The Karnataka State Gazetter defines a tribe as a social group

in which there are many clans, nomadic bands, sub-groups, having a

definite geographical area, a separate language, a distinct culture, a common political organisation or a feeling of common

determination against strangers".

But the Kolis are not exactly tribals. They can be referred

to as 'Tribal Caste' or the pre-Hindu tribes absorbed into Hinduism, and thus transformed into a caste (Risley, 1908:74). The Kolis do have a number of clans and sub-groups,but neither do they have a specified geographical area nor a common language, nor even a common basis for the various occupations they follow. The sub­

groups are nothing but a disjointed distribution from north to south of India, with not even a thin strand of common link, except for the prefix - Koli.

Hutton (1951:19) is of the opinion that the dark complexioned, coarse featured people who were involved with various occupations such as trading, cultivation, fishing, manual labour, were none other but a group of tribes, commonly included under the general and derogatory term of Koli, which in English,

is a synonum for the labourer class in India and other British colonies i.e. 'coolie'.

©A similar suggestion is echoed on pp 381, which while talking about the natives of Bombay Presidency goes on to say that, "from the point of view of ethnology, the most interesting are the vast and various tribes who all bear the name of Kolis. In physique.

custom, manners and in occupation, these tribes vary to an

immense extent one from another". The author traces them from Kathiawad to the borders of Central India to be found also in

Sindh and the neighbouring States. They constitute a major part of the Gujrat population where they are considered very close to

the Rajputs. In other part i.e. Central India, "the line between the Kolis and the wilder aboriginal tribes of Bhils is shadowy and imperceptible" (ibid).

Many Kolis claim to have Rajput blood, especially those

found in Gujrat. Apart from personal interviews (Alibag Koliwada,

Khar Danda, Murud), we have instances in Gujrat where Koli Chiefs

or land owners have been accepted as Rajputs and have also had

matrimonial alliances with other Rajput families (ibid).

According to one opinion, the Kolis in Gujrat are the

aborginals of the plain or civilised Bhils; others find them so little unlike Rajputs as to lead to the conclusion that the Kolis and Rajputs are in the main of the same stock (Gaz.Bom.Pres.IX.I:237).

Moses (1941:62) opines that the Kolis of Gujrat "are

apparently the descendants of the fishermen and hunters of early

times. Owing to the successive invansions of Aryans from the North, who poured in on the fertile plains and sea board of Gujrat, the early inhabitants had either to take refuge in the hills (the Bhils) or were subjugated and peacefully converted into Hinduism, like the Kolis."

9 0

These variances and associations could be more due to their

proximity to, and association with other ethnics. For e.g., the

Bhils and Kolis of eastern Gujrat are almost as hard to distinguish as are the Rajputs and Kolis in western Gujrat and Kathiavad. The explanation provided by the Bombay Gazetter (Gaz. Bom. Pres. IX.I: 238) is that 'the new element was small and the inter mixture produced a Koli or half blood who can hardly be known from a Bhil'. So also during the Musalman invasion in

the fourteenth century, the Rajputs took shelter with the earlier Koli settlements and were in some cases absorbed by them, while on

the other, raised the Kolis to their (Rajput) standard.

These Rajputs married Kolis whose descendants still claim a

Rajput origin and bear Rajput family name (Govt.Sel.XII:17). And within this sub-group, another isolation began as in the case of

Talabdar Kolis. But a Talabdar Koli girl married to a Rajput family, could no longer share meals with her Koli relations if and when she visited them.

Gerson Da Cunha (1900:40) refers to the Kolis as being Dravidian in origin and includes them along with a large number of tribes scattered along the Vindhya plateau, Gujrat, Konkan etc. Enthoven (1922:243) elaborates it thus: "a term of vague meaningcovering a number of tribes of inferior status".

We have numerous references to tribes and castes called 'Koli' from various parts of India.

(a) In Uttar Pradesh, the term Koli or Kori is given to a caste of weavers. Theirs is a small community found in Agra and

q\

other western districts all over U.P. These Kolis are also

"reputed to be partly of bias Rajput origin" (Sherring, 1879:346).

(b) Baines (1912:52) describes the Kolis as "an early dark

race extruded from the plain’SkS by the Kunbis . . . Under the same name this tribe/caste is found from Punjab Himalayas to the Sahyadri Ghats, not to mention the Kol of the Central belt".

