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Africa ProgrammeCoordinating Office

5 Chemin du Rivage1292 Chambsy / Geneva, Switzerland

Telephone: +41-22 737 3080Fax: +41-22 737 3090

Email: [email protected]: http//www.africa.upeace.org


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The mission of the University for Peace is to provide humanity with an international institu-tion of higher education for peace with the aim of

promoting among all human beings a spirit ofunderstanding, tolerance, and peaceful coexistence,to stimulate cooperation among peoples, and tohelp lessen obstacles and threats to world peace

and progress in keeping with the noble aspirationsproclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations.


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Aggression

An unprovoked, offensive act of hostility, attack, orviolence on the individual, communal, regional, orgovernmental level. In the legal sense, aggression refersto military attacks by one nation-state against anotheror its armed forces. In such cases, the aggressor iscommonly identified as a result of violation of a cease-fire, treaty, or other mutually recognised, bindingagreement. The United Nations defines aggression as theuse of armed force by a state against the sovereignty,territorial integrity or political independence ofanother state, or in any manner inconsistent with theCharter of the United Nations (UN General AssemblyConsensus Resolution 3314 [XXIX] of 14 December 1974).

Ahimsa

From the Sanskrit for non-harm, the principled, oftenreligious, renunciation of physical or mental violenceagainst ones self, others, animals, and nature. Thisideal originates within Jainism, a reforming sect ofHinduism and a faith prominent in the region of Indiawhere Mohandas K. Gandhi grew to adulthood. Ahimsa iscommonly translated into English as nonviolence, butin the original Sanskrit it conveys a more comprehensive

meaning which encompasses non-injury to all aspects andforms of life.

See also nonviolence andSatyagraha.

Arbitration

A mechanism for resolving conflicts whereby thedisputants identify their grievances and demands, fix aprocedural process, and willingly submit the decisionof outcomes, which are to be final and binding, to anexternal entity. The contending parties often selectthe majority of the members of the third party, whichnormally takes the form of a tribunal. The third partyis usually presented with arguments and evidence fromboth sides, but the process can vary according to the pre-established procedures. Although similar toadjudication, arbitration is informal, private,economical, and relatively quick.

For further reading, see Richard B. Bilder, Adjudication: internationalarbitral tribunals and courts in I. William Zartman and J. LewisRasmussen (eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflicts: Methods and

Techniques (Washington, D.C., United States Institute of Peace Press,1997).

See alsoconciliation, mediation, andnegotiation.

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Arms Control

Bilateral or multilateral measures, usually facilitatedthrough international organisations, to mutually reducemilitary capacitiesarmaments, armed forces, deployment

zones, and general usageparticularly aimed at reducingconventional and nuclear war, but also intended toalleviate tensions that could escalate into militaryconfrontations. Often negotiated in the midst ofconflict, arms control does not attempt to resolve (oreven address) the grievances or demands of the contending parties. Generally undertaken between antagonisticparties for whom the likelihood of military confrontationis perceived to be high, arms control can contribute tobuilding mutual confidence and ease the tensions

associated with conflict situations. Most arms controlagreements are extremely specific in enumeratingacceptable levels of production, possession, anddeployment of arms. Such intricate arrangements arealso meant to prevent arms races. Other forms of suchagreements attempt to limit the potential effects ofwar and avoid accidental or surprise attacks. Broughtto prominence by academicians in the 1950s, the termarms control has since often been used interchangeablywith disarmament, but it can be used to denote a muchmore comprehensive concept.

See also disarmament.

As long as all international conflicts are notsubject to international arbitration and theenforcement of decisions arrived at byarbitration is not guaranteed, and as longas war production is not prohibited, we maybe sure that war will follow upon war. Unlessour civilization achieves the moral strength

to overcome this evil, it is bound to share the fate of former civilizations: decline anddecay.

Albert Einstein, in Nathan and Norden 1960: 203

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Asylum

Temporary sanctuary granted to a foreigner within acountry or embassy or other office with diplomaticimmunity. Such protection is granted because it isbelieved that the foreigner in question would otherwisebe in danger.

See alsodisplaced personandrefugee.

Authority. See legitimacy.

Bargaining

Concessions, incentives, and threats offered by partiesengaged in a process of negotiations. Bargaining shouldnot overshadow the process of negotiations, yet itoffers insight into one aspect of how negotiations areconducted. Such exchanges may occur over a single concern

or multiple issues, but the parties often tend to offerinitially what they consider to be less valuable inorder to obtain what they consider to be more valuable,a characteristic known as Homans Theorem. Bargaining,however, is not a straightforward exercise of mutualexchanges. In sophisticated applications, comparisonsare drawn between the respective parties manoeuvres,which are monitored in order to identify patterns thatmay be exploited as the bargaining continues. Suchpractices, derived from social psychology, attempt torecognise and understand the behaviours of others.

See also concession andnegotiation.

The most important measures of arms control areundoubtedly those that limit, contain, and terminate

military engagements. Limiting war is at least asimportant as restraining the arms race, and limitingor terminating a major war is probably moreimportant in determining the extent of destruction

than limiting the weapon inventories with which it iswaged.

Schelling 1966: 263

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Capitulation

A conditional surrender or yielding of rights by aparty engaged in a conflict, usually in the form of anofficial document.

Cease-fire

A bilateral or multilateral halt in all or selectoffensive military actions among parties engaged inofficial war, guerrilla warfare, or violent exchangeswith one another. Cease-fires sometimes lead to morestable or permanent military or political agreements,but they minimally aim to reduce immediate tensions andextreme losses, while providing opportunities for otherforms of conflict resolution or management efforts to

be initiated.

Civil disobedience

The conscious, individual or collective, violation of alaw, regulation, or edict. The order violated is usuallydeemed to be immoral or unjust by those undertaking theaction. Civil disobedience also includes disobeyingneutral orders, which serve as symbols of more generalopposition. Henry David Thoreau, well known for his

writing on civil disobedience, did not use the term,so far as anyone knows. For Thoreau, the intentional

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A bargainers concession strategy is one of severalinfluences on the others concessions; it interacts with

such variables as time pressures, the initial offer,perceived relative defensibility of positions, perceivedsimilarity between bargaining opponents, and the

pressures of being a representative. But, respondingto anothers moves is unlikely to be automatic, as in tit-for-tat. It is a more complex process involvingexpectations, evaluations, and adjustments.

Druckman 1993: 30


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breaking of immoral laws was a form of remaining trueto ones beliefs. Some scholars think that he wasinfluenced by the ideas of Granville Sharp, who in the1770s resigned from the London War Office rather than

authorise arms to put down the colonial rebellion inNorth America. Thoreau presented a lecture, which waspublished in 1849 as a collection entitled Resistanceto Civil Government, that has since become known asOn the Duty of Civil Disobedience.

For further reading, see Henry David Thoreau, Civil Disobedience (NewYork, Washington Square Press, 1968).

