business writing skills - islamic university of...
TRANSCRIPT
-
1
Business Writing Skills
Table of Contents
Page
1
19
26
31
69
Unit One
The Basic Business Letter
Unit Two
Email Writing
Unit Three
Memo Writing
Unit Four
Writing Business Reports
Unit Five
Revision in Business
Writing
-
2
Unit One
The Basic Business Letter
Parts of a business letter
Date
The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However, if your letter is completed over a number of days, use the date it was
finished in the date line. When writing to companies within the United States, use the American date format. (The United States-based
convention for formatting a date places the month before the day. For example: June 11, 2001. ) Write out the month, day and year two inches
from the top of the page. Depending which format you are using for your
letter, either left justify the date or center it horizontally.
Sender’s Address
Including the address of the sender is optional. If you choose to include it,
place the address one line below the date. Do not write the sender‟s name or title, as it is included in the letter‟s closing. Include only the street
address, city and zip code. Another option is to include the sender‟s address directly after the closing signature.
Inside Address
The inside address is the recipient‟s address. It is always best to write to
a specific individual at the firm to which you are writing. If you do not have the person‟s name, do some research by calling the company or
speaking with employees from the company. Include a personal title such as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a woman‟s preference in being addressed
as Miss, Mrs., or Ms. If you are unsure of a woman‟s preference in being addressed, use Ms. If there is a possibility that the person to whom you
are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually, people will not mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess.
To write the address, use the U.S. Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name of the country in all-capital letters on the last
line. The inside address begins one line below the sender‟s address or one inch below the date. It should be left justified, no matter which format
you are using.
-
3
Salutation
Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If
you know the person and typically address them by their first name, it is
acceptable to use only the first name in the salutation (i.e., Dear Lucy:). In all other cases, however, use the personal title and full name followed
by a colon. Leave one line blank after the salutation.
If you don‟t know a reader‟s gender, use a nonsexist salutation, such as "To Whom it May Concern." It is also acceptable to use the full name in a
salutation if you cannot determine gender. For example, you might write Dear Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of Chris's gender.
Body
For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each
paragraph within the body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each paragraph. When writing a business letter, be careful to remember that
conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly opening and then a statement of the main point. The next paragraph
should begin justifying the importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs, continue justification with background information and
supporting details. The closing paragraph should restate the purpose of the letter and, in some cases, request some type of action.
Closing
The closing begins at the same horizontal point as your date and one line after the last body paragraph. Capitalize the first word only (i.e., Thank
you) and leave four lines between the closing and the sender‟s name for a
signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma should follow the closing; otherwise, there is no punctuation after the closing.
Enclosures
If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate this simply by typing Enclosures one line below the
closing. As an option, you may list the name of each document you are including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many
documents and need to insure that the recipient is aware of each document, it may be a good idea to list the names.
Typist initials
Typist initials are used to indicate the person who typed the letter. If you
typed the letter yourself, omit the typist initials.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_basicbusletter.html#formats#formats
-
4
A note about format and font
When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used. The most common layout of a business letter is
known as block format. Using this format, the entire letter is left justified and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs. Another
widely utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the body of the letter is left justified and single-spaced. However, the date
and closing are in alignment in the center of the page. The final, and least used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified block style except
that each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.
The following table shows examples of the different formats.
March 16, 2001
Ernie English 1234 Writing Lab Lane Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main point of the letter.
Begin with a friendly opening; then quickly transition into the
purpose of your letter. Use a couple of sentences to explain the purpose, but do not go in to
detail until the next paragraph.
Beginning with the second paragraph, state the supporting
details to justify your purpose. These may take the form of background information,
statistics or first-hand accounts. A few short paragraphs within the
body of the letter should be enough to support your
reasoning.
March 16, 2001
Ernie English 1234 Writing Lab Lane Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main point
of the letter. Begin with a friendly opening; then
quickly transition into the purpose of your letter. Use a couple of sentences to
explain the purpose, but do not go in to detail until the
next paragraph.
Beginning with the second paragraph, state the supporting details to justify
your purpose. These may take the form of background
information, statistics or first-hand accounts. A few
short paragraphs within the body of the letter should be
March 16, 2001
Ernie English 1234 Writing Lab Lane Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main
point of the letter. Begin with a friendly opening;
then quickly transition into the purpose of your letter. Use a couple of
sentences to explain the purpose, but do not go in
to detail until the next paragraph.
Beginning with the second paragraph, state
the supporting details to justify your purpose.
These may take the form of background
information, statistics or first-hand accounts. A few
-
5
Finally, in the closing paragraph,
briefly restate your purpose and why it is important. If the purpose of your letter is
employment related, consider ending your letter with your
contact information. However, if the purpose is informational, think about closing with gratitude
for the reader‟s time.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road New Employee Town, PA 12345
enough to support your
reasoning.
Finally, in the closing paragraph, briefly restate
your purpose and why it is important. If the purpose of your letter is employment
related, consider ending your letter with your contact
information. However, if the purpose is informational, think about closing with
gratitude for the reader‟s time.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
short paragraphs within
the body of the letter should be enough to support your reasoning.
Finally, in the closing paragraph, briefly restate your purpose and why it
is important. If the purpose of your letter is
employment related, consider ending your letter with your contact
information. However, if the purpose is
informational, think about closing with gratitude for the reader‟s time.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
Block Format Modified Block Format Semi-block format
If your computer is equipped with Microsoft Office 2000, the Letter Wizard
can be used to take much of the guesswork out of formatting business
letters. To access the Letter Wizard, click on the Tools menu and then
choose Letter Wizard. The Wizard will present the three styles mentioned
here and input the date, sender address and recipient address into the
selected format. Letter Wizard should only be used if you have a basic
understand of how to write a business letter. Its templates are not
applicable in every setting. Therefore, you should consult a business
writing handbook if you have any questions or doubt the accuracy of the
Letter Wizard.
Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the chosen font.
The generally accepted font is Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts
such as Arial may be used. When choosing a font, always consider your
audience. If you are writing to a conservative company, you may want to
use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing to a more liberal
company, you have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.
-
6
As far as punctuation after the salutation and closing is concerned, the
standard is to use a colon after the salutation (never a comma) and a
comma after the closing. There is also a less accepted format, known as
open punctuation, in which punctuation is excluded after the salutation
and the closing.
Business Letters: Accentuating the Positives
Your letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather
than negative, simply because most people respond more favorably to
positive ideas than negative ones. Words that affect your reader positively
are likely to produce the response you desire in letter-writing situations. A
positive emphasis will persuade the reader and create goodwill. In
contrast, negative words may generate resistance and other unfavorable
reactions. You should therefore be careful to avoid words with negative
connotations. These words either deny--for example, NO, DO NOT,
REFUSE, and STOP--or convey unhappy or unpleasant associations--for
example, UNFORTUNATELY, UNABLE TO, CANNOT, MISTAKE, PROBLEM,
ERROR, DAMAGE, LOSS, and FAILURE.