He further writes about some of the clans of Kolis

intermarrying with the lower Rajputs of Gujrat. He categorises

them as falling on the border of Hinduism and Animism.

Kolis found at Saharanpur are said to have come from Gujrat(Elliot I, 1869:521).

So also are listed other tribes that fall on the border of

Hinduism and animism and amongst whom the wilder sections deny the supremacy of the brahmins -- these are the Bhils, the Kolis, the Lamani and the Vaghris.

(c) The term 'Koli' in North-Western India has three distinct

meanings. Firstly, it has a territorial connotation in that the Kolis are described as the inhabitants of Kullu. Sir Lyall (Rose,1970:553) talks about the Rajas of Kullu as Koli Rajas. He alsogoes on to say that the term 'Koli' was used to refer to any Kullu man. He does not believe that they were of pure Rajput stock on the basis of surnames. Secondly, the 'Koli' is a term used for the Chamars in the plains of south-east Punjab who do not deal with leather but are involved in weaving. They are said to have migrated from Oudh. Thirdly, it is a name given to the Kolis of

the hills.

But there could be a possibility, the author goes on to say

that the Kolis of the hills and plains are similarly named due to

their identical mode of occupation, i.e. weaving (ibid). Another interesting fact to note is that in the Simla hills, the term

'Koli' seems to have evolved from 'Kulin' or "degraded from a

family". Thus one could explain the fact that most of the banned and degraded families who were excommunicated could have regrouped themselves and were generally referred to as 'Kulin' or 'Koli'.

Another account equates the Kolis and Mairs of Gujrat as

originally being the same tribe,who immigrated from Sindh sometime

during the fifth century as one of the white Hun Hordes and who later intermarried with the Rajputs (Gaz.Bom.Pres.XI.I; 238).

(d) But more probably could be that they are a western off­shoot of the 'Kol' tribe of Chota Nagpur to which so many othersi.e. Korku, Nahale and perhaps the Bhils may also belong(Russell, 1916:534). Hiralal (cit Russell, 1916:534) suggests thatthe Marathi language has a peachent to add or alter so that names

end in 'i'. This he substantiates with various examples, i.e. Halbi for Halba, Koshti for Koshta, Patwi for Patwa, Wanjari for Banjara, Gowari for Goala, and likewise Koli from Kol. But there

is no direct evidence.

Other scholars too, however, ascribe the term Koli has having connections with 'Kol' - "the Kolis of Bombay are presumably the same tribe as the Kols of Chota Nagpur, and they probably

migrated to Gujrat ..." (Russell, 1916:494). Campbell (1975:61)

opines that a hiatus of four to five degree of longitude between Chota Nagpur and western coast is 'caused probably by the Gonds having forcibly intervened between them.' Elliot (1852:18) accords similarity of habits and conditions of the 'Kolis' with

the Kolis in the west as reason for a common origin.

Hutton (1951: 283) categorises Kolis as a caste ofcultivators and labourers in western India possibly of Kolarian affinities. Kolarian has been defined as possessing a language or culture associated with a group of people of which the principal entities are the Munda Kol and Santhal Tribes.

(e) Central Province: The Kolis here are scattered about the

Nimar and Berar districts. Some follow weaving while others join

the police force at Hosangabad. At Berar the Kolis are further

divided into two sub-groups which follow the occupation of agriculture (Sherring, 1879:156).

There is another small tribe of agriculturists, similarly named (Kohli),in Bhandara and Chanda districts who are taken to be the Hinduised aborigines retaining a lot of Gond customs and bearing quite prominent Gond features. Alongside they profess to

copy the Maratha Kunbis. They mainly cultivated sugarcane and rice and the chief produce was 'goor' (coarse unrefined sugar) (Census Cent.Province, 1872).

Rowney (1974:41) belies that Kolis came from "the country north of the river Mahee and settled in large numbers along the

entire north-western frontier of Gujrat". According to him "the

^4

Bheels regarded the Kolis as being the same family but the Kolis who were the original inhabitors of Gujrat refused to acknowledge

this relationship. They (the Kolis and Bhils) lived alongside each other and thus shared a number of habits and characterstics. Koli could marry a Bheel woman but refused to give their women to Bheel. Due to the very little difference between these two Bishop Heber considered Kolis to be civilized Bhils who laid aside wilder habits of their ancestors and sobered down to their present state".