Civil society

A sphere of society distinct and independent from thestate system and the means of economic production. Thiscollective realm, or public space, includes networksof institutions through which citizens voluntarilyrepresent themselves in cultural, ideological, andpolitical senses. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)are often considered the backbone of civil society, butinformal social institutions, professional associations,and interest groups constitute further examples. Thestrength of civil society is generally consideredcritical in providing protection and institutional hedgesfor individuals and groups against potentialauthoritarianism or intrusive government.

For further reading, see John A. Hall, Civil Society: Theory, History,Comparison (Cambridge, Polity Press, 1996).

Civilian-based defence

A policy designed to accomplish a full range of defence

objectives, including deterrence as well as preparationsto defend against internal and external acts of aggression.The term is quite literal, indicating planned defence bycitizens (as opposed to military personnel). Variousmethods of non-violent resistance are employed in placeof military or paramilitary operations. Successful non-military civilian defence requires that general popula-tions be provided with appropriate training, equipment,and funding to enact the policy, which in practice hasonly been adopted in limited cases and degrees. It worksas follows: in the face of an attack, invasion, or

military occupation, civilian defenders work to denytheir opponents objectives. Through non-co-operation

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measures, political defiance, and control of key socialand political institutions, they make it difficult orimpossible for their home country or territory to beruled by the aggressor. Civilian-based defence has also

been variously referred to as social defence, civilresistance, non-military defence, and non-violentdefence.

For further reading, see Adam Roberts, Civilian Resistance as a NationalDefence: Non-violent Action against Aggression (Middlesex, England,Pelican Books, 1969).

Compromise

An outcome to a conflict in which the parties involvedboth concede and obtain a portion of their objectives.

Such results often occur when the contending partieseither lack the strength or ability to achieve a completevictory, seek to avoid escalation due to an understandingof their interdependence, or choose to compromise becauseof a valued future relationship with one another.Compromises may be internally or externally proposed,with external propositions more likely to be receivedfavourably when the third party is seen as neutral ortrusted by both sides.

See also negotiation.

Concession

The voluntary granting of a right, privilege, or advantageby one side to another during negotiations. Concessionsindicate a willingness to continue talks and thus serveas a practical step towards facilitating a negotiationprocess. Debate surrounds the timing, extent, and logicof concessions. Unilateral concessions can provideopportunities to overcome impasses. Exceedingly minorconcessions may be ineffectual, while extensive ones

can be seen as revealing weakness. Bilateral ormultilateral concessions can help to build mutual con-fidence.

See also bargaining andnegotiation.

Conciliation

The voluntary referral of a conflict to a neutral externalparty (in the form of an unofficial commission) whicheither suggests a non-binding settlement or conductsexplorations to facilitate more structured techniques

of conflict resolution. The latter can includeconfidential discussions with the disputants or

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assistance during a pre-negotiation phase. Conciliationcan also contribute to maintaining agreements and preventing future conflicts over other issues. Theimpartiality of the third party is central to the

conciliation process as is that partys non-interventionin the conflict.

See alsopre-negotiation.

Conflict

From the Latin for to clash or engage in a fight, aconfrontation between one or more parties aspiringtowards incompatible or competitive means or ends.Conflict may be either manifest, recognisable throughactions or behaviours, or latent, in which an

incompatibility exists. The latter evidences how conflictmay lay dormant for some time, as incompatibilitiesremain unarticulated or are built into systems orinstitutional arrangements, such as governments,corporations, or even civil society.

Within the field of international relations, PeterWallensteen (2002) identifies three general forms ofconflict: inter-state, internal, and state-formationconflicts. Inter-state conflicts are disputes betweennation-states or violations of the state system of

alliances. The international community, however, hasbecome increasingly concerned with the rise in frequencyand intensity of internal conflicts, which iscontributing to the expanding nature, sophistication,and, at times, legitimisation of interventionist policies. Examples of internal and state-formationconflicts include civil and ethnic wars, anti-colonialstruggles, secessionist and autonomous movements,territorial conflicts, and battles over control ofgovernment.

For further reading, see Peter Wallensteen, Understanding ConflictResolution: War, Peace and the Global System (London, Sage Publications,2002).

Conflict management

Interventionist efforts towards preventing the escalationand negative effects, especially violent ones, of ongoingconflicts. Rarely are conflicts completely resolved.More often, they are reduced, downgraded, or contained.Such developments can be followed by a reorientation ofthe issue, reconstitution of the divisions amongconflicting parties, or even by a re-emergence of past

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issues or grievances. Conflict management when activelyconducted is, therefore, a constant process.

A variety of techniques have been identified and employedin conflict management efforts. The following are themost prominent. First, conflicting parties are broughttogether to establish a mutual agreement. Second,governments or third parties to the conflict may directlyintervene to introduce or impose a decision. Third, newinitiatives, programmes, or institutional structures(for example, elections) are implemented to address theconflict in question. Fourth, contending parties arecompelled or coerced to utilise such previouslyestablished means. Fifth, government or a third partymay use repression to eliminate or instil fear among

one or all those engaged in a given conflict, leadingto subsidence.

Conflict management should not be viewed as a simple,linear, or structured process. Those assuming or chargedwith such a task must usually overcome an intenselychaotic situation. Conflicts are frequently manageddirectly by the society in which they occur. When notpossible or when conflicts become national in scope,government normally assumes the task, provided it isnot a party to the conflict. In cases where a government

is unable or unwilling to intervene, internationalorganisations increasingly assume the role of conflictmanager.

For further reading, see I. William Zartman (ed.), Governance asConflict Management: Politics and Violence in West Africa (Washington,D.C., Brookings Institution Press, 1997).

Conflict resolution

A variety of approaches aimed at terminating conflictsthrough the constructive solving of problems, distinct

from the management or transformation of conflict. Theconflicts in question may involve interpersonal

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Conflict is an inevitable aspect of human interaction,an unavoidable concomitant of choices and decisions.

. . .The problem, then, is not to court the frustrations ofseeking to remove an inevitability but rather of tryingto keep conflicts in bounds.

Zartman 1997: 197


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relationships, labour-management issues, businessdisagreements, inter-group disputes, warring nation-states, or international quarrels.

Not all conflicts are harmful. Some may ultimately

result in positive social change. As noted by Nigeriansociologists Onigu Otite and Isaac Olawale Albert (1999),although conflicts have negative connotations . . . [many]constitute an essential creative element for changingsocieties and achieving the goals and aspirations ofindividuals and groups (p. 17).

Conflict resolution involves recognition by theconflicting parties of one anothers interests, needs,perspectives, and continued existence. The most effectiveforms identify the underlying causes of the conflictand address them through solutions that are mutuallysatisfactory, self-perpetuating, and sustaining. Conflictresolution can also be practised with a variety ofemphases, including on co-operation non-confrontation,non-competition, and positive-sum orientation. Seriouschallenges lie in that parties at times favour, forvarious reasons, continuation of conflict over itsresolution. In such cases, the role of external partiescan be critical in creating a balance of power, enactingsanctions or incentives, or acting as neutral mediatorsor invested facilitators. Not all conflicts will lendthemselves to conflict resolution techniques.