When you need to present negative information, soften its effects by
superimposing a positive picture on a negative one.
1) Stress what something IS rather than what it IS NOT.
2) Emphasize what the firm or product CAN and WILL DO rather than
what it CANNOT.
3) open with ACTION rather than APOLOGY or EXPLANATION.
4) avoid words which convey UNPLEASANT FACTS.
Compare the examples below. Which would be more likely to elicit
positive reader response?
Negative Positive
-
7
In response to your question about
how many coats of Chem-Treat are needed to cover new surfaces: I
regret to report that usually two are required. For such surfaces you
should figure about 200 square feet per gallon for a good heavy coating
that will give you five years or more of beautiful protection.
In response to your question about how many coats of Chem-Treat are
needed to cover new surfaces: One gallon is usually enough for one-coat
coverage of 500 square feet of previously painted surface. For the
best results on new surfaces, you will want to apply two coats.
Penquot sheets are not the skimpy, loosely woven sheets ordinarily
found in this price class.
Penquot sheets are woven186
threads to the square inch for durability and, even after 3-inch
hems, measure a generous 72 by 108 inches.
We cannot ship in lots of less than
12.
To keep down packaging costs and
to help customers save on shipping
costs, we ship in lots of 12 or more.
In addition, you should reemphasize the positive through embedded
position and effective use of space.
Embedded Position
Place GOOD NEWS in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings and
endings of paragraphs, letters, and even sentences.
Place BAD NEWS in secondary positions: in the center of paragraphs,
letters, and, if possible, sentences.
Effective Use Of Space
Give more space to GOOD NEWS and less to BAD NEWS.
Evaluate the examples below to determine whether or not they present
negative information favorably.
1. To make the Roanoke more stable than other lamps of this size, our
designers put six claw feet instead of the usual four on the base and thus
eliminated the need for weighting. Claw feet, as you know, are
characteristic of 18th-century design.
-
8
2. No special training programs are normally offered other than that of
the College Graduate in Training rotational training period. We do not
expect our employees to continue their education, but we do have an
excellent tuition refund program to assist in this regard (see Working with
General Motors, page 8). Where an advanced degree is essential,
individuals are recruited with those particular advanced degrees. Both
Butler and IUPUI offer courses leading to an MBA degree.
3. With our rigid quality standards, corrections of Adidas merchandise run
less than .02 percent of our total line. Because of an oversight in our
stitching department, a damaged needle was inadvertently used and
caused the threads to come loose in these particular bags. Since we now
have a check on all our machine needles before work each day, you can
be assured that the stitching on our Adidas carrying bags will last the
lifetime of the bags. Thank you for calling our attention to the loose
stitching.
4. We are sorry that we cannot furnish the club chairs by August 16.
5. I have no experience other than clerking in my father's grocery store.
6. ABC Dog Biscuits will help keep your dog from getting sick.
Sales Letters: Four Point Action Closing
Securing Action
Having convinced your reader that your product or service is worth the
price, you want to get action before the reader has a change of mind ,
before forgetfulness defeats you, before the money goes for something
else--before any of the things that could happen do happen. Therefore, a
good persuasive closing is essential.
A good action closing--or clincher--should include the following four points:
-
9
1) clearly state what action you wish the reader to take. 2) make that
action easy through facilitating devices and careful wording. 3) date the
action--if possible and appropriate. 4) provide a reader benefit as
stimulus for action.
1) Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To Take
Should the reader order your product or service? Call your office to set up
an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a local dealership or store to see a
demonstration? Invite the visit of a sales representative? On finishing
your letter, your reader should know just exactly what you want done
and how it should be done.
At times, you may have to name two actions and ask the reader to take
one or the other. If you possibly can, avoid doing so. Some people faced
with a choice resolve their dilemma by doing nothing.
2) Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating Devices And Careful Wording
Facilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards or
envelopes already addressed and requiring no postage--remove some of
the work in taking action. Also, your phone number (with area code and
extension) are useful if you want the reader to call you. Finally, state your
office hours and location if you want the reader to come to see you in
person. References to these facilitating devices--preferably directing the
reader to use them--reassure the reader that what you are asking is
simple and requires little time and effort.
Careful wording: through careful wording, you can also emphasize that
what you are asking the reader to do is simple. "Write and let us know
your choice" suggests more work than "Check your color choice on the
enclosed card." "Jot down," "just check," "simply initial" are also
examples of wording that suggest ease and rapidity in doing something.
Such wording helps reduce reader reluctance to take action.
-
11
3) Date The Action--If Possible And Appropriate
Name the date whenever you need the reader's response by a certain
time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it then--perhaps to meet the
deadline for a sale.
4) Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For Action
Always mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain by prompt action.
Such a reminder of the desirability of your product or service--some-
times called a clincher--comes appropriately at the ending of your letter.
It not only provides motivation for the reader, but it also has decided
psychological value as well because it emphasizes service attitude--rather
than the greed stressed if you end with dollars and cents talk or the
mechanics of ordering.
You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the four point action
closing when you are writing a letter relating to sales. You should use
dated action, item 3, ONLY when it is appropriate for your writing
situation.
Some examples of closing paragraphs follow. Determine whether or not
they include all elements of the four point action closing needed for a
tactful, yet persuasive letter ending.
1. Mr. J. B. Nickle, our Memphis representative, will be glad to call at a
time convenient for you. Fill out and mail the enclosed postcard, and he
will come to your home and explain how your Stair Traveler can make
your daily living more pleasurable.
2. You can begin to enjoy the unusual reception of a famous Foremost set
by placing your order now.
3. Call our toll-free number, or mail the enclosed postcard indicating a
day and time convenient for our representative to visit you. He'll give you
a list of SIB users in the Lafayette area and explain additional advantages
-
11
of using Superior's Ice Breaker. You can then order your winter's supply
and join more than 150,000 apartment and industrial firms who have
used SIB for ice-free parking lots.
4. If you have any technical questions concerning our products, please
call us toll free at (800) 555-9525 and ask for Technical Service. Our staff
will be pleased to lend whatever assistance they can.
5. We are enclosing an order blank and postage paid envelope for your
convenience.
Appendix A
Letter Samples
Model for an Acceptance Letter
May 10, 2001
Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345
The acceptance letter is a simple and pleasant letter to write. In the first
paragraph, thank the company for the offer and directly accept the
position.
Next, restate the contract provisions as you understand them. These are
points that you and your contact at the company have discussed in
relation to your employment. They may include salary, location, benefits,
or any other items. Restate any instructions you were given in their
-
12
acceptance letter to you. These might include the date that you will begin
working, the salary discussed, or the hours you would be working. It is
extremely important to restate these details because they provide
documentation of an understanding between you and the company before
an actual contract is signed.