The Kolis are again described as a primitive tribe akin to Bhils residing in western Satpura hills having the honorific title of Naik (Russel & Hiralal III, 1975;).

(f) The Bhois are said to have as their ancestor a brahmin

father and a Parasas mother. These Bhois have five territorial

groups such as Maratha, Khandesh, Karnataka, Kanara. The Karnataka Bhois of Belgaum have four endogamous divisions, viz. Kolis, Kar, Masande, and Pratgi (Bahadur; 1981:4).

The main occupation of the Bhois has been described as river fishing.

(g) In Poona district the Kolis are divided into Chumbes,

Konkan and Akarmase Kolis who eat with one another but do not

intermarry. They are said to have migrated from the Konkan seventy five years ago (Gaz.Bom.Pres., 1884;XVII) (before 1884 when this Gazette was complied). The common surnames amongst them are Churvan, Dalvi, Gaikwad, Kamble, More and Vaghle.

^ 5

(h) Southern India. In the Madras Census Report 1901

(Thurston, 1909:301) are described as being "a Bombay caste of

fishermen and boatmen in South Canara, also a low class of Bengal

weavers found in Ganjam". Investigations showed that the Oriya speaking Kolis of Ganjam were mostly Telugu people who arrived in Orissa as weavers of coarse cloth, traders and agriculturists. Their way of life is mostly influenced by Oriyan ceremonies but

they are still Shaivites. Their marriage ceremonies are a combi­

nation of Telugu and Oriya customs.

(i) Eastern India. The Kolis are a boating and fishing tribe

of whom a large percentage is engaged as village watchmen andwater carriers. They are found in great numbers along Balaghat

ranges in the western frontier of the Nizam's territory; going eastwards to the district of Nanded and Nizamabad and also thetract of country lying between the Godavari and Hyderabad (U1Hassan, 1920)

(j) In northern and western Gujrat the legends of the Kolisstate that the Kolis and Mihiras or Mairs were originally one andcame into Gujrat from Sindh. Their leader Sonang Mair had twelve sons, each of whom became a head of a clan. It has been established that these Mairs are almost certainly the Meyds or Mihiras who came to India in the c.5 a.d. as one of the Great White Huna horde. During the sixth century the Mers seem to have driven out the Jats and in the eighth century they proved to be aserious obstacle to the Arab invaders of western India, in thePunjab; in Sindha and in Kathiavad they came to Gujrat from Sindh is also supported by the fact that the Mers brought with them from

6̂

beyond the Indus, the worship of Hinglaj Devi, and that in her

honour, set up a temple in the Nal between Kathiavad and the mainland (Ras Mala 1:103; Elliot I, 1869:521; Cunningham I :290).

Thus we are still mystified with the question of' who are the Kolis’ and 'where do they come from’. That they are found in almost every state of India is verified. That they are an outcaste group is also true in the majority of the cases and that their concentration ‘today is more in western India, especially in Gujrat and Maharashtra is also proved (Enthoven, 1922; Sherring, 1879).

ETYMOLOGY: Gerson da Cunha (1900:40) goes on to enumerate

six explanations as the likely origin of the word 'Koli'. He goes

on to say that the Kolis have their own strange mythological traditions of their origin.

(a) 'Kola' in Sanslcrit means 'a hog'. Thus many authors

believe it to be a derogatory term applied to the original inhabitants (Sahay, 1977:11; Edward, :6). This also echoes the term 'Kulin' as used in the Simla hills (Rose, 1970: 6*53).

(b) 'Kola' also refers to the 'pig killer' in Sanskrit.The argument one can provide here is that may be they (the Kolis) considered the boar a delicacy (which is not uncommon amongst the tribals, especially the Koli) and thus the title.

(c) 'Kola' was also one of the four brothers whose ancestor wasYayati, the fifth king of the Lunar race and the Kolis arebelieved to trace their decent to them (Da Cunha, 1900:41). Thiscould be a brahmanic story used in order to bring the Kolis into

^7

the brahmanic fold.

