsuccessfulcollegesofEducationinthenation .


Thecollegegotanewdeanandwasreorganizedandre-brandedas“TheMaryLouFultonInstituteandGraduateSchoolofEducation”but the4000+undergraduates intheTeacherPreparationProgramwereplacedunderadifferentdean .Thiswasdoneintwoback-to-backhalf-hourmeetingscalledbytheProvost—theytookplaceattheexactmomentoftheObamainauguration .IntheTuesday,January20,2009,meetings,thefacultyweregiventhenewOr-ganizationChart,andafterabriefdescriptivepresentation(noquestions),facultywereaskedtoleavethroughthebackdoorsostaffcouldfileinthroughthefrontdoor .

MaryLouFultonandGraduateSchoolofEducationstaffweretoldthattheywouldeachmeetwiththeirsupervisorwithinthenextfewhoursandwouldreceiveanenvelope .Someweretoldtoemptytheirdesksandgohomeimmediately;others,withmoreseniority,wereexpectedtostayattheirpoststhroughOctober .Icannotevenwriteabouttheshockandtearsofpeoplewhohadjustbeensummarilyfired,almostallwomen,someofwhomIhadworkedwithattheuniversityforfifteenyears .

This“reorganization”essentiallyleftthegraduateprogramswithoutfinancialsupportbe-yondgrantoverheadfunds .Thenewdeandressedverywellandassuredusthateverythingwouldbefine .ButInoticedthatthenewprogramshadnotreceivedanyofthe“magic”wordslike“sustainability”“global”“embedded”oreven“studentsuccess”(discussedbelow) .Itookthisasastrongindicationthattheenterprisewasdoomedfromthestart .Ihadstoppedgoingtofacultymeetings,consideringthemawasteoftimeandashamdemocraticprocess,butascynicalasIwas,Iwasnotpreparedforatextfromoneofmyjuniorcolleagueswhowrotefromameeting“Whatdoes‘disestablished’mean?”Ididnothavethehearttotextback .TheMaryLouFultonCollegeofEducation(MLF)was“disestablished” inMay2010bytheArizonaBoardofRegents .Thememoreadinpart:“ThefacultyintheMaryLouFultonInstituteandGraduateSchoolofEducationwillbereassignedtotheappropriateacademicunitthatbestfitstheirexpertise .”25InitsplaceaMLF“TeachersCollege”wasestablished .Seeminglylittleornothoughthadbeengiventoapproximately400graduatestudentsinthe“pipeline .”Thenewdeanleftabruptlyinmid-term,December2010 .

IwasabletomovemytenurelinetotheHughDownsSchoolofHumanCommunication;manyolderfaculty,includingthosenamedaboveaspublicintellectuals,retired;someofthebestandbrightestmovedtoother,morehospitable,universities .ManyfacultyfromPsychol-ogyinEducation,especiallytheprograminMeasurementandStatisticsandMethodologicalStudies(MSMS),wentto“FamilyDynamics”andaratherlargegroupfoundthemselvesout-sideofanyprogrambutbecameaffiliatedwithanewlybranded“SchoolofSocialTransforma-tion .”Thenanevenmoretellingsetofdemandstookplace .InawidelycirculatedmemofromtheProvostdatedAugust12,2010,itwasannouncedthat

FacultyfromtheMLFInstitutethathavebeenreassignedtootherdepartmentscontinuetohaveteachingresponsibilitiesintheMaryLouFultonTeachersCollege .Theycannottakeonteachingassignmentsatthistime . . .[but]willbedependentontheneedsoftheMaryLouFultonCollegetodelivertheprogramsundertheirresponsibility .

Thiscommuniquesolvedthe immediateproblemofwhattodowiththegraduatestu-dentsstillneedingclasses,committeemembers,andchairs .But itaccomplishedafarmoreimportantadministrativegoalofdefiningfacultyas“employees”tobereassignedasneededordesired .Inmyowncase,eventhoughIwasafull-timefacultymemberinCommunication,Iwasrequiredtoteach“myfullload”intheTeachersCollege .Atonepoint,whenIwasteaching


Communicationclasses,mychairreceiveda“bill”fromtheTeachersCollegefor$4,000percourse—IpresumetocoveraTA’ssalary .