Finally, end with a statement of your happiness at the opportunity to join
the company. Be thankful and courteous, watching your tone so as not to
sound too overconfident.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345
-
13
Cover Letter Model
Write to a specific person, ideally to the person conducting the
interview or hiring for the position.
Date
First and Last Name
Their position/title Company Name
Address Address
City, State, Zip-code
Dear Ms./Mr./Dr. Last Name,
The first paragraph of your cover letter should get the reader's attention,
stimulate interest, and be appropriate for the job you are seeking. You should make your goal clear to readers, and preview the rest of your letter. It is also
appropriate to mention where you learned of the job opening.
Focus on your two or three strongest qualifications for a position in your
cover letter. Even only one strong qualification is enough to discuss in a cover letter. Each qualification you discuss should be placed in its own paragraph,
and your letter as a whole should not exceed one typed page.
Each body paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that highlights one qualification. This qualification should be illustrated with specific details, and
you should demonstrate how this qualification will benefit the employer. Ask
the reader to refer to your resume, if possible.
Your conclusion should ask for a personal interview (be flexible regarding a date and time for the interview), be specific about how the interviewer should
contact you, and include a thank you.
Sincerely,
Your Signature
Your Name
Enclosure: resume
-
14
Follow-up to an Interview Letter Model
April 2, 2001
Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
The purpose of the follow-up to an interview is to convey your
thankfulness at being given an interview. In the opening paragraph, thank
the interviewer for their time. Thank them for allowing you to learn about
the position and the company.
In the body of your letter, present a personal analysis of your interview
and visit. It is important to avoid clichés and generalizations such as, "My
visit to your company was very informational and interesting." Write
about your impressions of the company and your review of the interview
proceedings. You may also want to point out any new information that
you learned about the company during your visit. If there is any new
information about your education or work experience that you believe
would be increase your chance of getting the position, present those as
well.
In your conclusion it is important to be positive and reflect goodwill. The
letter‟s intent is to show the interviewer that you are thorough, courteous,
efficient and, most importantly, that you are sincerely interested in the
job. It is likely that sending this letter will set you apart from the crowd.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road New Employee Town, PA 12345
Model for Writing an Inquiry about a Cover Letter and Resume
-
15
March 16, 2001
Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
This document should loosely reflect your cover letter. In this opening
paragraph, restate the position for which you applied, and state that you
are still interested. You may also wish to include a forecasting statement.
This is a brief sentence explaining why you feel qualified to fill the position
at hand.
In the second paragraph, briefly restate the qualifications listed in your
cover letter. Since brevity is always important in employment related
letters, remember to include only your most recent and relevant
qualifications. In order to avoid restating your resume, give situational
examples of your qualifications. If there have been any new additions to
your resume, add those as well. Here too, avoid simply restating your
resume since it will be included with your letter.
Finally, in the closing paragraph, restate your contact information and
when you are available. Close the letter so that the employer knows that
you are still sincerely interested in the job.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345
Model for Writing a Rejection of a Job Offer
-
16
May 10, 2001
Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
The purpose of this letter is to reject a job offer presented to you by a
company. It is important to be polite, while at the same time firmly
rejecting the offer. In the opening paragraph, thank the employer for
the offer. Convey that although you appreciated the offer, you are
unable to accept the position. You may also wish to use an indirect
approach, by stating the reasons for your refusal before rejecting the
offer.
You should then give the employer the reasons for your refusal. The
rejection of an offer is somewhat unimportant to the applicant, but it is
extremely important to the employer. It allows the company to formally
move on to the next applicant. More importantly, it tells the employer
how to make the offer more appealing for the next applicant. After all,
how can they be expected to fix a problem if they don‟t know what it is?
After you have stated your reasons for rejecting their offer, politely
refuse the offer (if you haven‟t already done so).
End your letter with a sense of goodwill. This is important because you
may wish to apply for a position with the company at a later date. Also,
be sure to thank them for the time they invested while working with
you.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter 123 Winner‟s Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345
Model for Writing a Reference Request Letter
-
17
February 10, 2001
Louie Lab
1234 University St.
University City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. Lab:
You will need to write a reference request letter before you create a reference sheet to distribute to potential employers. It is meant to give
the reference some warning that an employer may be contacting them. It
also insures that they have the most up-to-date information about your qualifications and education. In the first paragraph, your primary goal is
to reintroduce yourself to your potential reference. Simply give a quick review of the relationship and situations the two of you shared. This
opening should be courteous and polite. Provide a little information about yourself. This is especially important if you have not spoken with your
potential reference in some time. State your field of study, year in school, and/or career aspirations.
Next, you should formally ask to use this person as a reference. Briefly
discuss the position for which you are applying and how the reference will
be used. Will it be utilized as an addition to your resume or presented at the interview? This information will give your reference a better
understanding of the information that would be expected from them if an employer contacted them.
Finally, close the letter with a sentence that assumes you have permission
to use the reference unless you hear otherwise. You may wish to include a self-addressed stamped card so that the person may send you an answer.
Also, include a copy of your resume with the letter. This will provide helpful information about your qualifications and allow the reference to
speak intelligently to potential employers. Thank the reference for
allowing you to use them in your job search and end with a friendly closing.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner's Road New Employee Town, PA 12345
Model for Writing a Request for Further Negotiations
-
18
April 25, 2001
Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
A request for further negotiations letter is much like your acceptance or
rejection letter. The difference is that the request for further negotiations
shows that you would accept the offer contingent on the result of
negotiations. To begin the letter, thank the employer for the offer. Then
state your wish to discuss things further. You can do this in two ways: a
direct request for further negotiations or a conditional statement.
Next, it is important to stress the points of your contract that require
further discussion. List them all, so that the company can prepare their
responses once instead of in a number of letters such as this. Also, it may
be helpful for you to state the reasons for the discussion of each point.
This will give the employer a better understanding of your specific needs.
Depending on the type and number of points you are discussing, it may
be beneficial to format them in a list. This is sometimes an easier way to
read and organize the information than paragraph form.
In closing, it may be helpful to suggest that the employer contact you
with their initial reactions to your unresolved issues. List your contact
information and when you may be reached. Restate your general
appreciation for the offer and maintain a sense of goodwill.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter 123 Winner's Road
New Employee Town, PA 12345
-
19
Reply to a Rejection Model Letter
May 7, 2001
Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345
Dear Mr. English:
Writing this letter is optional, but doing so is a good idea. It leaves the
door open for you to apply to the firm sometime in the future when your
qualifications have changed and is a way of maintaining a good
relationship with the company. In the opening, thank the company for
their time and consideration of your application and qualifications.
Use the body of your letter to discuss your positive impressions of the
company. You might mention interviews that you had with company
representatives, information you learned about the company during your
application process, and any specific people who were particularly helpful
or kind to you during the process.