(d) The Munda term 'hor’ or 'Kor' means man.

(e) ’Kola' in Sanskrit also means a boat. But then not all

Kolis are fisherfolk. Though in Kathiawar the Kolis are said to have got their name from 'Kol' or boat, as sea-faring is their

distinct occupation (Crooke, 1896:19).

(f) 'Kul* means clan and that all Kolis are clansmen. This is

the most accepted of all theories echoed by Wilson (1876:7) and Enthoven (II, 1922:243).

(g) 'Kuli' (cooly) - a carrier or a porter, may be derived from

the Turkish Kulli which means a slave. The author goes on to say

that the term is attributed to a number of influential families in Hindustan and that their origin could have been as slaves, or that it must have come from the west Indian Kolis who are likewise engaged there (Elliot I, 1869:155).

The other probably interpretations are:(a) from the inhabitants of Kullu,(b) from the word ^Kulin' or degraded from the family.

Most Kolis claim to have Walmiki, the author of the Ramayana as their ancestor. Others believe that they are 'the modern representatives of the kiratas (hunters) spoken of in the Puranas

as the off-spring of Nishad who was sprung from the arm of the Solar king Vena (Ul.Hassan, 1920:332).

Of these various meanings attributed to the term 'Koli',

^ 8

* Kola'is further enumerated as being best suited to the bulk of the Kolis of Gujrat (and elsewhere) as it is equated with the sense of bastard or half caste (Elliot II, 1869:200). Tod attaches a sense of degradation to the Kolis of Rajputana (Annals II, 1810:318). A similar equation is meeted out to the Kanets of

the Himalayas (Kangra Gaz.11:34,35) where we also have the Dagi &

Chanal and Koli described as 'the lower class menials of the highest hills (Gaz.Bom.Pres.IX.1:237). In fact, in eastern Gujrat, the Parantij Kolis trace back their progeny to a Rajput,

who lost caste by accepting water from the hands of a Bhil woman (Lely cit. ibid). Thus the explanation and application of the

word Koli to the half castes, degraded groups or the lower menials seem to be the most plausible.

EARLY HISTORY: The earliest mention of the Koli tribe was in1340 when Muhammad Tuglak founded the fort of Kondana or Si>nhagad lying 16 km south of Poona city in the hands of a Koli chief (Gaz. Bom.Pres.XVII.). In 1347 there was another mention of a Koli chief who was ruling over the state of Javhar in Thana which yielded an annual revenue of nine lacs of rupees and included thirty-two forts

(Gaz.Bom.Pres. XVIII, 1883). The Bahamani kings left the Koli Chief to rule independently and in peace. The Koli country then

was known as bavan mavals or the fifty-two valleys, each under a

Naik. These Naiks held a good position both in the Bahamani and in the Ahmednagar kingdoms, ranking amongst the nobels called 'Sardars' and 'Maneabdars'. In 1535 the Kolis are said to have robbed the books and luggage of Emperor Humayan near Cambay (Elphinstone, 1841:443). 1705 saw them capturing and plundering

Baroda (Watson, 1988). These were the early Koli successes by

land. ~Th d? 52-

About the middle of the seventeenth century, when Emperor

Shahjahan, on the final fall of Ahmednagar, introduced the Toda

Mai's survery into the conquered territories, the Kolis resented

the minute measuring of their lands and the fixing of a regular rent. Under one Kheni Naik they rose in rebellion against the

Moghul rulers. The revolt was not put down without extreme severity. After this outbreak was crushed the Kolis were treated with kindness by Aurangazeb. Under the Peshwas, they gained a high reputation for their skills and daring in taking hill forts.

CLASSIFICATION/SUB-DIVISION;:The various groups and sub-groups that fall under the heading

of Koli vary from district to district and sometimes from taluka to taluka, and it is just impossible to try and establish with any finality any kind of relationship that may bind all of them together. After dealing with the broad distribution pattern of the Kolis we can undoubtedly say that it is very difficult to classify

the various sub-groups. As Aleock, Assistant Collector of Ahmadabad remarked "difficulties were experienced in the Census in connection with the classification of the Kolis. The difficulties were not essential to the subject and were solely due ot the

combined stupidity and ignorance of the lower degree of Kolis(here the so-called Thakharda Koli who will describe himself asanything but what he is). The mere name is a senseless assumption of dignity ". ^ 7^55^2

100

So also is the case of the Kolis in the Raigarh district.