For further reading, see Ben K. Fred-Mensah, Bases of traditionalconflict management among the Buems of the Ghana-Togo Border in I.William Zartman (ed.), Traditional Cures for Modern Conflicts: AfricanConflict `Medicine (Boulder, Colorado, and London, Lynne RiennerPublishers, 2000).

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[C]onflicts arise from both systemic and individual perceptions.Therefore, a lasting resolution for any conflict requires bothsystemic and individual analysis and intervention. Conflictresolution and peace building thus call for a collaborative approach

that addresses both of these levels. The parties to the conflict arethe experts in defining their needs and how to satisfy them. Therole of a third party is to assist parties in identifying andunderstanding those needs and values when negotiations havedeadlocked. Imposing outside resolution may provide temporary

relief, but a lasting arrangement can only be designed andimplemented by the parties themselves.Abu-Nimer 2003: 9


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Conflict transformation

Changes in all, any, or some combination of the followingmatters regarding a conflict: the general context orframing of the situation, the contending parties, theissues at stake, the processes or procedures governingthe situation, or the structures affecting any of theaforementioned. Conflict transformation may occur throughthe unintended consequences of actions taken by partiesinternal or external to the conflict, but deliberateattempts at transformation may also be made. The latteraims to generate opportunities for conflict resolutionor conflict management and ultimately more equitableoutcomes, particularly where a given conflict isconsidered intractable or where it has encountered a

seemingly insurmountable impasse. Conflict transformationrequires that the parties involved alter their previousstrategies of handling or avoiding the conflict inorder to foster new approaches aimed at amelioratingthe situation. The non-violent transformation of conflictand the weaponry of non-violent struggle are desirablefor those who seek non-lethal means of conflictengagement, which improve the odds for reconciliation.

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The Buem people who reside along the central partof the Ghana-Togo border have a phrase thatembodies a philosophical worldview and a normativeperspective on maintaining social order: kanyendu bowi. This adage pertains to societal normsand conflict management, which are enforced througha complex system of positive and negativesanctions. Socialisation through myths, beliefs,and values is critical for individuals to becomerespected members of Buem society and to sustaincontinuity within the community. The kanye ndubowi ideology is central to such development. Animplicit understanding also exists to abide bydecisions of accepted forms of conflict resolutionmechanisms. All violations are tantamount to

Kanye ndu bowi (ingredients of harmony )


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threats or disruptions within the community as awhole.

Buems place the individual centrally in conflictprevention. This is encapsulated in the sayingit is the crooked leg that draws mud and smearsit unto the straight one. Where conflicts emerge,the most common form of resolution in Buem societyis benyaogba ukpikator, which literally translatedmeans to say no to a case between adversaries.In practice, this institution is similar tomediation. The process involves a downplaying ofcontending parties incompatibilities as well asthe outcome. The emphasis is instead placed on

flexibility and adaptability to ensure socialorder among peoples that are highly interdependent.Benyaogba ukpikator is a preferential form ofsettling conflicts among the Buems because itdoes not entail adversarial approaches and zero-sum outcomes commonly associated with other formsof dispute resolution, such as arbitration andadjudication, kate and adzina, respectively.

For further readig, see Ben K. Fred-Mensah, Bases of traditionalconflict management among the Buems of the Ghana-Togo Borderin I. William Zartman (ed.), Traditional Cures for ModernConflicts; African Conflict Medicine (Boulder, Colorado,and London, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000).

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Coup dtat

The sudden, illegal overthrow and seizure of a governmentapparatus through threatened or actual violence by

sovereign elements under that government. Often led bymilitary, political, or governmental figures, successfulcoups dtat are normally conducted in less than seventy-two hours. The resulting governmental junta, or smallbureau, that assumes control of the state apparatus istypically guided directly or indirectly by members ofthe armed forces.

For further reading, see D. J. Goodspeed, The Conspirators: A Study ofthe Coup dtat (New York, Viking Press, 1962).

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Decommission of arms

The handover of conventional weapons or armament duringor directly following a conflict or war. As an operational

process, the decommissioning of arms is closely relatedto demobilisation of combatants. Decommissioned officersor soldiers are typically provided some type of incentive,in money or in kind, but in certain cases problemsarise. Where the trade-in value of decommissioned armsexceeds market prices, individuals at times exploit thesituation for profit. Also, the incentives at timesfail to entice decommissioning from both the losing andwinning sides of an armed conflict, leaving those whoremain armed as threats to renewed or protractedengagement.

See also demobilisation of combatants.

De-escalation

An identifiable lessening (in quantity or severity) ofviolent exchanges among parties. De-escalation oftenfollows intense exchanges among military or paramilitaryforces and is initiated through the facilitation of athird party. Conflicts can simultaneously de-escalatein one sense and escalate in another. The ultimateintent of de-escalation is to limit extremely destructiveexchanges and create space for more intensive effortsto resolve or manage the conflict. In some cases, however,de-escalation may be pursued merely to buy time toregroup ones forces in order to launch more extensiveefforts.

See also escalation.

Demilitarisation

The removal of military or paramilitary forces from a

determined area or the concession of particular weaponryby one or all parties engaged in conflict.Demilitarisation normally occurs in the aftermath of adebilitating civil war. The intended immediate reductionof threat can be stabilising or volatile, depending onthe timing of demilitarisation and its role within awider post-conflict strategy. More successful effortsare commonly accompanied by endeavours to professionalisearmed forces and reallocate military spending in anattempt to bridle the armed forces under legitimatecivilian control. The political gains achieved in

conflict or through the actual demilitarisation processmust appear to outweigh the risks associated with

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demilitarisation. It, therefore, is inherently linkedto civil-military relations.

Demobilisation of combatants

Deliberate process of transferring individuals frommilitary or paramilitary forces to other sustaining andproductive roles in society. As an operational aspectof conflict resolution, demobilisation aims toquantitatively reduce those engaging in armed conflictand to provide the requirements such individuals needto reintegrate into their society. The initial stageinvolves disarming, but comprehensive programmessuchas the UN-sponsored Demobilisation Disarmament andReintegration (DDR)include such elements as skillstraining, job creation, housing, social reintegration,psychological assistance, and re-socialisation. Beyondimplementation, successful demobilisation requirescareful monitoring and evaluation.

See also decommission of arms.

Dtente

Originally from the French verb for to slacken, modernusage refers to a reduction in acute tension betweenconflicting parties, thereby reducing the risk of war

but without attempting to settle the on-going conflictor dispute. Despite a long tradition pre-dating thetwentieth century, dtente is primarily identified withthe thaw during the cold war that eased tensions inU.S.-Soviet relations during the 1970s.