Re-branding and Weakening the Power of the DisciplinesGeorgeRitzer(1996)usedtheorganizationoffastfoodindustriesasexemplaryofnewman-agement systems that demanded “efficiency,” “calculability,” “predictability,” and “control .”McDonaldizationalsoincludedrelianceon“shadowlabor”(Lambert2011) .Inthefastfoodindustrythismeanstaskssuchaspickingupand“fixing”yourfoodandbussingyourtable .Latelyithasmeant“checking”yourselfoutatthesupermarket .

In“TheNewAmericanUniversity”shadowworkhasmeantthatstudentsgoonlinetodoeverythingfromregisteringandschedulingtheirclassesandpayingtheirbills,tocreatingtheir“ProgramofStudy”andeven,forgraduatestudents,schedulingtheroomfortheiroralde-fense .Forfaculty“shadowwork”includespreparinganonlineFacultyActivityReport(FAR)forannualreview,managingbenefitsandtimeandleavestatements,filinggrades,andsoon .Shadowworkeliminatedmanystaffpositionsincludingdepartmentalsecretaries,administra-tiveassistants,andbusinessmanagers .Massfiringsofadministrativestaffwith institutionalmemoryaidedinthe“cultureshock”intendedtobreakupexistingsocialrelationships .

McDonaldizationacceleratedalreadyongoingprocessesofreplacingtenureandtenure-trackfacultywithadjunctswhowerepaidbythecourseandreceivedlittleifanybenefits .AsIwroteinanearlierreviewofDennisHayesandRobinWynyard’santhologyontheMcDon-aldizationofHigherEducation(Margolis2004,p .368):

Wherenotsolongagoprofessors“owned”thetoolsofscholarship,controlledthelaborpro-cess,andcertifiedthequalityofourproduct,theprocessofMcDonaldizationhastornthisrelationasunder .Rapidlyincreasingstudentfacultyratios,massclasses,andtheuseoflow-wageteachingassistantsandadjunct facultyhavechangedthe jobofprofessor . (HayesandWynyard2002,p .64ff .)

OneofthemostvisibleresultsofthepracticesMcDonaldizationsetinmotionhasbeen“re-branding .”WhilestillArizonaStateUniversity,inalmosteverycaseitwassimultaneouslyreferredtoas“TheNewAmericanUniversity”andwasplannedtobecomethelargestuniver-sityintheUnitedStates—whichithasachieved .Infallof2010ASUhadmorethan58,000students .26Undertheslogan“OneUniversity inManyPlaces”(whichfacultyandstudentsquickly turned into “oneuniversity all over theplace”),ASUEast campuswas re-brandedthe“Polytechnic”campus .Theschoolofartandtheschoolofdesignweremergedintothe“HerbergerInstituteforDesignandtheArts .”TheASUCollegeofLiberalArtsandSciences(CLAS),reflectingitsownchanges,describesitselfthus:

JustasASUispositioningitselfasamodeloftheNewAmericanUniversity,thecollegeisrede-finingliberalartseducationforthe21stcentury .Alongwithsuchtraditionalcoredepartmentsaschemistry,English,physicsandpsychology,thecollegehascreatedanumberoftransdisci-plinaryschoolsthatfacilitatethecreationofnewknowledgeacrossdisciplinaryboundaries .AmongthesearetheschoolsofEarthandSpaceExploration,HumanEvolutionandSocialChange,InternationalLettersandCultures,andSocialandFamilyDynamics .27

WithinCLAS,theSchoolofJusticeStudies,whichhadtaken25yearstobuildanationallyrecognizednameandreputation,wasrebrandedas“JusticeandSocialInquiry .”Mostofthe


ethnicstudiesprogramsandwomenandgenderstudiesweredowngradedandincorporatedinthenew“SchoolofSocialTransformation”thatmodestlyproclaims“Togetherwecreatenewknowledge that challenges conventional thinking and transforms the world .”28 Meanwhile,Chicana/oStudiesbecameASU’s“SchoolofTransborderStudies .”TheCLASatASUiscur-rentlycomposedofthefollowing:

EarthandSpaceExploration

GeographicalSciencesandUrbanPlanning

Historical,PhilosophicalandReligiousStudies

HumanCommunication

HumanEvolutionandSocialChange

InternationalLettersandCultures

LifeSciences

MathematicalandStatisticalSciences

PoliticsandGlobalStudies

SocialandFamilyDynamics

SocialTransformation

TransborderStudies

Departments:

AerospaceStudies

ChemistryandBiochemistry

English

MilitaryScience

Physics

Psychology

SpeechandHearingScience

Programs:

AmericanIndianStudies

JewishStudies

NavalScience29

Thisisnotsimplyaboutnamechanging,whichmightsimplybeamusinglypretentious .It is about disrupting the power of academic departments and their connections to largerdisciplines and professional organizations .While there are sociologists in Communication,JusticeandSocialInquiry,andsoon,thereisnodepartmentofsociologyandthusnodirectconnectionwiththeAmericanSociologicalAssociationwhichmightinterjectitselfinmattersofpromotionandtenureorresearchethics .Anthropologyisinasimilarsituation,re-branded“theASUSchoolofHumanEvolution&SocialChange .”Similardis-integrationoccurredin


otherschoolsandcolleges .TheIraA .FultonSchoolofEngineeringrestructureditsdepart-mentssuchasComputerScience,Electrical,Mechanical,andAerospaceEngineeringintofivenewunits .Initially,thefacultyweregiventhemandatetoidentifynewnamesthatincludednoneoftheoriginaldepartmentaltermsintheirtitles .Afterabriefsoftening(anecdotally,atleastpartiallyresultingfromfundingagencyconfusionabouttheapplicabilityoffacultyfromthenewdepartmentstoapplyforfunding)aseriesofgenerictitlessimilartotheother“reor-ganizations”weredeveloped,alsowithlittleresemblancetotheirprofessionalassociationsandorganizations:

SchoolofBiologicalandHealthSystemsEngineering

SchoolofComputing,Informatics,andDecisionSystemsEngineering

SchoolofElectrical,ComputerandEnergyEngineering

SchoolforEngineeringofMatter,TransportandEnergy

SchoolofSustainableEngineeringandtheBuiltEnvironment30

The importance of disciplines in the development of science cannot be overestimated .WhenStephenToulminwrotehis1972rejoindertoKuhn’sStructure of Scientific Revolutions(Kuhn1970)hearguedthat

whatwasfundamentaltothedevelopmentof“humanunderstanding”wasnot“paradigms”subjecttoradicaltransformationin“crisis”times,butrather“disciplines”—thatis,thestableinstitutionsofthecontinuingscientificcommunitywhicharepredicateduponassumptionsastohowknowledgewastobegained(e .g .,physiologicalprocessesaretobeexplainedinchemi-calterms) .Thus,Toulminconcentratedonexplaininghowsocialinstitutionsdevelopproce-duresforunderstanding,howtheychangethoseprocedures,evaluatetheirefficacyandpresenttheunderstandinggatheredfromthem .(Toulmin1972)(CitedinMargolis,1976,p .26)

Thepositionof“TheNewAmericanUniversity”isthusantitheticalandhostiletothenotionthattheprofessoriateconsistedofindependentintellectuals,whoseworkwasbestjudgedbydisciplinesoflike-mindedscholarsfamiliarwiththepresuppositionsandstandardsoftruth .Instead,professorsareseenasemployeesoftheuniversityascorporation,andtheofficersofthatcorporationshouldbefreetohireorfire,aswellastodeterminetheirworkingconditions .

Multidisciplinarity,hastakenplaceslowlyoverdecadesastheartsandsciencesdevelopednewfields—psychopharmacology,behavioralgenetics,justicestudiesandsoon—createdoutofnewknowledgeandwhichdevelopedtheirown“courtsofreason”(Toulmin1972) .How-ever,thecreationof“made-up”disciplineslike“socialtransformation”or“Language,LiteraciesandTechnology”havequitetheoppositeeffectbydegradingindependentresearchersguidedbydisciplinarystandardsintomereemployees .Moreover,futuregraduatesmayhaveadifficulttime“selling”theirdegreesintraditionaluniversitysettings .

Centralizing the Tenure ProcessAnotherclearexampleofthecentralizingofcommandandcontrolstructurestookplaceinmattersofpromotionandtenure .Ithasalwaysbeenthecasethatthelastanddecidingstageinthetenureandpromotionprocesstookplace inthepresident’soffice .Except inunusualcircumstances, recommendations fromthescholar’sdepartment,college,orschool,andtheuniversitytenureandpromotioncommitteewereacceptedbytheprovostandpresident .ButasthenewpresidentofArizonaStateUniversity,orjusttoshowthattherewasanewsheriff


intown,Dr .Crowmadeanumberofdecisionsoverridingtradition .Insomecasestenurewasawardedbutnotpromotion,inothercasespromotionbutnottenure—whichproducedtheoddeffectofhavinganuntenuredprofessoreligibleforasabbatical .Severallawsuitsresulted .