When asked, some of the Kolis are very emphatic that they are Mahadev Koli. But if the researcher/interrogator has gone

thoroughly ‘ into the practice and patterns of the Mahadev and Son Kolis, one finds on questioning that the attributes of the Son Kolis here are applied to the Mahadev Kolis and vice versa. Some

of the educated and well informed amongst them go on to enumerate

this point that in order to be eligible for the SC/ST concessions accorded by the Indian Government, most Kolis whatever be their sub-groups proclaim themselves to be Mahadev Kolis. It is also very easy for them to call themselves Mahadev Kolis as till recent specifications arose, these members had registered themselves in the school and census as just 'Koli'.

One of the members of the controversial 'Son' Koli group who

at present is a government employee and is well-educated, disputed hotly even the existence of the sub-group called Son Kolis. This has been easily proved wrong by the availability of a number of literary evidences as well as the interviews conducted among the Son Kolis. (This is discussed in detail in the next chapter).

The major classification of the Kolis can be based more on

the geographical basis. Thus the two main groups of Kolis are

those of Gujrat and those of Maharashtra (Deccan).

In 1826 two categories of Kolis were recognised in the Deccan (Rothrield, 1911:272).

\0i

(1) Kolee: Their main occupation was to man the boats on fords

and rivers, and fishing. Some of these were water carriers for

'persons of rank' visiting the villages. The boatmen are mostly

called 'Nawuree' and in Karnataka 'Umbigar'.

(2) Donquree: They subsited mainly by hunting and gathering

and were found mainly in western Malwa and the Konkan.

Sherring (1879:307-315) divides the Koli Tribe of Bombay

Presidency into sixteen sub-groups. Similarly Enthoven (1922)

gives a list of thirty divisions of the Kolis of the Deccan and Konkan.

ENTHOVEN SHERRING

AgriAhirBand

Bhil/Bhilave/BhiraeChanchiDhor/TokreHelmarKabber

KaradeKharKonkanKulparna

Mahadev/Dongar/Raj Malhar/Kunum/Chumli/

Pan/Panbhari

*Agri

Ahir

Bheel

ChanchiDhaur

Marani Dungari Raj/Bhen Mahadev

Malar/Panbari

\0?.

MarathaMarviMendaleMeta/Dhangar

Musale/Bhandu

NehreRahtadkarShingtokiSonSolesi/Kashti/Lallangoti

SuryavanshiTonkriTayade

Thankar or Chrtistian Wali

*Mettah

*Sone

Solesi/Kasthi

Taukri

Portuguese or Tankar

On comparing and contrasting the above two lists we find that with the exception of Marani Koli sub-division, all the other fourteen sub-divisions are included in Enthoven’s list. Sherring describes the Marani Koli as scattered in the north Konkan where

their main calling is that of public service, and to act the part of Panbari Koli, and wait on Government officials.

While Enthoven takes the names of Mahadev Kolis as synonymus

of Raj and Dongari, Sherring deals with them as three separate sub-divisions. According to him, the Raj Kolis consist of a few tribes that are basically settled in and around Javaur State in Thana district. Their tradition says that originally they were a

103

an offence and are now an entirely a separate sub group (Sherring,

1879:311). They are also known as Bhen Koli (ibid).

The Dungari Kolis are so called because they were mainly to

be found in the hilly tracts. The word Mungari' comes from theroot *dunqai' i.e. hill and that the Mettah Kolis are also attimes referred to as the Dungari Kolis in the city of Bombay

(Sherring, 1879:312).

Another list of the main group of Kolis living near the sea

between Gujrat and Goa was given by Rowney (1974:41):

Group OccupationRaj Kolis - Cultivators and labourersSolesy Kolis - AgriculturistsTowkry Kolis - Cut bamboos for sale and derive

their name from their occupation Dhour Kolis - Labourers known for degraded habitsDoongury Kolis - LabourersMullar Kolis - Supply water and other conveniencesAheer Kolis - Herdsmen as the name implies

Murvee Kolis - Palankeen bearers and portersSone Kolis - Fishermen and piraters.