Deterrence

Deriving from the French for to frighten from, thedissuasive means of preventing an impending or projectedaction of others through instilling fear of repercussions

or by an understanding that the negative consequencesof such actions will outweigh the benefits. The actionsin question, as well as the threatened repercussions,are usually anticipated (direct or indirect) militaryattacks, but they may also include political or economicactions. Deterrence differs from other forms ofpersuasion in that it aims to prevent future actions ofothers, as opposed to halting those that are ongoing.Measures taken against those in progress are referredto as compellance.

Successful deterrence depends on a credible capacityand willingness to follow through on ones threats and

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on convincing the targeted party of the likelihood ofthe projected negative outcome they will suffer.Determining success, however, is much more difficult inthat it requires identifying or measuring actions not

taken by others, which involves understanding othersintentions. Deterrence, therefore, acts more as atheoretical construct (as the basis for a doctrine ofstrategic defence) and less in terms of concrete actions.

Given the unique significance of nuclear weapons,deterrence does not speak to how much is enough todeter an adversarys first strike. If an opponent iswilling to undertake self-annihilation along withextermination of the adversary, then it cannot bedeterred. The manufacture of new generations of nuclear

weaponry creates a perpetual desire and system forcontinuing production of nuclear weaponry. Moreover, astrategic doctrine of deterrence overlooks humanpsychology and assumes rationality on the part of allplayers. It presupposes that leaders possess absolutecontrol over their emotions, as well as their nuclearforces, and that nuclear weaponry is sufficientlysecured.

Diplomacy

From the Greek word diploun, in reference to an official,folded document, the official means by which sovereignnations conduct affairs with one another and developagreement on their respective positions. Issues facedinclude war and peace, alliances, boundaries, and trade,among many others. Somewhat of an art and a science,diplomacy is a tool of foreign policy that involvesrepresentation, bargaining, negotiation, and other peaceful means. Such arrangements may be conductedpublicly or out of view, but once mutual interests andconsensus are recognised, official policy formulation proceeds. Extreme flexibility and tact are commonlyattributed to successful diplomatic efforts, which areregulated by law and custom. Accredited agents areassigned the task of conducting such efforts, andtremendous emphasis is placed on individual capacitiesand talents in addition to the actual official stancesthat are offered or defended.

In more recent times, use has been made of unofficial,

non-traditional diplomatic agents, including businessexecutives, religious figures, non-governmental

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organisations (NGOs), academicians, and citizens. Suchefforts are referred to as Track-II diplomacy or multi-track diplomacy. The term preventive diplomacy was coinedby UN secretary-general Dag Hammarskjld in the 1950s

to refer to the resolution of disputes before theyescalate or the persuasion of parties to desist fromallowing such escalation to occur.

Disarmament

The near elimination of military arsenals and forces bya nation-state through bilateral or multilateral

agreements or unilaterally. While complete disarmamentis considered idealistic, the concept is often consideredinterchangeable with arms control, which refers torestraints on specific weapons or forces. More of a process than an event, theoretically speaking,disarmament contributes to a reduction in internationaltensions, de-legitimises the use of military force inconflict, and redirects military expenditures andresources towards other endeavours. Policies ofcompulsory disarmament have been proposed for nation-states after their defeat in war.

See also arms control.

Displaced person

An individual forced to leave his or her home province,district, region, or nation in search of sanctuary fromlife-threatening circumstances. A displaced personremaining within his or her home nation is usuallyreferred to as an internally displaced person (IDP).

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See alsoasylum andrefugee.

Diplomacy, the fundamental means by which foreignrelations are conducted and a foreign policy implemented,

far from being an invention of capitalism or of the modernnation state, or of classical antiquity either, is found in

some of the most primitive communities and seems to havebeen evolved independently by peoples in all parts of theworld.

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Escalation

An increase in quantity, intensity, or scope of violentexchanges among parties. Commonly referred to as a downwardspiral, escalation typically occurs in cycles of attack orcounter-attack. A strategy of escalation is typically adoptedbased on one of two conditions: First, while losses areexpected for all the parties engaged in a conflict, theparty pursuing escalation projects that their losses will betolerably less than the losses of others. Second, a partycommits to previously stated intentions, regardless of anyrisks associated with escalation. While the latter can suggestinflexibility, commitment in such cases is considered importantin generating credibility. The expectation is that eventuallyan opponent will be coerced through fear of continued

escalation. In either case, such a strategy can becomedouble-edged, especially if pursued by multiple parties.

See also de-escalation.

Force

Within international relations, the application ofphysical coercion through military weapons and personnel.Considerable debate surrounds the legitimacy of the useof force in various situations. At a minimum, forceshould only be exerted, if it is properly sanctionedthrough internationally recognised vehicles. Even thesanctioned use of force is not, however, universallyaccepted.

Understanding the appropriation of force simply formilitary purposes is a distortion. It assumes thatnon-violent means are incapable of force.

Game theory

Originating from a branch of mathematics, a formal

modelling system used to analyse competitive situationsin which at least two parties (or players) make decisions,the outcomes of which are interdependent. Game theoryassumes that all players act rationalythe notion thatthey can determine, evaluate, and select better ratherthan worse optionsand is governed by constraints orrules that are contextually defined. The theory centreson each player attempting to anticipate the choices ofother players to determine his or her best strategiccourse. Complexity arises from the interdependency and

multiplicity of player choices, plus the improbabilityof settling on the best player strategy. Game theory

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offers a structured system of decision making and problemsolving.

Gender

Social, historical, and cultural constructions andconditioning indicating acceptable and preferable formsof behaviour and attitudes for men and women. Validityin the field of gender studies requires that focus begiven to feminist analyses as well as to the emergingfield of masculinities, both of which are sub-fields ofgender studies. Sex refers strictly to biologicaldeterminations and chromosomes. `Feminism refers tothe emancipatory project for women and pertains to thepursuit of equity between men and women. Masculinitiesis concerned with social constructions of what it meansto be a man, with the understanding that there is nosingle form of masculinity.

Gender and the building of peace is a rapidly growinginterdisciplinary subject that sits astride genderstudies and peace and conflict studies. The linkage isimportant because the social institutionalisation ofgender is central to politics, and, therefore, peace.In the field of peace and conflict studies, gender isexplored as an obstacle to peace or as a positive and

influential asset. A now indisputable body of evidence proves that the uplift and empowerment of womenbeneficially affect all aspects of society.

The UN Charter, signed in San Francisco in 1945, includesthe phrase equal rights of men and women. When theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) was adoptedand proclaimed by the General Assembly in 1948, theword everyone rather than the male personal pronounwas used in most articles. Two subsequent agreements ofmajor multilateral significance coaxed governments into

examining issues that would otherwise have been ignored:the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted by theGeneral Assembly on 18 December 1979, and the 1985Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies. CEDAW covers civil,political, economic, and social rights, and in 1980,with ratification obtained, it became the internationalwomens human rights treaty.