Close the letter by mentioning the possibility of future contact with the
company. Remain optimistic and thankful that the company considered
your application.
Sincerely,
Lucy Letter
123 Winner‟s Road New Employee Town, PA 12345
-
21
Unit Two
Email Writing
Email Etiquette
What is email etiquette?
Email etiquette refers to a set of dos and don‟ts that are recommended by
business and communication experts in response to the growing concern
that people are not using their email effectively or appropriately.
Since email is part of the virtual world of communication, many people
communicate in their email messages the same way they do in virtual
chat rooms: with much less formality and sometimes too aggressively.
Email etiquette offers some guidelines that all writers can use to facilitate
better communication between themselves and their readers.
-
21
One overall point to remember is that an email message does not have
non-verbal expression to supplement what we are "saying." Most of the
time we make judgments about a person‟s motives and intentions based
on their tone of voice, gestures, and their proximity to us. When those
are absent it becomes more difficult to figure out what the message
sender means. It is much easier to offend or hurt someone in email and
that is why it is important to be as clear and concise as possible.
How do I know if I am using the correct etiquette?
There are a number of things to consider before clicking the "send" button
on your email.
How should I format my email? To whom am I sending my email?
Can I send attachments?
How long should my email be? Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming" mean?)
When should I not send an email?
How should I format my email?
You are most likely familiar with the general rules about formatting email
but here are some tips to keep in mind.
Be sure that your email is formatted to wrap your text after about 70
characters. This keeps the email from looking disjointed. When you do not
have a wrap around option for 70-80 characters then your email will
mostly likely look like this:
Dear John,
I am really interested in leasing
your apartment but I need just a little bit more information. Do you
have time to meet with me tomorrow afternoon
around three or so?
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#format#formathttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#audience#audiencehttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#attach#attachhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#length#lengthhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#flame#flamehttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#nosend#nosend
-
22
Usually, settings for character length will be found in the "preferences"
option on the tool bar of your email client. Consult your help menu for
more information.
Here are some additional formatting tips to consider.
Try to keep the email brief (preferably to one page) so that readers
do not have to scroll. ***
Return emails in the same day that you would a phone call.
Use capitalization and punctuation in the same way that you would
in any other document.
Format your email to be sent in plain text rather than HTML
because some email clients may not read HTML.
Write a salutation or greeting for each new subject email. ***
However, if you exchange several emails over the same topic (for
example, a meeting day and time) it is not necessary to include a
greeting because it is as though you are carrying on a conversation.
When we carry on conversations, we do not say hello each time we
speak.
Be sure to write an appropriate and specific subject in the subject
line so that the recipient knows what to expect. For example: "April
22 production team meeting agenda" instead of "meeting."
To whom am I sending my email?
It is always important to know who will receive your email, including the
number of people you have on the mailing list. This helps you in two
ways. First, it helps you think about the tone of your writing
For example, while you still want to follow the traditional rules of writing,
emails that you send to your employer or professor may be more formal
and brief than to a colleague or classmate. You will need to decide
whether you need to use a person‟s title or if writing the first name is
appropriate.
-
23
Second, if you send an email to more than four people regularly you
should create mailing groups so that the recipients do not need to scroll
through names before they can get to the content of the email. It also
helps to keep some email addresses anonymous, as some perceive it as
rude for their names and email addresses to be posted for strangers to
see.
You will need to talk with the technical support in your office or use the
"help" option on your computer if you do not know how to create a
mailing group. A mailing group is a list of email addresses assigned to one
name (like, [email protected]). You want to use names that
make sense to you so that you can remember them. This is especially
helpful when you are managing several mailing group lists.
Emails are public documents, despite the fact that you may send an email
to someone privately. Therefore, only include those statements in email
that you can openly defend should your message be circulated or shown
to other parties. Using emoticons (smiley faces, winks, etc.), and other
virtual gestures may be appropriate in some cases, but not in all cases! It
is always essential to consider the type of relationship you have with the
receiver of your message before including virtual non-verbals. If your
relationship is more casual, then using the symbols is fine. If your
relationship is more formal, then it is best to refrain from using them.
Can I send attachments?
Yes, as long as you are sure that your recipient can receive them.
Sending attachments is a normal practice when you are submitting
documents for review or exchanging information in the workplace. Here
are some tips to consider before attaching a document.
Title the document that you are attaching in a way that is easy for
the recipient to find once he or she downloads it to his or her files.
For example, if you are sending a document that is a goal
statement then title it "goalstatement.doc."
-
24
In the content of your email, tell your recipient what type of
software was used to create the document, the year/version, and
the title of the attachment.
For example: "The file attached is called „goalstatement.doc‟ and it
is in MSWord 2000."
Make sure that you do not send overly large attachments unless
you are sure that your recipient's Internet connection and email
client can handle them. For example, a user on a 56K dialup would
have to spend a long time downloading a 5M PowerPoint file,
whereas a co-worker on a fast work connection would have no
problem.
Don't send unnecessary attachments -- if you've already presented
all of the relevant information in an email message, don't attach a
Word document repeating the same information.
How long should my email be?
In general, the email should be approximately one page printed or the
length of your computer screen before scrolling. However, there are times
when email messages need to be longer to convey important information.
Oftentimes organizations seeking to reduce their paper costs will use
email as their primary source of communication. Longer emails generally
consist of: Orientation schedules and information, memos, convention
information, newsletters, and policy changes.
When you need to write a long email try to include three essential
elements at the top of the email: (a) an executive summary at the top of
the document, (b) how soon a response is required from the recipient(s),
and (c) a table of contents.
An executive summary
This is a short summary of everything in the email document including
the main goal of the email or the "bottom line." *
-
25
For example: "Welcome to ZDF Company. This email contains important
information about your orientation week. You will find the five day
schedule, names of the speakers, the menu, hotel arrangements, and
testimonials from employees who previously participated."
Required response
Because your reader is most likely going to read the first few lines of your
document thoroughly and browse through the rest, if you need to have
him or her respond by a certain time with certain information, that should
be stated within the executive summary.
For example: "Please let me know by Wednesday whether you are
attending the meeting."
Table of contents
A table of contents allows the reader to pick and choose what sections of
the email are most relevant to him or her.* A person is most likely to
comply with your requests when you make it easy for him or her to
navigate your materials.
For example:
Table of Contents
- Five Day Schedule
- Speaker List
- Menu
- Registration Form
- Hotel Arrangements
- Travel Reimbursement Policy
Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming" mean?)
-
26
Flaming is a virtual term for venting emotion online or sending
inflammatory emails. It is best to avoid flaming because it tends to create
more conflict and tension. Flames are virtual food fights and are
unproductive and injurious to the parties involved.
What you say cannot be taken back. Misinterpretations happen very easily
in neutral emails because there is a lack of nonverbal expression to cue
the recipient about your motives and intentions. You can imagine how
much misinterpretation can occur when you are expressing frustration
and/or anger.
