EDUCATIONAL GOVERNANCE AND ADMINISTRATION

EDU 548CHAPTER XIII

“THE STATE LEVEL OF POLICY MAKING”By: Kathleen Merchant

March 25, 2013

IntroductionWhen the Constitution was written in the 1780’s no reference was made to education, neither did the earliest state constitution.The small amount of schooling that was available was left up to the churches and private academies, which was supported by those families who wanted their children to learn basic reading and mathematics.

For the most part education was not governed by law

This all Changed In the 1830’s and 1840’s, the Common School Movement wanted education reform.Elementary education mandatory for all free children(boys and girls). Its leaders worked with state government to establish the policy to make it happenWhen the states set up common school systems they were exercising one of the powers reserved to states based on the

10th Amendment within the United States ConstitutionAlthough this was the case for more than one hundred years the states did almost nothing to support public education other than issue less definitive goals and little financial backing

Education TodayPresently state governments are assertively

involved in the following ways; setting goals for schools, shaping

curriculum and evaluating student learning and progress. To accomplish this task: Each school employs a bureaucracy, which is

closely linked to local school districts, who in turn are expected

to report on a regular basis to the state on what is happening This growth of state power as it relates to public

education has made it crucial that education administrators comprehend what occurs at the state level of

government and educational policymaking

Overview of State Education Governance Legal Framework

As mentioned before the U.S. Constitution does not contain the word education, not to mention any provisions for the establishment of public schools or any other school. On the other hand, it does include in the Bill of Rights, the Tenth Amendment , which gives states and the people any authority not granted to the federal government under the federal constitution The right to set up and regulate schools is one of the so called reserved powers, given to the fifty state governments State governments has adopted a state constitution that grants it the

powers to establish and regulate schools As a result, Portion of portion of the state constitution

regarding education statues regarding education passed by state legislation and court decisions handed down in the state court systems form the legal bases for the governance of education by each state.

The Scope and State Authority The state’s authority over education within its borders is broad. This authority can extend beyond the K-12 education. (private education, home schooling and higher education) This implies that the state government can exercise the following: Set up and abolish local schools, or simply do without local school districts altogether; License teachers and administrators, and also rescind those licenses ; Establish requirements for school facilities and enforce them; Adopt and implement statewide curricula and textbooks ; and Set up statewide testing programs, to determine if students’ are learning academic content. Issue rewards and sanctions Even though states have authority over education there are still some limitations as it relates to the constitution. Please refer to the excerpt on pg.

261

Major Political Actors at the State LevelEducation governance at the state level is more complex than that of local education governance.It includes a many elected and appointed officials who play roles in the state government, such as; the governor, the legislature and the judges, it also includes special governance systems(these systems only have governance over education).In all states except Wisconsin and Minnesota the special governance system includes three components which are; a state board of education (SBE), a chief state school officer(CSSO), who normally holds titles such as; Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Superintendent, or Commissioner of Education and state education agency (SEA)

What task do the three components of the government complete?SEA is a large bureaucracy (administrators) headed by the

CSSO and the employees conduct these tasks; budget analysis and proposals, writing rules and regulations.The majority of school administrators have direct contact with SEA (varying times).

Attendance at workshops sponsored by SEA Telephonic contacts to gather advice on various technical issues.

Please note: There also other members who are active in the official Governance structure. (e.g. special interest groups usually the two most Influential groups are; teachers unions and the business lobby).

Major Governmental Political Players at the State Policy

Individuals Governor Chief state school officer Chairs of education

committees in legislatureGroups Legislature Education committees in legislature Legislative staff State board of education State education agency State court system

Major Nongovernmental political

players at the State LevelTeachers’ unions Public employees’ unionsBusiness groupsReligious groups Racial and ethnic groupsState-based foundationsState-based think tanks

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking The Growth of State Power

The expansion of state influence on schooling proceeded at an uneven speed.The goal of providing free public education for all children was introduced by Horace Mann in the 1840’s(Mississippi-1918) last state to set up.At that time state governments allowed local districts to make almost all education policy decisions, however; they did not provide sufficient financial support.Throughout the twentieth century, states powers over education amplifiedNote: Today the state level of school governance is the most important of the three levels.