A series of UN-sponsored World Conferences on Womenbegan in 1975 in Mexico City. They continued in 1980

in Copenhagen and in 1985 in Nairobi, giving legitimacyto the work of womens organisations around the world.

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In Vienna at the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights,the previously unmentionable issue of violence againstwomen came to the fore. The 1994 International Conferenceon Population and Development, held in Cairo, stressed

gender equality.In March 2001, Secretary-General Kofi Annan told aUniversity for Peace meeting in New York City that hehoped that within ten years UPEACE would have succeededin mainstreaming gender studies worldwide. Gendermainstreaming was established as a global strategy forpromoting gender equality in the Platform for Action atthe United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women inBeijing in 1995.

For further reading, see Swanee Hunt and Cristina Posa, Women waging

peace, Foreign Policy, MayJune (2001), 3847.

Genocide

Acts aiming to completely eliminate or significantlyreduce a national, ethnic, racial, or religious groupthrough murder, physical or mental harm, unfit livingconditions, birth prevention, or forcible populationtransfer (of children). The crime of genocide wasfortified and defined by the Convention for the Preventionand Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 9 December1948 and further elaborated in Statute Article 2(2) ofthe International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. While

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[Gender mainstreaming is] the process of assessing theimplications for women and men of any planned action,including legislation, policies or programmes, in allareas and at all levels. It is a strategy for makingwomens as well as mens concerns and experiences an

integral dimension of the design, implementation,monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmesin all political, economic and societal spheres so thatwomen and men benefit equally and inequality is not

perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve genderequality.

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the specific actions defining genocide are wellarticulated, murkiness surrounds what constitutes arecognised group. Genocide excludes groups thatindividuals join voluntarily; membership must be by

birth into a stable, permanent group. Thus, mass killingsor violence perpetrated against groups not recognisedby the Genocide Convention have sprouted terms such aspoliticide, democide, and gendercide. Those suspectedof the crime of genocide are bound by international lawto face trial.

See alsowar crimes.

Grand strategy

A formulation of how best to achieve an overall objectivein a conflict. Grand strategy outlines a general courseof action and co-ordinates all ones inventoriedresources. The term is most commonly used in referenceto military conflicts, while the quasi-equivalent termpolicy is preferred for non-violent action and otherforms of conflict engagement.

See also strategy andtactics.

Guerrilla warfare

Irregular, often protracted, warfare predominantlytargeted against an incumbent government and conductedby paramilitary or voluntary forces operating outsideof conventional military organisations. From the Spanishfor small war, the term was first used in English todepict Spanish opposition to Napoleon in the PeninsularWar of 1808 to 1814. Guerrilla refers to the individualfighter in guerrilla warfare.

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The guerrilla is the combat vanguard of the people,situated in a specified place in a certain region, armedand willing to carry out a series of warlike actions

for the one possible strategic endthe seizure of power.The guerrilla is supported by the peasant and workermasses of the region and of the whole territory inwhich it acts. Without these prerequisites, guerrillawarfare is not possible.

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Guerrilla techniques require maintaining clandestinityand avoiding direct confrontations. Among classicalguerrilla techniques are hit-and-run operations,sabotage, ambushes, and partisan warfare behind enemy

lines. Aside from undertaking overt offensive anddefensive operations, guerrilla fighters must masterthe ability to blend into the general population of theregion in which they conduct their activities. This isdone most successfully when the population condones (orsupports and assists) the guerrillas objectives. Theguerrillas unique and at times sophisticated tacticshave spawned opponents to develop an array of responsesgenerally referred to as counter-insurgency tactics.

Human rights

The universal, equitable, and indispensable claims ofcivil and political liberties which are legally recognisedinternationally for individuals and collectivities asenshrined by the United Nations General Assembly in theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on 10December 1948. The rights of individuals can be dividedinto those in defence from nation-states and claims onnation-states. Those in defence from nation-states arethose generally associated with traditional Western

conceptions of rights in the Greco-Roman tradition andinclude freedom of movement, thought, religion, opinion,and expression; freedom of peaceful assembly andassociation; equal access before the law to legalinstitutions, public services, and cultural life; freedomfrom slavery, torture, inhumane treatment, political persecution, and arbitrary interference in personallife. Claims on the nation-state include social andeconomic rights, including choice of employment, qualitywork conditions, unemployment safety nets, equal payfor equal work, adequate standard of living, social

security, free education through designated stages,protection of private and intellectual production andones good name. The United Nations has since 1948passed additional resolutions on collective rights forself-determination and development. Several state systemshave incorporated aspects of the UDHR into theirconstitutions, providing legal provisions in theirrespective justice systems.

Insurgency

Paramilitary, guerrilla, or non-violent uprisingsdirected against a nation-state or apparatus from within

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in order to achieve political objectives. Insurgenciesvary in organisation, spontaneity, and threat, but allrely on mass participation in some form.

See also coup dtat.

Intervention

Requested or imposed unilateral or multilateral actionsby external parties conducted either within a nation-state or in relation to an ongoing process betweenparties. Intervention assumes one of three forms: actionsby external nation-states in pursuit of policy objectivesor favourable conditions to achieve those objectives;actions taken to uphold internationally accepted valuesor laws; or efforts to alter the dynamics or outcomesof a process under way.

The first type of intervention is widely understood asthe unprovoked interference by one nation-state in theinternal affairs of another. Such intervention isnormally unilateral and coercive and includes an arrayof examples, such as military force, covert operations,dissemination of propaganda, or cultural domination.The principle of non-intervention that has historicallyhelped to define international relations generally deems

such actions to be illegitimate. Recent developments inhumanitarian intervention have, however, had the effectof condoning and in some cases encouraging externalparties to become involved in the alleviation of sufferingof peoples within a nation-state, geographic area, orregion. In such cases, moral or legal concerns (such asprotection of human rights) may overshadow other factors.

The second type of interventionhumanitarianinterventionis a tool available to the internationalcommunity and is particularly encouraged where human

suffering occurs at the hands of a host government orwhere the state system is unwilling to address suchconditions. In cases where a nation-state is simplyunable to relieve trauma and suffering, humanitarianintervention is often requested by the authorities in power. Successful intervention requires a securegeographical area within the region in question and,therefore, in instances of warfare, necessitates amilitary component to ensure a degree of security.Given increasing assumptions about the validity ofhumanitarian intervention and the growing establishment

of standards for implementation, non-interference incases of severe human suffering or atrocities is nowwidely deemed unjustifiable.

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The third form of intervention is typically referred toas third-party intervention, in which the external partyattempts to either influence a party (or parties) involvedin conflict engagement, conflict management, or conflict

resolution or seeks to manipulate any such processesalready under way.

For further reading, see Nicholas Wheeler, Saving Strangers: HumanitarianIntervention in International Society (Oxford, Oxford University Press,2000).