Things to consider before venting in email:
Would I say this to this person‟s face?
Am I putting the receiver in awkward position?
How would I feel if I got this email message?
Usually, by the time you consider the above questions you will be calm
enough to write your message with a different approach. Catching
someone by surprise in a flaming message is a quick way to alienate your
reader mainly because they will react with anger or embarrassment.
Below are some examples of flaming messages and then some
suggestions on ways to re-word them in more sensitive and thoughtful
ways.
Flame/inappropriate message Not a flame/appropriate message
"This project really sucks and I cannot believe that he is making us do this.
I‟m sick and tired of all these dumb assignments. He needs to get a life!"
"This assignment came at a tough time. I wasn‟t expecting so
much work. I can‟t wait till the end of the semester."
"If you don‟t fix this problem then I am going to quit TOMORROW!!!!!!!! I
am sick and tired of Martha‟s incompetence!!!"
"I‟m growing increasingly frustrated by the current
situation. Can we set up a time to talk about this more?"
-
27
When should I not send an email?
There are many subjects that are too sensitive to discuss over email
mainly because misinterpretation could have serious consequences. Some
topics that should generally be resolved outside of email are:
Disciplinary action
Conflicts about grades or personal information
Concerns about fellow classmates/workmates
Complaints
When it appears that a dialogue has turned into a conflict, it is best to
suggest an end to the swapping of email and for you to talk or meet in
person. If you receive a flaming email try to respond in a short and simple
response. If that does not appease the flamer than make contact with him
or her outside the virtual realm.
Unit Three
Memo Writing
Memos have one purpose in life: "Memos solve problems."
Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new
information, like policy changes, price increases, etc., or by persuading
the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, use less paper, or
change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal,
memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer
with the interests and needs of the reader. This handout will help you
solve you memo-writing problems by discussing what a memo is,
presenting some options for organizing memos, describing a the parts of
memos, and suggesting some hints that will make your memos more
effective.
What Is a Memo?
-
28
When you think of a memo, what do you think of? Is it a little piece of
paper with a cute letterhead that says something like:
"From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..."
The message itself may be very simple--something like:
"Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom, we're
out of fudge pops."
While these memos are informative or persuasive, and may serve their
simple purposes, more complex memos are often needed in an office
setting. But don't let that worry you. Even though business memos may
be more formal and complicated, the intention in writing one is still the
same. You want to achieve your purpose with your reader effectively. This
handout will show you how.
Basic Memo Plans
Standard office memos can be approached in different ways to fit your
purpose. Here are three basic plans:
1. The direct plan, which is the most common, starts out by stating
the most important points first and then moves to supporting
details. This plan is useful for routine information and for relaying
news.
2. The indirect plan makes an appeal or spews out evidence first
and arrives at a conclusion based on these facts. This plan is best
used when you need to arouse your reader's interest before
describing some action that you want taken.
3. A combination approach can be used for the balanced plan. This
plan is particularly useful when relaying bad news, as it combines
information and persuasion.
Parts of a Memo
-
29
Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information
and to help achieve the writer's purpose.
Heading Segment
The heading segment follows this general format:
TO: (readers' names and job titles)
FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
Troubleshooting hints:
Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and
job title. You might call the company president "Maxi" on the golf
course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell, President" would
be more appropriate for a formal memo.
Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Rats"
as a subject line could mean anything from a production problem
to a personal frustration. Instead use something like, "Curtailing
Rat Extremity Parts in our Product."
Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs and is
presented in three parts: the context and problem, the specific
assignment or task, and the purpose of the memo.
1. The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the
problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph to establish
the background and state the problem or simply the opening of a
sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce rat parts in our
product...." Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is
clear.
-
31
2. In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to
help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task
may be indicated by a sentence opening like, "You asked that I
look at...." If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,
"To determine the best method of controlling the percentage of
rat extremities, I will...."
3. Finally, the purpose statement of a memo gives your reason for
writing it and forecasts what is in the rest of the memo. This is
not the time to be shy. You want to come right out and tell your
reader the kind of information that's in store. For example, you
might say: "This memo presents a description of the current
situation, some proposed alternatives, and my
recommendations." If you plan to use headings for your memo
segments, you can refer to your major headings in this forecast
statement to provide a better guide for your reader.
Troubleshooting hints:
Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-
makers in the context, but be convincing that a real problem
exists. Do no ramble on with insignificant details.
If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider
whether you have clarified the situation. You may need to do
more planning before you're ready to write your memo.
Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject
into the most important topics that the decision-maker needs.
Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate
summary segment. This segment provides a brief statement of the key
recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader
understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may
-
31
also include references to methods and sources you have used in your
research, but remember to keep it brief.
You can help your reader understand your memo better by using
headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Try
to write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the
segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try
"New Rat-Part Elimination System," which is much more specific. The
major headings you choose here are the ones that will appear in your
purpose-statement forecast.
Troubleshooting hint:
You may want to wait until after the report is drafted and all conclusions
and recommendations have been decided before writing the summary.
Discussion Segments
The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the juicy details that support your ideas. Keep these two things in mind:
1. Begin with the information that is most important. This may
mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations.
2. Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting
facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest--->weakest.)
Troubleshooting hints:
For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible.
Be careful to make lists parallel in grammatical form.
Closing Segment
Now you're almost done. After the reader has absorbed all of your
information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states what
action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the
reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those
actions easier. For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this
-
32
recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow
through on any decisions you make."
Necessary Attachments
Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information
whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables,
etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in
your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing,
like this:
Attached: Several Complaints about Product, January - June 1997
Good luck on your memo. If you look at this handout closely, you will see that,
except for the heading segment, it follows the guidelines and hints presented
here. These hints will also help you make your memo more successful.
Unit Four
Writing Business Reports
Business reports are required in disciplines such as accounting, finance,
management, marketing and commerce. Often the type of assignment set
is a practical learning task requiring you to apply the theories you have
been studying to real world (or realistic) situations; for example, in the
field of accounting and finance you may be asked to analyse a company‟s
financial data and to write a report detailing you findings; in the field of
marketing you may be asked to research and develop a marketing
campaign for a product and to write a report presenting the proposal to
the company; in the field of management you may be asked to report on
the management structure of a company and make recommendations for
its improvement. Learning how to report on financial information,
marketing and management strategies and issues to others is an
important component of business writing skills.
-
33
Your aim of writing the report will most probably guide you as to the type
of information that should be included in your report and the steps you
should follow.
Business reports will obviously differ according to the specific question
and task they seek to answer. It is important, however, to be clear what
the overall purpose of your report is: is it to inform, to make a proposal,
or to solve a problem?
In business, the information provided in reports needs to be easy to find,
and written in such a way that the client can understand it. This is one
reason why reports are divided into sections clearly labelled with headings
and sub-headings. Technical information which would clutter the body of
the report is placed in the appendix.