Today in Maharashtra amongst all the above groups of Kolis the two divisions viz. Mahadev and the Dhor Kolis are the only ones to be included amongst those backward tribes that are granted all facilities. We will new consider these two tribes in somedetails.

\04,

MAHADEV KOLIS; Ghurye (1957) stated that the Mahadev Kolis

believe that they are descendants of a black dog that emerged from the body of King Vena. They are not nomadic but settled group. They mainly inhabit the valleys of Sahyadris, in and around Javhar

State in north Konkan, where it is a legend that one Pauperal, a

Nasik Koli established a Chiefdom in the fourteenth century and

eastward on Mahadev hills of the Nizam's domain. This was supposed to be the original home of the Mahadev Kolis (Enthven, 1922:254) and from wherein they have also got the name.

Mackintosh (1860) says that the Mahadev Kolis originally belonged to twenty-four clans or Kuls which have now multiplied to be more than two hundred and eighteen. The original twenty-four clans listed by Enthoven are:1. Aghasi 13. Kshirasagar2. Bhonsle (Bhonsla) 14. Namdev (deo)3. Budirant (Budiwant) 15. Pavar (Pawan)4. Chavan 16. Poleva (Puliwas)5. Dajai (Ujaji) 17. Bhagiwant6. Dalvi 18. Sagar7. Gaikwad (war) 19. Shaikhacha Shesha8. Gavli (Gauli) 20. Shiva (Shin)9. Jagtap 21. Soikhi (Sirkhi)10. Kadam 22. Suryavanshi (Suryabansi)11. Kedar 23. Uterecha (Utaracha)12. Kharad 24. Wanakpal

The words in the parenthesis are of Sherring (1879:309).

105

The Mahadev Kolis are very particular and marriage within

one kul is prohibited. These Kolis are said to have migrated to the Konkan during the close of the 13th century perhaps due to the

population movement caused by Muslim invasion of Deccan

(Mah.State.Gaz.Thana.Dist. : 270).

Men and women are short, medium to sturdily built, wiry, fair to dark, quick, shrewd with intelligent bright faces and keen

senses. Their main occupation was supposed to be that of an

infantry soldier. But now-a-days they are basically landless labourers, also acting as coolies, cattle keepers and husbandmen.

Inland, they are at times though rarely, act as boatmen ferrying

people across rivers.

They speak Marathi of the lower class having certain marked peculiarities of pronunciation, viz. 'i' is used for the final 'a'

and 'y' is substituted for 'sh' in the middle of a word, thus for* tiana * (to them), they say 'tiani' and for kashala(why) it

becomes *kayala'. Their accent is very nasal and they tend to clip their words (Ghurye, 1957).

They dress very much like the Kunbis with a short dhotai, bandi or a shirt (They normally cary a pasodi (shoulder cloth) or qhonqali (blanket) and their heads are covered by either white or coloured turbans. They have a qotarani or a kind of panchayat

consisting of six people for and carrying out law and order (Mackintosh, 1836:238). Their main meal consists of naqli or bajri bread, vegetables and roots and fruits from the forest (Thakkar,

1950:161). They also partake the flesh of game animals and birds.

\0€

he main deities worshipped are Khandoba, Biroba, Daryabai, Hiroba Mhasoaba, Bhavani, Yellamma etc. and make pilgrimages to the holy

places close to them.

DHOR KOLIS; While the Mahadev Kolis are said tol be themain root from whom the other Kolis are an off-shoot, the DhorKolis are regarded as the most degraded amongst the Kolis who were

also a part of the Mahadev Kolis but were exiled due to

degradation.

They are low, drunken and debased race that basically

subsist on the flesh of the dead animals. They are further

degraded because they eat beef and thus they got the name from

dhor (cattle).

At times they are also referred to as Tokre Kolis the word coming from 'thokar' or a bamboo. Their main occupation is bamboo cutting, acting as labourers and coolies for forest contractors.

They do not have priests but believe in a number of spirits. Their main festiavals are Shimga and Diwali.