Just war, theory of

Derivative from the work of Bishop Augustine of Hippoafter the collapse of the Roman Empire, a doctrine thatprovides criteria for the decision to go to war (jus ad

bellum) and guidelines for conducting war (jus in bello).The study of just war over the centuries has led to thedevelopment of several principles that have greatlyinfluenced Western political thought and internationallaw particularly. These include (1) that the war be alast resort, not to be entered into until all othermeans of resolution have been explored and found wanting;(2) that the decision to engage in war be made by alegitimate, duly constituted authority, not by aggrievedindividuals; (3) that there be right intention and just

causeneither aggression nor revenge being acceptableand that the detrimental results of war be unlikely tooutweigh the intended injustices targeted foramelioration; (4) that success be reasonably attainable;(5) that an end result of the envisioned peace bepreferable to the situation that would pertain if thewar were not fought. Conditions three through five areoften referred to as the proportionality principles.Once a war is under way, the jus in bello principles askthat military means and the cost of war be proportionalto a moral goal and the presumed benefits.

For further reading, see Kenneth Kaunda, The Riddle of Violence (SanFrancisco, Harper and Row, Publishers, 1980).

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One problem is that it is easy to say Amen! to each of the conditions whilst in practice reducing them to onea justwar is one fought by my side and an unjust war is one

fought by yours once we have decided which side we areon (and we are usually born into that) it can be taken for

granted that we will meet all six conditions during anyconflict in which we get embroiled.Kaunda 1980: 94


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Legitimacy

A quality that signifies voluntary acceptance ofprocedures that inherently necessitate obedience, co-operation, or acquiescence. Such procedures may be

explicitly or implicitly formulated by individuals orinstitutions, and they may include laws, orders, decrees,decisions, and judgements. Legitimacy is crucial to themaintenance and exertion of political power, but isextremely fragile given its dependence upon voluntarismand co-operation from the governed. Deriving from theLatin legitimus, and originally bestowed by a documentconveyed by a king, legitimacy and legality remainindistinguishable in practice and conception.

See also sources of power.

Mechanisms of change

The four processes by which non-violent strugglessucceed: conversion, accommodation, non-violent coercion,and disintegration. Conversion, the rarest form, occurswhen an opponent accepts the justification of theobjectives of those employing non-violent action and inturn concedes based upon this shift in perspective.Accommodation involves mutual compromise over selectobjectives between an adversary and non-violent

protagonists. This mechanismthe most common in practiceis possible when the contending parties have not developedextensive objectives, hope to avoid an escalation ofthe conflict, or can identify and accept mutuallybeneficial concessions. The mechanism of non-violentcoercion occurs when an opponent is compelled to concede,because of the threatened or actual methods of the non-violent protagonists. The opponent realises that anydirection taken will be either ineffectual or produce anegative return. Finally, the most elusive mechanism,

disintegration, occurs when non-co-operation and defianceis so extensive that an opponent is simply unable torespond because its system of decision making orimplementation crumbles and dissolves.

Mediation

The voluntary, informal, non-binding process undertakenby an external party that fosters the settlement ofdifferences or demands between directly invested parties.Mediators often have a general interest in the resolutionof a given conflict or dispute, but they are able tooperate neutrally and objectively. Lacking the authorityto coerce or impose judgements, conditions, or

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resolutions, facilitators aim to transform the dynamicsof the conflict situation by introducing new relevantknowledge or information, especially regarding thenegotiation process between the disputants, by revealing

common interests and suggesting possible directionstoward settlements. In acute situations, mediation actsas a means of facilitating communication, commonly termedgood offices, through the consent of vested partiesthat are unable to formulate mutually satisfactoryresolutions on their own. The process is usually initiatedby the intended external mediatorsuch as aninternational organisation, government, or non-governmental organisationor by the relatively weaker party of the conflict. The contending parties,nonetheless, maintain considerable control over the

process and the outcome. Two theories dominate howmediation can be successful. The first focuses on thepersonal skills and characteristics of the mediator(s),and the other emphasises the environmental and contextualfactors relevant to the conflict in question.

See also arbitration, conciliation, andnegotiation.

For further reading, see Hizkias Assefa, Mediation of Civil Wars:Approaches and Strategies. The Sudan Conflict (Boulder, Colorado, andLondon, Westview Press, 1987).

Negative-sum outcome

A situation in which the losses of one party equal the

losses of another party. In other words, negative-sumoutcomes, or lose-lose outcomes, involve the pursuit

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In traditional African mediation, the agent is a neutraland powerless third party, armed with personalcharacteristics such as wisdom and integrity but without

the means for providing inducements and sanctionsamoral mediator rather than a mediator with muscle, orin more standard terms, a mediator as formulator butnot as manipulator. The mediator functions much as an

ombudsman, intervening between authority and citizen, tempering justice with mercy and sentences withreintegration.

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of objectives by one or more parties that produce mutuallydetrimental effects on all the parties in question,limiting the possibility of any of them achieving theirobjectives.

See also game theory, positive-sum outcome, andzero-sum outcome.

Negotiation

Communication, usually governed by pre-establishedprocedures, between representatives of parties involvedin a conflict or dispute. A technique in both themanagement and resolution of conflict, negotiation isconducted on various grounds: to identify commoninterests and develop unilateral or multilateralinitiatives in pursuit of objectives, to de-escalate aconflict situation, or to formulate mutually satisfactorysolutions towards resolution of a given conflict(s).The voluntary nature of negotiations grants the partiesdirect control over the process and outcome, both ofwhich can vary widely. The process involves numerousskills and tactics, including bargaining, compromise,and concessions, among others. Outcomes may range fromauthorised documents to informal agreements to new oradjusted procedures to institutional arrangements.Negotiations may also be employed as a stalling technique,

although unstated, where concrete results are notexpected by a participating party. Certain conflictslend themselves more readily to negotiations, such assituations where the parties possess an interdependentrelationship or value their future relationship withone another. Such conditions do not automaticallyeliminate or reduce adversarial or confrontationalattitudes, even during a negotiation process, butreductions in tension and mutual confidence provideconsiderable advantages over more hostile encounters.

See also

arbitration, conciliation, mediation,

andpre-negotiation.

For further reading, see Daniel Druckman, Turning points ininternational negotiation, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 45:4 (2001),51944.

Non-cooperation

The conscious and deliberate non-engagement inactivities, partial or total, which can impede theobjectives or interests of a particular person, group,institution, bureaucracy, or state system. A large classof methods in the repertoire of non-violent direct

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action, non-co-operation may assume social forms(boycotts and stay-at-homes), economic forms (strikesand lockouts), and political forms (civil disobedienceand mutiny). At the core of non-violent action, employmentof non-co-operation is based on the fact that all systemsof government rely on co-operation from their respectivepopulations, whether through consent, acquiescence, orduress. Individuals may refuse to provide such co-operation and withdraw their support.

See also mechanisms of changeandnon-violent action.

For further reading, see Gene Sharp, Methods of Nonviolent Action 2:The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Boston, Porter Sargent Press, 1973).