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking A Shift In Values

The shift in values that began in the nineteenth century

which intensified in the twentieth century was one of the

reasons attributed to the growth of state powerThe public school system as locally constituted

gave special attention to the local community and its valuesThe people of that era greatly valued freedom(to

make decisions about schools) they did not accept the

idea that one uniform law should govern all varieties of schooling

within a single state For many decades school districts could

determine how many school days was good enough

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking A Shift In Values cont.

Districts should be free to make their own choices Professional educators believed that standardizing instruction and making resources equally available so that all children would have the opportunity to receive an adequate education In other words, they valued quality and equity more than freedom This meant that those who choose freedom over

equity Excess local control, abundant resources and well-qualified

personnel, while others stay without.

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Increased State Capacity

One more factor in the shift of power over education to states

was the increased capacity of state governmentsBefore this time states governments were veryweak(100 years after the establishment of common schools in the 1830’s and 1840’s) State governments met every other year Governors were not interested in education Nominal bureaucracy Insufficient staff to issue reports Whenever reports were received they were filed away

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Increased State Capacity

Subsequent to World War II State governments increased and so did their capacity Legislators met every year Legislative staff increased Governors became more cognizant of public education States provided more educational fundingThis implied that state governments were at last able to have an active involvement in school

policy

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Timeline for Monies (Federal Dollars)

1920’s -Vocational education 1930’s and 1940’s -School lunch program 1958-National Defense Education Act(NDE)-soviet launching of unmanned satellite(grants to train teachers, improved instruction (math,

science and foreign languages) 1965-Elementary and Secondary Education Act(ESEA)-substantial amount of monies, targeting remedial education 1983-Federal law seeking to reform schools by evaluating students learning (hiring of experts(testing and curriculum) 2001-No Child Left Behind Act(NCLB)-imposed testing programs andreporting for states that received federal dollars

To carry out these innovative responsibilities state governments had to increase staff to oversee and evaluate programs

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Changes in State Taxes

Next cause of state level growth was the changes in tax organizationLatter part of the twentieth century states adopted new types of taxes or increased the revenues coming from taxes such as; sales taxes, personal and corporate income taxes, lottery was alsoamongst the taxes As a result of this more monies was made available to expend on schoolsBecause of this the amount of schools funding that was being contributed to them funds began to grow By the middle of the 1980’s the average state was giving about

half of the funding for its schoolsAs a result of the above schools were expected to be more accountable

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Changes in State Taxes cont.

Pressures from above and below caused state governments to expand Innermost problem was schools inability to respond to the immense amount of criticism(system shock)Some of those criticisms were;Failure of student learningBreathtaking media coverage of school violenceContinuous disputes of local stakeholdersCitizens dissatisfaction with paying higher taxes to support schools More state involvement in education ultimately leading to the growth of state education bureaucracy

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking State Political Cultures

Even though on paper the governance of the fifty states may look similar, it would be serious mistake to assume that politics plays out the same in all of themMajor cause for this variation is the differences in political culturesElazar defined political culture as “a regular way of thinking and acting about politics and public policy” (as cited in Fowler, Kelleher, McCarthy & Sergiovanni 2009, p. 266). He also identified three major political cultures which are; traditionalistic, moralistic and individualistic political cultures

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking State Political Cultures

Moralistic-found mostly in New England which is

rooted in Puritan traditions of the colonial prevalent

(Maine, Vermont, Wisconsin and Minnesota)

Individualistic –started in the Middle Atlantic States

(New York and Pennsylvania) was

widespread by individuals who moved

Traditionalistic-found mostly in the South and also states that were settled by persons from the South (Oklahoma & Arizona)elite group, strong social

and family ties

Special Issues in State Politics and Policymaking Cultural Influences on Education Policy

In their 1989 study, Marshall, Mitchell and Wirt conducted an investigation on the impact of political culture on education policies in states.Findings were 24 of 33 programs identified conformed tothe expected cultural types. Variations among state education systems can also be contributed to political culture

(e.g. Massachusetts compulsory attendance law/southern state Mississippi did so 66 year after and Illinois, efficiency)Please note subsequent to the release of a Nation of Risk –traditionalistic southern states led the nation in theimplementation of school reform.