The University as SpectacleMostcollegesanduniversitieshavecreatedthemselvesas“spectacle”whetherthroughcenturiesoftraditionliketheHarvard-Yalefootballrivalry,orslightlymorerecentTexasA&M’sbon-fires .Therearewell-known“schoolcolors”andmascots .Semi-professionalcollegesportsteamsareconsumptionofferedasspectacleandrecreation .Nevertheless,inre-creatingitselfas“The”NewAmericanUniversity,ASUhasdonemoretomanufactureitselfasspectaclethanmost .Muchofthenewspectacleconsistsofre-brandingandcommercialism .TherehasbeenmuchconcernexpressedthatASUwasperceivedasa“partyschool”andnotasaseriousinstitution,andthenewwordsexpressedattemptstocountertheimage .

Facultyandstudentsalikehavemockedthe“WordSalad”at“TheNewAmericanUniver-sity”becauseitconsistsofoddsloganslike“Weembracecomplexity”thatseemliketheywerewrittenbyMadisonAvenue—theysoundprettybutaregenerallyemptyofcontent—some-thinglikeIBM’scurrentadvertisementabout“enginesofasmarterplanet”31—asifthereweredumbplanets—oruniversitiesthatembracedsimplicity .OntheASUwebsitethereaderistoldthat“EightdesignaspirationsguideASU’s transformation .”With theexceptionofperhapsnumbersix,discussedearlier,thisisakindofmagicalthinking;eitherfree-floatingsignifiersemptyofcontent,orsimplyapublicist’srestatementofwhateveryuniversitystrivesfor:

01 .LeverageOurPlaceASUembracesitscultural,socioeconomicand,physicalsetting .

02 .TransformSocietyASUcatalyzessocialchangebybeingconnectedtosocialneeds .

03 .ValueEntrepreneurshipASUusesitsknowledgeandencouragesinnovation .

04 .ConductUse-InspiredResearchASUresearchhaspurposeandimpact .

05 .EnableStudentSuccessASUiscommittedtothesuccessofeachuniquestudent .

06 .FuseIntellectualDisciplinesASUcreatesknowledgebytranscendingacademicdisciplines .

07 .BeSociallyEmbeddedASUconnectswithcommunitiesthroughmutuallybeneficialpartnerships .

08 .EngageGloballyASUengageswithpeopleandissueslocally,nationallyandinternationally .32

YetanotherspectacleofMcDonaldizationiswhatistermed“ResidentialLife .”FreshmenaregenerallyrequiredtoliveoncampusaspartoftheASU“experience”andthereareavarietyofchoicesincost,amenities,andlifestyle .(ItisalsothecasethatwhiletuitionforallthreeArizonaUniversitiesissetbytheBoardofRegents,feesincludingdormrents,mealtickets,andsoonarenot .)


Livingoncampusgivesyouaccesstoanewworldofopportunitiesinadynamicuniversityenvironment .TheresidentialexperienceisdesignedtopromoteyouracademicandpersonalsuccessandtohelpyoumakethemostofyourfirstyearasaSunDevil .StudenthousingattheTempecampusisdividedintoneighborhoods,eachofferingitsresidentsavarietyofacademicsupportservices,studyloungesandwirelessconnectivity,co-curricularprogramminganddin-ingoptions .33

Therearealso“residentialcolleges”forexampletheMaryLouFultonTeachersCollege:“Allfirst-timeincomingfreshmaneducationmajorsarerequiredtoliveintheResidentialCol-legeunlesstheyareexemptbyUniversityHousing .”Aspartoftheresidentialcollegeexperi-enceoneispromiseddinnerwiththedean,icecreamsocials,tutoring,peermentoringetc .34Itsimultaneouslycreatesapanopticalworldinwhichthestudentisendlesslyobservedandmustengage in impressionmanagement(Goffman[1959]1971,pp .203ff)andemotional labor(Hochschild1983) .