Nonproliferation. See arms controlanddisarmament.

Nonviolence

A holistic belief in and practice of abstaining fromviolent acts. Such belief systems stem from variousreligions and ethical codes, with the range ofunderstandings varying equally. These may include degreesof the rejection of mental harm or physical damage tothe environment, ones self, or others. In some instances,nonviolence dismisses the conception of adversaries.

Nonviolencereligious, ethical, or principalmay be acreed, or faith, a matter of spirituality, or a systemof morality. It can be an article of faith, but notnecessarily. Careful use of terminology is warranted.

Non-violent action

A technique of conflict engagement or prosecution thataims to achieve political objectives through theimposition of sanctions and various supporting methods

excluding physical, violent acts. Non-violent actionconstitutes a vast array of political, economic, social,

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If nothing be given [tyrants], if they are notobeyed, without fighting, without striking a blow,

they remain naked and undone, and do nothing

further, just as the root, having no soil or food,the branch withers and dies.de la Botie 1577: 11


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and psychological methods that can be categorised intothree main classes: protest and persuasion, non-co-operation, and intervention. Non-violent action involvestwo fundamental forms of activities: omission and

commission. It operates on the precept that all politicalsymbiotic relationships require varying degrees ofobedience, co-operation, or acquiescence, which aremanifested through identifiable sources. The supply ofthese sources is not guaranteed, and it can bepurposefully withdrawn. As a result, shifts can occurin the power relations among the parties involved inthe conflict. Non-violent action is also termed non-violent struggle, non-violent resistance, direct action,civil resistance, and political defiance. In the past,scholars sometimes differentiated between principled

and practical non-violence. This is a false dichotomyno longer in use, as ample historical evidence showsthat non-violent direct action is principled as well aspractical.

See alsomechanisms of changeandsources of power.

Pacifism

A doctrine and historical school of thought that rejectswar as the means of resolving conflict. Pacifism reflects

several perspectives, all of which consider thatconflicts should be settled through peaceful means. Theterm, not the concept, is but a century old, havingfirst been used in 1902 at the tenth Universal PeaceConference at Glasgow, Scotland. People choose pacifismfor any number of reasons, including religious faith,non-spiritual conviction on the sanctity of human life,or practical belief that war is ineffective and obsolete.To some, pacifism is more than opposition to war andincludes action to promote justice and human rights.

A differentiation must be made between the morality ofpacifism as elected by an individual and the applicationof such morality to the behaviour of a nation-state.Failure to appreciate this difference can lead to problemsin discussing pacifism. Pacifism is often confused withnon-violent resistance, but it is not a pre-conditionfor the practice of non-violent struggle as a form ofengagement in conflicts.

An absolute pacifist may believe that it is never rightto take part in war, even in self-defence, and that

human life is so valuable that nothing justifies killinganother person intentionally. Conditional pacifists

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oppose war and violence in principle, but recognisethat there may be circumstances when war is the leastbad option. Selective pacifists believe that pacifismis a matter of degree and may oppose wars involving

weapons of mass destructionatomic, nuclear, chemical,and biologicalbecause of the special significance ofsuch devastating weapons or because a war utilisingsuch weaponry is not winnable.

Pacifists are often deeply involved in political effortsto promote peace and argue against particular wars.Some pacifists refuse to fight. Others will take partin non-combat activities that seek to reduce the harmof war, such as attending the wounded, bearing stretcher,or driving ambulances. Still others refuse to take part

in any activity that might support a war. Some pacifistshave chosen punishment, even execution, rather than goto war. Many democratic countries accept the principlethat citizens have the right of conscientious objectionto military service, but they usually expect the objectorto undertake public service as an alternative.

Pacifism is as much a factor in Western thinking as thetheory of just war, yet pacifism as national policy israre. The ideals of pacifism, however, have played animportant part in twentieth-century international

politics and inform the work of the United Nations.Pacifism surged in reaction to the horrors of World WarI and universal male conscription, and it gained renewedsupport after the advent of nuclear weapons. The Holocaustof World War II, however, and other gross abuses ofhuman rights, have caused many to reconsider whetherwar is not sometimes the least objectionable course ofaction. Two major pacifist organisations that emergedfrom World War I are still at work: the InternationalFellowship of Reconciliation and the War ResistersLeague.

Some religions, including Buddhism, promote pacifism.Others, for example Christianity, have strong pacifistroots but have accepted the possibility of war and seekto provide moral guidance in decision making concerningwar and in its conduct. The historic peace churcheshave long propounded pacifism and are sometimes knownas prophetic minorities. These include the Society ofFriends (Quakers), Anabaptists of the sixteenth century,the Mennonites, and the Brethren. Judaism is historicallyopposed to violence and has traditionally consideredthat where force is necessary, the minimum should beused.

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Paradigm

A model or pattern that cannot be proved in a scientificsense but which may reflect shifts in thinking. Paradigms

are often used to describe concepts of peace. In anotherexample, the Dutch theologian Hans Kng describes theera after World War II as embodying a number of epoch-making paradigm shifts, characterised by him as follows:

post-Eurocentric

post-colonial (nations more inclined to co-operate)

post-capitalist, post-socialist

post-patriarchal post-ideological

interreligious, post-confessional, multi-confessional, and ecumenical, concerned with worldsociety

For further reading, see Hans Kng, Global Responsibility(New York, Crossroad, 1991).

Peace

A political condition that ensures justice and socialstability through formal and informal institutions,practices, and norms. Several conditions must be metfor peace to be reached and maintained:

a balance of political power among the variousgroups within a society, region, or, mostambitiously, the globe

legitimacy for decision makers and implementers of

decisions in the eyes of their respective group aswell as those of external parties duly supportedthrough transparency and accountability

recognised and valued interdependent relationshipsamong groups fostering long-term co-operation duringperiods of agreement, disagreement, normality, andcrisis

reliable and trusted institutions for resolvingconflicts

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a sense of equality and respect, in sentiment and inpractice, within and without groups and in accordancewith international standards

mutual understanding of rights, interests, and intents

and flexibility despite incompatibilitiesNotoriously elusive, peace connotes more than a mereabsence of war or hostilities; an absence of conflictis impossible. In addition, the state of peace shouldbe distinguished from techniques that simply avoidconflicts or employ violent or coercive approaches toengage in, manage, or resolve them.

Deriving from the Latin pax, peace in the Western worldis generally considered a contractual relationship that

implies mutual recognition and agreement. Understandingsof peace throughout the world, however, evidence a muchdeeper comprehension of peace in relation to the humancondition, which also includes inner peace. Thecomprehensive understanding of peace outlined aboveextends beyond what are referred to as positiveconceptions of peace but acts in accordance with themas well. This is in contrast to negative conceptions ofpeace, which are described most commonly as the mereabsence of war or violent conflict.

For further reading, see Johan Galtung, Cultural violence,Journal of Peace Research, 27:3 (1990), 291305.