The structure of a report and the purpose and contents of each section is
shown below.
TITLE PAGE report title
your name
submission date
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY overview of subject matter
methods of analysis
findings
recommendations
TABLE OF CONTENTS list of numbered sections in report
and their page numbers
INTRODUCTION terms of reference
outline of report‟s structure
BODY headings and sub-headings which
reflect the contents of each
section. Includes information on
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/4bi.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/4bii.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/4biii.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/4biv.html
-
34
method of data collection (if
applicable), the findings of the
report and discussion of findings in
light of theory
CONCLUSION states the major inferences that
can be drawn from the discussion
makes recommendations
REFERENCE LIST list of reference material consulted
during research for report
APPENDIX information that supports your
analysis but is not essential to its
explanation
Executive summary
The executive summary provides the reader with an overview of the
report‟s essential information. It is designed to be read by people who will
not have time to read the whole report or are deciding if this is
necessary; therefore, in your executive summary you need to say as
much as possible in the fewest words (Weaver & Weaver, 1977). The
executive summary should briefly outline the subject matter, the
background problem, the scope of the investigation, the method(s) of
analysis, the important findings arguments and important issues raised in
the discussion, the conclusion and recommendations. The executive
summary should not just be an outline of the points to be covered in the
report with no detail of the analysis that has taken place or conclusions
that have been reached.
The executive summary stands as an overview at the front of the report
but it is also designed to be read alone without the accompanying report
(this would often occur in the workplace); therefore, you need to make
sure it is self sufficient and can be understood in isolation. It is usually
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/4bv.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/1h.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/1i.html
-
35
written last (so that it accurately reflects the content of the report) and is
usually about two hundred to three hundred words long (i.e. not more
than a page).
Table of contents
In a report longer than several pages a table of contents should be
included as it assists the reader to locate information quickly. It also gives
the reader a schematic overview of the structure and contents of the
report.
A table of contents should include all section headings and subheadings:
worded exactly as they appear in the report
numbered exactly as they appear in the report
with their page numbers.
The table of contents should be on its own page.
As well as a table of contents, you may wish to include:
List of Figures (optional, separate page)
This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous figures. It
includes the figure number, caption and page number, ordered as they
appear in the text.
List of Tables (optional, separate page)
This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous tables. It includes
the table number, caption and page number, ordered as they appear in
the text.
List of appendices (optional, separate page)
This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous appendices. It
includes the appendix letter (each separate appendix should be lettered
-
36
i.e. Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.), its title and page number, ordered as
they appear at the end of the report.
Nomenclature (optional)
Where symbols are used extensively, a list of symbols and definitions
should appear at the beginning of the report. If there is no list, symbols
should be defined in the text when first used.
Introduction
The introduction presents:
the background to the issue (i.e. why was the report commissioned),
the objective or purpose of the report
a definition of the research problem/topic
a definition of the report‟s terms of reference (the what, where, and when
of the research problem/ topic)
an outline of the report‟s structure
an overview of the report‟s sections and their relationship to the research
problem
an outline and justification of the scope of the report (the boundaries the
report is working within)
a description of the range of sources used (i.e. personal investigation,
interviews, statistics and questionnaires)
acknowledgment of any valuable assistance received in the preparation of
the report
While there will be some duplication in the contents of the executive
summary and the introduction, the purpose of the executive summary is
to provide a summary of the findings of each section of the report. The
-
37
purpose of the introduction, however, is to outline what the report will
cover and how these issues address the research problem.
Body of the report
The body section expands and develops the material in a logical and
coherent manner, reflecting the structure outlined in the Introduction. It
contains a description of the findings and a discussion of them. It should
also relate the findings to any theory of relevance. The following
questions are examples of some of the types of questions the body of
your report should seek to answer:
What were the most significant findings or factors involved in the topic/
problem?
Did the findings support the theory?
Have you found some disagreement with the theory?
Did you uncover any unexpected or new issues that need to be considered?
This section is usually the longest part of the report. The material must be
presented logically. The type of headings you use to organize the
information in the body of your report will depend on the purpose of the
report you are preparing. Make sure the headings and sub-headings you
choose are informative. The following general structures are just
examples of ways it may be appropriate to structure your report.
Type 1: Findings/ Discussion
• Sub-heading 1
• Statement of issue 1
• findings
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/1gi.html
-
38
• Sub-heading 2
• Statement of issue 2
• findings
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice
Type 2: Findings
• Sub-heading 1
• Statement of issue 1
• findings
• Sub-heading 2
• statement of issue 2
• findings
Discussion
• Issue 1
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice
• Issue 2
• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory
• discussion of significance to theory/ practice
If your report requires any collection or analysis of data, it would
generally contain a method section in the body of the report briefly
describing how the data was collected: literature search, web pages,
interviews, financial and other business reports, etc. Details of types of
calculations or analysis undertaken would also be detailed.
The body of a report will also probably contain supporting evidence such
as tables, graphs or figures. Only include those that are essential for
-
39
reader understanding, the rest can be placed in an appendix that is
referred to in the text; for example,
Appendix C contains the YoY predicted growth in shareholder accounts for
the company.
Using headings in your report
Headings should be clearly, logically and accurately labelled since they
reveal the organization of the report and permit quick reference to
specific information. They also make the report easy to read.
Headings should be specific and descriptive NOT vague and general.
Sometimes a main heading will be general but the specificity is developed
through subheadings. Given the need for specificity, headings would tend
to be more like an abbreviated sentence rather than a single word. A
good rule of thumb is that the heading should be "long enough to be an
inclusive label but short enough to be immediately clear". You should also
try to make headings grammatically and logically consistent; for example,
if your main heading was
Types Of Schemas
and your subheadings under this section were:
Schemas for scenes
Schemas for events
Schemas for stories
Problems and their schemas
it would be much better to change the final subheading to
Schemas for problems
so that consistency in your headings is maintained.
-
41
Also avoid using headings that are catchy rather than informative; for
example, the following subheadings, although catchy and cute, detract
from the serious informative intent of the following report.
4. Key products and services of the McDonald's corporation
The following outline of McDonald's key products and services will thoroughly examine all
aspects of consumer buyer behaviour …..
4.1 The Big Mac: two all beef patties, special sauce, lettuce,
cheese, pickles and onions on a sesame seed bun!
The Big Mac hamburger brand was introduced to the McDonalds's product range in 1968
and has worldwide recognition. The longevity, popularity and recognisability of this
product impact on consumer buying behaviour in several ways…..
4.2 McFlurry: just like a snowstorm in your mouth!
The McFlurry is a relatively new item to the McDonald's product range and as such it is
relevant to analyse several different aspects of consumer buyer behaviour such as …..
Using figures such as diagrams, tables, graphs, charts or maps can be a
very useful way to show and emphasize information in your report. They
can be used to compile data in an orderly way or to amplify a point and
are a useful tool to help your readers understand complex or numerous
data.