AsanotherexampleofRitzer’snotionof“implosion”asahallmarkofMcDonaldizationinhighereducation,justthismonth(November2011)anotherblockofolderstudenthous-ingwasbulldozedtomakewayforwhatisbeingdescribedas“Tempe’smostexclusivestu-denthousingcommunity . . . .hugeapartmentsandtownhouses,leather-stylesectionalsofa,hardwood-styleflooring,etc .”Thecomplexwillincludeafitnesscenter,computercenteranda “resort-style”pool .35While the term“exclusive” isunfortunate and suggests thepublicistneverlearnedAmericanhistory,36thisisintendedforolderand/ormarriedstudents .Ifthenewhousingfollowsthepattern,thegroundfloorwillberentedasretailspace .Thusthedormandtheresorthotelhavemerged .

ConclusionActually there isnowaytoconcludeoradequately summarizewhat isanongoingprocess .McDonaldizationhasproceededfasterandmorecompletelyinEnglandbecause,asmanyofthechaptersintheMcDonaldization of Higher Educationindicate,theirsystemismuchmorecentralizedthanhighereducationintheU .S .(HayesandWynyard2002) .

Nevertheless,theprocessisboundtoacceleratehereduetoacombinationofforcesin-cludingtheongoingeconomiccrisis that is leadingmanystatestoreducefundingforstatecollegesanduniversities;competitionwithprivatefor-profituniversitiesspecializingin“haveityourway” schedules, simulation,and themanipulationof timeand space throughcom-puterizedinstruction;increasingtuitionandothercostsoflivingthatreinforcethestudentasconsumer-of-a-serviceview;andthedemandfor“edutainment .”

Will“TheNewAmericanUniversity”becomeamodel?Perhaps .Butthereisaninternalcontradictioninthe“re-branding”which,aswithallproducts,isintendedtosetASUapartfromsimilarproducts .Itmustremainuniqueandhaveareasonablecostif it istomeetits100,000studentgoal .Moreover,itisunlikelythatneologismsliketheschoolof“socialtrans-formation”willcatchonandmaynotevenhavemuchshelflifehere .Therehavebeenseveralotherunitsherethatweregivenspectacularnames,hadafewyearsinthesun,andthenquietlydisappeared .

GiventhediffusenatureofhighereducationintheU .S .,anditsalreadystronghierarchi-calstructure,theMcDonaldizedUniversitywilllikelyoccupythesamekindofnicheasthefoodfranchise .TheIvyLeaguesandsimilar“highlyselective”universities(Stanford,the“Seven


Sisters” . . .)willremainatthetop .Highqualityandselectivestateuniversities—Wisconsin–Madison,Berkeley,Michigan–AnnArbor—mayadopt some elementsofMcDonaldizationbuthavelittlereasontore-brandthemselves .Smallhighqualityliberalartscollegesliketheso-called“littlethree”inNewEngland,theClaremontcolleges,BardandsoonalreadyofferrealindividualinstructionandmentoringandhavenoneedforthesimulacrumcreatedthroughMcDonaldization .

Manyoftheoldelementsofthehiddencurriculahavequietlyreturned .Tieswiththemili-tary,especiallyinResearchOneuniversities,areifanythingmuchstrongerthantheywereinthe1960s .Therearetop-secretfacilitiesatASUliketheformer“AirForceResearchLab”nearthepolytechniccampuswherepublic/privatepartnershipsareplanned .37Thereisalsoasemi-publicArmy/ASUprojecttocreateflexiblescreensforbattlefielduse .38ItisnotunrelatedthatCriminalJusticeisoneofthefastestgrowingfieldsandwherejobopportunitiesareavailable;andASUoffersmajorsrangingfromtheBStothePh .D .39AlsomanyoftheresearchgrantssolicitedfocusondevelopingnewtechnologiesforHomelandSecurity .40

Although the old gender-segregated dorms will not return, “choice” has allowed someelementstobere-instated .InoneofASU’sdormitoryneighborhoods,thebuildingisco-ed-ucational—butthefourthfloorisforwomenonly .Allbuildingsoncampusarenon-smokingandalcoholcanonlybeservedintheUniversityClub .Nevertheless,bingedrinkingisamajorproblem,andtherehavebeenalcohol-relatedstudentdeaths .