In Gujrat there are thirteen different types of Kolis

(Sherring, 1879:314). They are:

(1) Talabdah(2) Patanwari(3) Kakrez(4) Dhandhour(5) Babria(6) Pariah(7) Kaunt(8) Thakur(9) Kotewalaha

(10) Silottah(11) Jahangria/Chowal

107

(12) Baria(13) Pahlunpoor

Rathor Waghola Solankhi Songharra Debi Ma)<:wana

Amongst the Koli groups of the Konkan, the three which are

involved in fishing are the Sone, Mettah and the Agri (Sherring,

1879:312,313).

The Mettah Kolis have been found in the vicinity of Bombay

city where they are also referred to sometimes as the Dungari

Kolis. "They are" says Mackintosh (1836 :76),"persons of

considerable wealth among them, who are owners of vessels that

trade along the Malabar coast, navigated by sailors of their own

tribe. Their headman adjust disputes connected with their caste". "Their wives ... glass bangles (bracelet) of the right hand to the sea, to propitiate the spirit of the ocean, for the sake of their husbands; and they replace them with silver ones".

The above practice is also very common amongst the Son Kolis

who only throw the glass bangles of their right hand and wear three silver ones instead. These Kolis are to be found right from Kolaba district upto Surat and till today many of the old traditions and customs still linger on and can be observed in the various Koliwadas scattered all along the coast.

The Agri Kolis are found only at certain places on the coast

like Bassein, Bombay, Surat. But personally talking to the various Kolis at Bassein or Vasai draw a blank as most of the

Kolis basically divide themselves into two viz. Maratha Kolis and

108

Christian Kolis. It could be that, as the Agris, since ancient

times, used to work under the Kolis as khapnare (servants), they got somehow associated with them,and those Agris who left the land

to exploit the sea came to be called the Agri Kolis.

PIRACY; The later half of the eighteenth century saw the

rise of Koli outlaws. Piracy was rampant on the western coast during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As the Kolis

were left without any kingdom, they slowly took to raids. The phrase 'Nahal, Bhil, Koli' is commonly used in old Marathi documents to designate the hill robbers as a class in Central

India (Russell & Hiralal, 1975:533). It is said that in Gujarat

merchants and pilgrims found it difficult to go through land

inhabited by Kolis and Bhils as they (the Kolis and Bhils) carried

out frequent raids in fairs and religious gathering and on travelling merchants (Rowney, 1974:41). Till almost a hundred years ago they never ceased to harass the trade of the Gulf of Cambay.

Trade goods that escaped the robbers on land were in constant danger of being pirated at sea between Kathiawar and Surat by Kolis and Okhamandal pirates or between Surat and Bombay

and Malabar coast by the Agres and Marathas.

A Mohmmadan priest in Burhanpur still has an Imperial Parwana or intimation from Delhi announcing the despatch of the army for suppressing the Kolis. This is dated to 1637, whether these Kolis were pirates or rulers is not very clear (Russell & Hiralal, 1975:533).

loq

Their constant raids compelled the English twice in 1734 and

1771 tol hit out expeditions against them. The last of these

ended in the capture of the Koli stronghold at Sultanpur and Tulaja on the east coast of Kathiavad (Bom.Quar.Rev.IV:95; Aitchi Son's Treaties VI:263). These were later followed by more expeditions, details of which are discussed below.

•In 1760 under Naik Jiwaji Bomla, the Kolis caused series of

gang robberies and widespread terror for over twenty years against

the Peswas (Mackintosh, 1836:245-56). These piratical tribes, as the Kolis of the Gulf of Cambay were referred to as, were getting

so bold that on 16th of October, 1794 a British fleet sailed from Surat and suppress them (Nightingale, 1970:159).

But this did not prove very successful and the raiders were

again having their way and by 1797 the Bombay Government came to

the decision that piracy ccih.d only be stopped if the Britishsucceeded in capturing one or more sea ports between the Gulfs ofkutch and Cambay so as to be able to support naval garrison tocontrol the pirates.

Earlier in 1786, the British were forced to supply the Raja

of Bhavnagar with ammunition in order to exterminate the fort in

the possession of the Kolis. There is also a reference by Low(1877:116) about the 'Coolie rovers' of Gujrat whose stronghold was at Sultanpore on the river Curia between 1699 and 1754.

In 1804 Colonel Walker had remarked that most Kolis in the Bombay Presidency were thieves by profession and embraced every

opportunity of either plundering public or private property.