Figures essential to the report should be smoothly and correctly
integrated and should be explained and referred to in the main body of
the report. A useful way to do this is to lead into the figure by telling the
reader what to focus on in the figure and then lead out of the figure
perhaps by linking the important point that was illustrated to the next
salient point; for example:
-
41
Figures that are supportive rather than essential to your explanation can
be placed in the appendix section so that the continuity of your writing is
not broken up. If a figure such as a table of data is essential for
understanding but is very lengthy, you may wish to include an excerpt of
the most relevant part of the figure in the text and the full figure in an
appendix.
The inclusion of tables and figures does not absolve you from making
your report coherent. Regardless of whether the figures are integrated
into the text or are in an appendix, it is important that you do discuss the
information represented in the diagrams, tables, graphs, charts and maps
and not just let them 'speak for themselves'. A good rule of thumb is to
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/1i.html
-
42
produce text and figures that can both stand alone: the text should be
readable without figures, and vice versa. In your discussion of the
information represented in the figures you should highlight information
which you consider significant, point out trends or relationships or
compare data presented in separate figures; for example,
The Keeling plant's production capacity was reached in May this year. In contrast, the
Hergort plant has not yet reached 75% of its production capacity (see Table 13).
Make sure the figure is worthwhile. If the text is crystal clear without the
insertion of a figure there is no point including it, despite how good it may
look. If the text does not make sense without the insertion of the figure,
you are expecting the figure to do your job for you. In fact, the figure is
not meant to make your point but to illustrate, emphasize and
supplement it.
Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that
supports your analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information),
validates your conclusions or pursues a related point should be placed in
an appendix (plural appendices). Sometimes excerpts from this
supporting information (i.e. part of the data set) will be placed in the
body of the report but the complete set of information ( i.e. all of the data
set) will be included in the appendix. Examples of information that could
be included in an appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,
statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy
derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data
sheets, computer program information.
There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix providing it is
relevant and reference is made to it in the report. The appendix is not a
catch net for all the semi-interesting or related information you have
gathered through your research for your report: the information included
in the appendix must bear directly relate to the research problem or the
report's purpose. It must be a useful tool for the reader.
-
43
Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B,
Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are
presented in is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of the
report. It is essential to refer to each appendix within the text of the
report; for example,
For the manufacturer's specification, see Appendix B
or
Appendix C contains the YoY shareholder account growth rates. The rates are high. The increasing growth rate of
accounts will significantly affect the valuation of the company.
Conclusion
The conclusion summarizes the major inferences that can be drawn from
the information presented in the report. It answers the questions raised
by the original research problem or stated purpose of the report and
states the conclusions reached. Finally, the conclusion of your report
should also attempt to show „what it all means‟: the significance of the
findings reported and their impact.
The conclusion/s presented in a report must be related to, resulting from
and justified by the material which appears in the report. The conclusion
must not introduce any new material. It should report on all the
conclusions that the evidence dictates as it is NOT the job of a conclusion
to “gloss over conclusions that are puzzling, unpleasant, incomplete or
don‟t seem to fit into your scheme”. Doing this would indicate writer bias
and mean your conclusion may mislead the reader.
In the workplace, conclusions are quite often read by managers before
the main text of the report and hence, should summarize the main points
clearly. This section also may include:
reference to original aim(s) and objective(s) of report,
application(s) of results,
-
44
limitations and advantages of the findings,
objective opinion, evaluation or judgement of the evidence
Quite often the present tense is used in the conclusion; for example, “The
healthy lifestyles concept analyzed in this report is a good candidate for
next phase of the marketing campaign for Choice chocolate”.
The conclusions may be ordered in several ways. The main conclusion
may be stated first and then any other conclusions in decreasing order of
importance. Alternatively, it may be better to organize the conclusions in
the same order as the body section was organised. Another strategy
would be to present the positive conclusions together and then the
negative conclusions. The organizational strategy you use may vary; the
important thing is that the organization of your conclusion is logical.
The conclusion must arise from the evidence discussed in the body of the
report. It should not, therefore, subjectively tell the reader what to do:
this job is performed by the recommendations section.
(NOTE: Sometimes the conclusion and recommendations can be
presented together in one section but they should be presented in
separately labelled subsections).
It is essential to include a reference list or bibliography of the reference
material you consulted during your research for the report. A
bibliography is a list of all the reference material you consulted during
your research for the report while a reference list is a list of all the
references cited in the text of your report, listed in alphabetical order at
the end of the report. Each reference in the reference list needs to contain
all of the bibliographic information from a source. You should also check
with your lecturer or tutor for any Faculty guidelines on referencing
formats.
Throughout the text of your report you will also need to provide
references when you have included an idea in your report which is not
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/4div.html
-
45
your own original idea. You don't need to reference an idea, however, if it
is common knowledge (i.e. enzymes are proteins) or if it has been
established by you in your experiment (i.e. in scientific reports reporting
on an experiment). A reference is the bracketed or footnoted piece of
information within the text of your writing that provides an
acknowledgment that you are using someone else's ideas. There are
several systems of referencing such as the Harvard or author-date
system, footnotes or endnotes. Different faculties, departments and even
lecturers will generally have preferences about how you should reference
and you should seek these out before submitting your assignment.
Reference List1
To provide full details of your source information you should provide a
reference list or bibliography at the end of your assignment. A reference
list refers to all the books, articles and web sites that you actually
referred to in your assignment. A bibliography refers to all the material
you read in preparation for your assignment, even those you did not
provide direct or indirect quotations from. Your lecturer or tutor will
instruct you on whether your assignments require a reference list or a
bibliography. The reference list or bibliography must be set out in the
particular format required by your discipline or department. Below is an
example of a reference list that would be attached to the end of your
assignment.
Gould, S.J. 1977, Ontogeny and Phylogeny.
Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press.
Lovejoy, C.O. 1980, 'The origin of man', Science,
vol. 211, pp.340-350.
book titles and journal
names are in are in italics.
(If handwriting your
assignment, use
underlining).
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/4cx.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/4cx.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/4div.html#1#1
-
46
Savage-Rumbaugh, E.S. 1986, Ape Language:
From conditioned response to symbol. New
York: Columbia University Press.
hanging indents: in these
examples hanging indents
have been used; however,
this is not an essential
requirement.
Wolpoff, M.H., Zhi, W.X. & Thorne, A.G. 1984,
'Modern homo sapiens origins: A general theory
of hominid evolution involving the fossil
evidence from South-East Asia'. In F.H. Smith
& F. Spencer. (Eds.) The Origins of modern
humans New York: Alan R. Liss Inc.
Article and chapter
titles are in plain text
within single quotation
marks.
In a reference list,
sources are listed alphabetically by the surname of the author
when reference is made to more than one work by and author/s, list them
chronologically, ending with the most recent work.