According to the text in the 1980’s 7 out of the 8 states adopting the majority of reforms were located in the confederacy.

The Policymaking Process at the State Level State policies originate in statuary laws passed by the legislature

SEA develops rules an regulations to go with them Erupts because of dissatisfaction with a servicesmaladminsitered,misadministered or underadmininisterd(corruption, poorly or not at all) Public dissatisfaction often leading to policy being on

governors agenda Notice the problem, which usually occur following a crisis Its implementation means that SEA/bureaucracies must rearrange its resources to cover it.

The Policymaking Process at the State Level The Cognitive World of State Legislators

Beliefs and attitudes which is common among lawmakers shape their behaviors and attitudesDo not hear every policy proposalMarshall mentioned this “legislators attitudes the assumptive words of policymakers, they form screens that filter the flow of policy demands” (as cited in Fowler, Kelleher, McCarthy &Sergiovanni 2009, p. 268). According to the text legislators paid more attention to certain individuals and groups than it did to others If the legislature had certain expectations of certain

individuals and groups once they kept up with the legislators expectations they would hear them

The Policymaking Process at the State Level Issue Definition

First step in the policymaking process(this can take years)Although individuals who reside in the communities may see that there is a problem(legislators may hesitate to

agree/assumptive moods)On occasion an issue may suddenly surface, attracting public attention, which garners great support(crisis/emergency)This usually initiates the demands from major interest groups (long overdue capital investment to education)Mass media also contributes to issue definition In democratic theory, groups are equally important, however; in

issue definition some are more equal in comparison to others

In the event of a crisis/emergency the definition of an issue probably would take weeks as opposed to years. Issue definition is controlled by think tanks, foundations, mass media and a handful of exceedingly powerful interest groups

The Policymaking Process at the State LevelSetting the Policy Agenda

Specific issues that lawmakers are willing to deal withMore issues get identified not all of them make it on the agendaMedia coverage(news stories) signals public discontent with some portion of schooling Pressure to lawmakers from special interest groupsGovernor may have a particular interest that relates toeducationLegislative chair on educationNational lobbies “policy networks” provide the impetus Interest from politicians to be alignment with national

issues

The Policymaking Process at the State LevelFormal Adoption of a Policy

Policy must be put into words and adopted by an official person or governmental body How does this happen?

Governor can issue and executive order Court opinion SEA can issue a directive

Passage of a statue, or law, is done by the legislature which is

the most ordinary way that policies get put into words and is

officially adopted Figure 13.3 (pg. 271) summarizes the process

The Policymaking Process at the State LevelPolicy Implementation

Another stage in policy process moves from formal adoption to

Execution Administrators(state& local) will have to locate the

resources and personnel to attain the policy goals CSSO and SEA’s play a pivotal role in policy

implementation Development of rules & regulations(make laws

clear) Prepare directives and provide professional

development seminars Monitor local education agencies (site visits and

written reports) One of the major duties of administrators is

implementation of policies Policy implementation can be challenging and difficult

task

The Policymaking Process at the State LevelPolicy Evaluation

Last stage in the processNot always evaluated to determine their effectiveness An example noted in the text is that of school choice programsFor the most part policies are evaluated, SEA’s can

performthis through its utilization its research staff or contracting with universities to conduct studies. Ideally, SEA and lawmakers utilize evaluations to change policies or terminate them altogether if they are not successful at achieving the desired goal(s).

In Closing For the most part educational governance systems and policymaking process in all states look a lot like each

other. However, the manner in which politics plays out in the

sates varies. This can be attributed to the difference that exist

in each states political culture. All in all, the outcome relies heavily on the manner in

which education is recognized and supported by policy makers.