The sub-group of Kolis who were mainly involved in criminal

activities were the Mahadev Kolis and the Gujrat Kolis. There are

various instances listed by Kennedy (1908:92) in his study of the

criminal classes of the Bombay Presidency.

Ramji Naik Bhangria in 1798 created havoc amongst the

Peshwas with his band of Kolis. During the British times Ramji

Bhangria and Rama Kirwa in 1829 joined by the Bhils carried out

daring raids. In 1845 Raghoji Bhangria, an outlaw, organised

bands of Kolis and unleashed a reign of terror amongst the

Marwaris who were forced to flee the Bombay Presidency. He was

finally overcome at Pandharpur by Captain Gell and hanged (Kennedy, 1908:92).

«

During 1857-58 mutiny. Captain Nutall formed a Ghat Koli corps to put down rebellion. This was later disbanded in 1861

(ibid) .

The Kolis basically proved elusive due to their intimate

knowledge of every jungle path and hiding place. Another

characteristic of the Koli is stressed that 'a Koli' informer is

most difficult to obtain and when secured requires adequate and constant protection (Kennedy, 1908).

The Kolis came more into prominence during the second to the fourth decade of the nineteenth century in Gujrat where there was chaos due to lack of a strong central power. The writers of this time described the Kolis as "bloody and untamable plunderers,

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uncivilised and filthy" (Gaz.Bom.Pres.IX.I.:242).

Later in this year Heber (Enthoven quoting Heber, 1922:250)

visited Gujrat and he described the Kolis as 'hardy, stout men, particularly those of the Catteywar and Cutch districts who

dressed like Bhils and were not without honour ... They do not apparently delight in blood for its own sake and neither mutilate, torture, nor burn the subjects in their captivity’.

In 1835, a Collector had made a report "some special

regulation must be made about the Kolis. No means of ordinary

severity seems to have any effect. We never hear of a reformed

Koli, none whose mode of life places him above suspicion. All

seem alike, rich or poor, those whose necessities afford them an

escuse for crime and those whose condition places them out of the

reach of distress; are alike ready, on the first opportunity to

plunder" (Gaz.Bom.Pres.IX.1:243). But in spite of all this, their

reputation as skilled and daring seamen was not less than their powers as pirates.

As Kennedy (1908:93) said "A season of scarcity, grasping

avariciousness and exacting demands of money-lenders, or some

domestic grievance drives individuals into outlawry and once anoutlaw has established a reputation as a successful freebooter he soon attracts others, with or without some grievance, fancies or real, to his standard".

The aim of the survey of the above sub-groups of the Kolis and their historical outline suggests that they (the Kolis) shared

a common core culture with their -immediate neighbouring ethnic

l \ l .

groups in Rajasthan, Gujrat and Central India on one hand and the west and Deccan on the other. An attempt has been made to try and understand if there was a kind of patterning that could lead us to our original question - who are these Kolis and where have they come from? That it was accorded to various major degraded groups seems most plausible may it be 'Kulin' 'Kolee' 'Coolie' or 'Koli', it finally got down to being termed 'Koli'.

History shows that they have been excellent sea farers on

the west coast of India, who gave guidance not only to the

Marathas and Agres, but also served the Sidis, Portuguese and the

British. The social ranking given to them like the Nayaks;

instances of Raj Kolis as rulers and Chiefs, of the Son Kolis

having sanads, the notroiety gained by them as sea pirates,

plunderers, all put together provide an ethno-historical background to unravel the different kinds of adaptations of the

Kolis since medieval times. These records offer the sourcematerial to explicate the political integration and ritual incorporation of these various clans into the state level societies.

During the British period itself, the low status that was

ascribed to the Kolis (very evident in the term 'Coolie') reveals that their role in the affairs of the state had declined. And

today in the year c 1989 a.d. they are reduced to being again the Kolis trying to change their sub-groups to either Mahadev Koli or Dhor Koli in order to get all the displaced help they can from the present Government on the basis of belonging to SC/ST - a

1 1 3

different brand of being an outcaste and downtrodden.

As our topic basically deals with the Son Kolis, we shall

now step into their Koliwadas in Alibag and Murud talukas and also those in and around Bombay, to furnish the empty bracket in this

setting.

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