1 Reference: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1995, Style Manual: For Authors, Editors
and Printers, 5th edn., Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
The Harvard or Author-Date or System of
Referencing
The Harvard System of referencing incorporates information on:
the author of the material cited,
the date of publication
and where necessary, the page number(s).
-
47
This information is placed in a bracket within the sentence of the idea you
are discussing. This information allows the reader to look up the full
bibliographic information from the attached reference list.
Harvard style references can be given in three ways:
The rationale of the free market is essentially opposed to the collective
nature of unionism in the labour market (Ewer, Smith and Keane, 1991:
1).
Notice the reference comes before the punctuation ending the sentence,
in this case, a full stop.
OR
Ewer, Smith and Keane state that the rationale of the free market is
essentially opposed to the collective nature of unionism in the labour
market (1991: 1).
OR
Ewer, Smith and Keane (1991: 1) state that the rationale of the free market
is essentially opposed to the collective nature of unionism in the labour
market.
The way you decide to refer will depend upon factors such as the
authority of the source and whether you wish to focus on the idea rather
than the author.
When to include page numbers?
No Page Numbers: When you wish to use an author's central idea or
argument, for example, you must cite the author's name and the year of
-
48
publication, but you may leave out page numbers as the original text will
have referred to that central idea many times within the text. This will be
the case where you summarize the central argument of an entire article.
Page Numbers: When you refer to just one idea of many in a publication,
however, you must include page numbers. This allows your reader in
follow-up reading to find what might be a quite small piece of information
inside what could be a large article or book. This is often the case with
direct quotations or paraphrased sentences/ paragraphs/ sub-sections of
an article.
Look at the paragraph below to see how a writer has referenced source
material of different kinds.
The work of van Lawick-Goodall (1971),
Kortlandt and van Zon (1968), and Wright
(1972) shows that present-day
chimpanzees, orangutans and macaque
monkeys are capable of using simple tools
Name and year only (refers to
main idea of the source).
-
49
and bipedal locomotion. Wright (1972:
305) concluded after tool using
experiments with a captive orangutan, that
manipulative disability is not a factor which
would have prevented Australopithecines
from mastering the fundamentals of tool
technology. However, while there is an
unquestionable validity in comparing the
behaviour of present-day apes with early
hominids, it is important to note that, as
Howells (1973: 53) says, "a Pantroglodyte
is not and cannot be the ancestor of man.
He cannot be an ancestor of anything but
future chimpanzees". However, the modern
chimpanzee shows a type of intelligence
closer to that of man than is found in any
other present-day mammal. van Lawick-
Goodall argues that:
... the chimpanzee is, nevertheless, a
creature of immense significance to the
understanding of man ... He has the ability
to solve quite complex problems, he can
use and make tools for a variety of
purposes (1971: 244-245).
Page number included as the
text refers to only one idea
from the source.
Direct quote, so a page
number MUST be included.
A quote longer than three lines
is indented (quotation marks
are not included but the page
number is).
1 Reference: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1995, Style Manual: For Authors, Editors
and Printers, 5th edn., Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Direct Quotation
A direct quotation is one in which you copy an author's words directly
from the text and use that exact wording in your essay. Try to use direct
-
51
quotations sparingly: only use them when they are focused precisely on
the point you want to make and are both brief and telling, or where the
substance/ wording of the quote is what you wish to address.
When directly quoting, remember the following points:
for a short quotation, use quotation marks " " to indicate that these are
the words of another
In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata "truly are the building blocks of cognition" (1981:
33).
for quotations longer than three lines, take a new line and indent the
quote to separate it from the main text (in this case you do not require
quotation marks)
In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata
truly are the building blocks of cognition. They are the fundamental elements upon which all
information processing depends. Schemata are employed in the process of interpreting
sensory data (both linguistic and non linguistic), in retrieving information from memory, in
organizing actions, in determining goals and sub goals, in allocating resources, and generally,
in guiding the flow of processing in the system (1981: 33-34).
Rumelhart (1981) attempts to unravel the functions of schemas, explaining them through a
series of analogies.
when referencing the quote include the page number from which it was
taken
In fact, Rumelhart (1981: 33) suggests that schemata "truly are the building blocks of
cognition".
ensure that the grammar of the quote is consistent with the grammar of
your sentence
Incorrect:
-
51
Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems "lead to the development of
integrative and mixed structures such as committees, task forces and matrix structures"
(Dawson, 1986:97).
Correct:
Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems have led "to the development of
integrative and mixed structures such as committees, task forces and matrix structures"
(Dawson, 1986:97).
to omit words from the original quote use three period marks ... to
indicate that you have removed certain phrases or words
In fact, Rumelhart asserts that schemata "are the fundamental elements upon which all
information processing depends. Schemata are employed ... in allocating resources, and
generally, in guiding the flow of processing in the system" (1981: 33-34).
to add words to the original quote use square brackets [ ]
In fact, Rumelhart asserts that since schemata "are the fundamental elements upon which all
information processing ... [and play a large role] in guiding the flow of processing in the
system" (1981: 33-34).
to indicate a grammatical or spelling error in the original quote place (sic)
after the error
In 1845, the explorer, Eyre stated:
Whenever European colonies have been established in Australia, the native races in that
neighbourhood rapidly decreasing(sic), and already in some of the older settlements, have
totally disappeared (cited in Coupe, 1991).
An example of direct quotation in the context of a paragraph.
Another problem in the organization
which could be taken into account is that
Introduces the concept
of the 'informal group'
-
52
of the 'informal group', which seems to
have developed within the particular
territory in crisis in the case study. An
informal group is an important part of
any organization, and they are seen as
"...central to the formation of the bonds
between workers which allow acts of
solidarity, such as those involved in
industrial action" (Dunford, 1992:106).
This is certainly the case in the case-
study, where the outspoken woman
makes a complaint and is supported
wholeheartedly by her coworkers. This
indicates a type of informal 'groupthink'
among the workers, and more care
should be given to watch over the group
and ensure individual opinions and
initiatives are encouraged.
as an issue
Explains the nature of
the informal group using
a quote
Relates the concept to
the incident in the case
study
Provides a
recommendation as to
how it should be
considered
Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that
supports your analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information),
validates your conclusions or pursues a related point should be placed in
an appendix (plural appendices). Sometimes excerpts from this
supporting information (i.e. part of the data set) will be placed in the
body of the report but the complete set of information ( i.e. all of the data
set) will be included in the appendix. Examples of information that could
be included in an appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,
statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy
derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data
sheets, computer program information.
There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix providing it is
relevant and reference is made to it in the report. The appendix is not a
-
53
catch net for all the semi-interesting or related information you have
gathered through your research for your report: the information included
in the appendix must bear directly relate to the research problem or the
report's purpose. It must be a useful tool for the reader.
Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B,
Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are