Fearof terrorismandschool shootingshave replaced fearofatomicattack . Inplaceofduckandcoverdrills,ASUhasbasicallydevelopedamilitarizedpoliceforcethatpatrolsthecampusoneverytypeofvehiclefromfootpatrolstoSegways .Whenwearrivedin1995,thepolice“headquarters”wasamodularbuildingandthecampuspolicewereunarmed .TodaytheycarryhandgunsandwhatIpresumeispepperspray .AllthreeArizonauniversitieshavearmedpolicewithassaultrifles .41Therehavebeenseveralbillsinthelegislaturetoallowfacultyandstudents tocarryconcealedweaponsoncampusbut,althoughthe lastonepassed, thegovernorvetoedit .Thenewcampuspoliceheadquartersisalargebuildingdefinedbyabar-likefaçade,andtheyhave141personnel,manyofwhomnodoubtspendhoursmonitoringsurveillancecameras .42Securityvideocamerasareallovercampus;surveillanceisthenewin loco parentis,Isuppose .Regardlessofhowonefeelsaboutthedirectiontakenbythisevolutionofhighereducation,itwouldbeaninterestingexercisetoassesstheeffectivenessofthe“TheNewAmericanUniversity”andwhatalternativesmightbepossibleinfulfillingthesignificanteducationalmandategivenbyArizona’sfounders .SectionsixofArticle11oftheArizonaCon-stitutionoutlinesthischarge(italicsaddedforemphasis):

TextofSection6:

Admissionofstudentsofbothsexestostateeducationalinstitutions;tuition;commonschoolsystem .

The university and all other state educational institutions shall be open to students of both sexes, and the instruction furnished shall be as nearly free as possible. Thelegislatureshallprovideforasystemofcommonschoolsbywhichafreeschoolshallbeestablishedandmaintainedineveryschooldistrict forat leastsixmonths ineachyear,whichschoolshallbeopentoallpupilsbetweentheagesofsixandtwenty-oneyears .43


Notes1 . Cf .http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/Nelson_A ._Rockefeller#Education2 . TherewereofcourseexceptionsliketheCityUniversityofNewYork,HunterCollegeandTheUniversityof

Chicagothathadhelpedmanyimmigrantchildrengethighereducations .Butnothinglikethemassiveexpan-sionofpublicuniversitiesthatbeganwiththeGIBill .

3 . Thereisnodoubtthatthestrongformwasdominantinthe60sandearly70s .Eveninthestateuniversitiestherewerefewstudentsofcolor .Thegenderingprocessvisibleindormlifecontinuedaswomenweretrackedintotraditionaloccupations—teachingandnursingforexample(atNewPaltzarteducationwasapopularchoice) .Everyoneknewthatingeneral“stateuniversities”wereforthemiddleclassesandupwardlymobileasopposedtotheIvyLeagues,theSevenSistersorStanford .

4 . Takenfromtheonlineversionathttp://bau2 .uibk .ac .at/sg/poe/works/p_letter .html5 . Thefulltextisavailableonline:http://www2 .fiu .edu/~yaf/sharon .html6 . Fulltextathttp://www .h-net .org/~hst306/documents/huron .html7 . Ibid .8 . Avideoofthespeechisonlineathttp://www .youtube .com/watch?v=u5o_0ZYA5HM9 . ThetextofEisenhower’sFarewelladdresscanbereadhere:http://www .h-net .org/~hst306/documents/indust .

html,andseenonBBCTVhere:http://www .youtube .com/watch?v=nUXtyIQjubU10 . ClarkKerr’sinfluential1963bookdetailedthesuccessesandtroublinginfluencesoftheemerging“multiver-

sity”thatincludedundergraduateandgraduateteaching,professionalschoolslikemedicineandlaw,aswellasbeingthemostimportantcenterforresearchanddevelopment .Cf .Kerr,Clark .[1963]2001 .The Uses of the University: The Godkin Lectures on the Essentials of Free Government and the Duties of the Citizen .Reprint,Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress .Adecadelater,TalcottParsons&Platt’sThe American Universityexplainedhowthestructureoftheuniversity,withitsdisparatefunctionsincludingundergraduateandgradu-ateeducation,professionalschoolslikelawandmedicine,andresearchgrewandwereindispensable .Parsons,Talcott,andGeraldM .Platt .1973 .The American University .Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress .

11 . http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/General_education_requirements12 . “Theterm“affirmativeaction”wasfirstusedintheUnitedStates .ItfirstappearedinExecutiveOrder10925,

whichwassignedbyPresidentJohnF .KennedyonMarch6,1961,anditwasusedtorefertomeasurestoachievenon-discrimination . In1965,PresidentLyndonB . Johnson issuedExecutiveOrder11246,whichrequiredfederalcontractorstotake“affirmativeaction”tohirewithoutregardtorace,religionandnationalorigin .In1968,genderwasaddedtotheanti-discriminationlist . . . .In2003,aSupremeCourtdecisionconcerningaffirmativeactioninuniversitiesallowededucational institutionstoconsiderraceasafactorinadmittingstudents,butruledthatstrictpointsystemsareunconstitutional .”http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/Affirmative_action

13 . SeechaptersinMargolis,Eric .2001 .The Hidden Curriculum in Higher Education .NewYork:Routledge .14 . http://sts .asu .edu/15 . BBC News World Edition,“Millionsjoinglobalanti-warprotests,”February17,2003,http://news .bbc .co .

uk/2/hi/europe/2765215 .stm(retrievedNovember12,2011);Frontline,“OperationIraqiFreedom:Achro-nologyofthesix-weekinvasionofIraq,drawnfromtheFRONTLINEdocumentary”PBS,http://www .pbs .org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/invasion/cron/(retrievedNovember25,2011)

16 . http://news .harvard .edu/gazette/story/2011/03/harvard-welcomes-back-rotc/17 . http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/Church_Committee .Seealsofullreport:Church,Frank,JohnG .Tower,etal .

1975 .Covert Action in Chile 1963–1973 .Washington,DC:U .S .GovernmentPrintingOffice63–372 .18 . http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/Human_Terrain_System19 . http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/Federal_Family_Education_Loan_Program;http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/Fed-

eral_Direct_Student_Loan_Program20 . http://www .theatlantic .com/business/archive/2011/08/chart-of-the-day-student-loans-have-grown-511–

since-1999/243821/21 . http://www .forbes .com/2010/08/01/student-loan-financial-aid-opinions-colleges-10–debt .html22 . Gradeinflationwasalsoboostedbyformalstudentcourseevaluationsandinformalonline“rateyourprofes-

sor”sites .23 . AlistofDr .Crow’srelationswithelementsoftheU .S .governmentcanbefoundinhisbiographyonWikipe-

dia .http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/Michael_M ._Crow24 . http://www .azcentral .com/arizonarepublic/news/articles/0516aimslawsuit0516 .html25 . https://provost .asu .edu/files/shared/capc/April%202010/UAC%20and%20CAPC%20Acad%20Re-org .pdf26 . http://en .wikipedia .org/wiki/List_of_United_States_university_campuses_by_enrollment27 . http://clas .asu .edu/about


28 . Itisinterestingthatafter“JusticeStudies”formeditselfwhenagroupofsociologistsleftSociology,ittookde-cadestohavethename—hencethelegitimacyofthedegree—recognized .Manyofthesenewbrandswillhavethesameproblemplacinggraduatestudentsfromprogramsthat,nomatterhownovelandtransdisciplinary,havenoestablishedmeaninginacademia;http://sst .clas .asu .edu

29 . http://clas .asu .edu/academicunits30 . http://engineering .asu .edu/schools/31 . https://www .ibm .com/engines32 . http://newamericanuniversity .asu .edu/design-aspirations/33 . http://www .asu .edu/housing/34 . http://education .asu .edu/content/residential-colleges35 . http://vistadelsol .com/36 . “Exclusive”inAmericanhistorymeantnoBlacks,noJews,andnoMexicansallowed—dependingonwhat

partofthecountryinwhichtheexclusivehousingorcountryclubwaslocated .37 . http://www .azcentral .com/community/mesa/articles/2010/11/21/20101121asu-mesa-gateway-research-lab .

html38 . http://www .asu .edu/feature/includes/spring05/readmore/flexdisplay .html39 . http://ccj .asu .edu/degree-programs40 . http://asunews .asu .edu/20080228_homelandsecurity41 . http://www .azcentral .com/arizonarepublic/local/articles/0305asuguns0305 .html42 . http://cfo .asu .edu/police43 . http://ballotpedia .org/wiki/index .php/Article_11%2C_Arizona_Constitution

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