Peacekeeping

The maintenance of public security, civil services, andcease-fire agreements in war and conflict zones by UNor regional military, police, and civilian forces, withthe consent of the nation-state on whose territorythese forces are deployed. Peacekeeping involves co-ordinated efforts to ensure stability and relative

normalcy in the aftermath of otherwise extremely volatileand chaotic situations. Chapter VI of the UN Charteroutlines the objectives of peacekeeping and serves asthe international mandate. The extended goal is tocreate conditions conducive to establishing lasting political settlements. The scope of peacekeepingactivities has gradually broadened over the years,leading to what some observers call mission creep.Such commentaries particularly point to the civilianand humanitarian activities conducted by peacekeepers,such as food distribution, transportation and otherbasic services, and establishing safe havens.

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Peace studies

An interdisciplinary field of study with various themesand foci: analysis of conflict, management and resolutionof conflict, social and economic justice, peaceparadigms, peacekeeping and enforcement, war (its causesand conduct), and a variety of conceptions ofinternational and domestic security. Peace studies isone of the fastest growing disciplines in the socialsciences.

Carolyn Stephenson has identified three waves of peacestudies. The first began in the 1930s, with quantitativestudies of industrial conflict and war, and was largelyacademically driven. The second was in the 1960s. Itbroadened the field to include the study of the impactof forms of violence and injustice. At this time peaceresearch moved extensively into classrooms in certainparts of the world. The third wave emerged in the 1980sand was affected more by movements and mobilisationsthan by academia and pedagogues (Klare and Thomas 1989).

The field has its richest history in Scandinavia, whereuniversities have had peace studies for more than acentury.

Peace research is a constituent element of peace studies.As in peace studies, people involved in peace researchrarely desire to produce knowledge for its own sake.They usually aim to bring about or consolidate peace.Moreover, those involved in peace research need notnecessarily be academicians, as innumerable successesand insights are attritubtable to the work of non-

governmental organisations. Particularly in Africa, someof the most useful work is a by-product of collaboration

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The presence of impartial multi-national troops andcivilians under UN authority serves as a confidence-

building measure, providing psychological and physicalspace for the parties to pursue the process of peacemaking.As in Mozambique and Namibia, the blue helmets canassist in monitoring adherence to a cease-fire, overseeingelections, repatriating refugees and demobilisingcombatants.

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between scholars and community organisations. Actionresearch is a type or an approach within peace researchin which the researcher abandons a detached stance andbecomes part of the programme team. He or she is therefore

able to give rapid feedback, often solving problems inthe course of conducting research.

For further reading, see Carolyn Stephenson, Evolution of peace studiesin Michael T. Klare and Daniel C. Thomas (eds.), Peace and World OrderStudies: A Curriculum Guide, 5th edn (Boulder, Colorado, WestviewPress, 1989).

Pillars of support

The institutions and organisations that supply thenecessary sources of power to a party in a politicallysymbiotic relationship, thereby allowing that party tomaintain and exert its political power capacity. Pillarsof support are most recognisable within a nation-stateor society. Examples of such pillars include police,prisons, military forces, authority figures, the businesscommunity, labour organisations, the media, anduniversities, among many possible others.


Indeed, while numerous examples have been cited over thecenturies about how language has been used to provokeviolent actions, very little has been written about andhardly any courses exist that deal exclusively with therelationship between language and peace. . . . Thus, the

study of language within the field of international peaceand conflict resolution is imperative because it can bedemonstrated that language is the subject of policydecisions as well as a possession that confers advantages.Moreover, language is a major variable that pushes openor closes the door to power, prestige, and wealth withinsocieties and contributes to war and peace within andbetween societies.

Bangura n.d.

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Political jiu-jitsu

Deriving from the Japanese martial art, a process bywhich participants in a non-violent struggle refuse to

reciprocate violent actions of their opponent resultingin a disruption of the opponrnts political equilibrium.In turn, the non-violent resisters are strengthened bynew or altered third party or constituent allegiancesand support. Requiring considerable discipline by non-violent resisters, political jiu-jitsu illustrates theasymmetrical nature of parties employing differenttechniques against one another in conflict.

Political power

The summation of means, influences, and pressuresavailable to a nation-state, institution, group, orindividual that are exploited to achieve respectiveobjectives or to change targeted conditions. Political power may be exerted positively, in the form ofincentives, or negatively, as in various types ofsanctions. Domestic and international relations areinfluenced and at times dictated by the relative politicalpower among parties. The attainment of political poweris often a source of conflict in itself. Differentials

in political power can be a crucial factor in determining

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Briefly stated, by deliberately refusing to meet violencewith violence, and by sustaining nonviolent behaviordespite repression, a protagonist throws an opponentoff balance. As the participants in a nonviolentcampaign refuse to reciprocate their adversarysviolence, the attacker becomes shaken by the sight of

the suffering that has been caused and the refusal of

the protagonists to respond with violence. The adversarybecomes unsure of how to respond. The sympathies of the police or troops often begin to flow toward thenonviolent protagonists.

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the outcomes of disputes, but in such situations theunderlying causes of the conflict in question are oftenpurposefully ignored. Groups are often unaware of theirfull power capacity, creating distorted depictions of

the balance of power among contending parties. Shiftsin power relationships can occur through a fullrealisation of political power or structural changeswithin or among societies.

Positive-sum outcome

A situation in which the gains of parties can be mutuallysatisfied. Positive-sum outcomes, or win-win outcomes,encourage co-operation in joint problem solving wherethe parties seek to minimise or eliminate the negativeimpact of their respective actions on other parties andthe likelihood of the interdependence of their actionsin the future.

See also game theory, negative-sum outcome, andzero-sum outcome.

Pre-negotiation

The exploration by parties to determine if negotiationsmight act as a successful technique of conflict resolutionbetween them and, if so, the subsequent joint process

of developing procedures for such negotiations.

Realism

A school of thought and theory of international relationsthat is also known as Realpolitik and is distinguishedby the following three general characteristics orassumptions:

international politics are dictated through adisorganised system of self-reliance;

nation-states are the primary and dominant agentsacting within the international system; and

politics inherently revolve around the quest forpower.

Proponents of realism do recognise that relations amongnation-states are generally guided by accepted norms.In their opinion, however, the international system

lacks the supranational authority to impose or enforcesuch relations, which means that nation-states must

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ensure and maintain their own interests. While variousagents and groups may affect international relations,these entities definitively must remain subordinate tonation-states. Realists view political power on the

international level as a zero-sum game, that is, thegain of one or several nation-states will result in the proportional loss by one or more others. Thus, theworld is understood as inherently conflictual.

Classical realism contains a philosophical aspect aswell. Human nature is viewed as unchanging, and pessimismovershadows the inevitable battles over power playedout through international relations. Neo-realistsattribute innate power struggles to the anarchic systemof international relations rather than to the actions

of individuals. In their view, the preparation by nation-states for self-reliance (particularly regardingsecurity) endangers the stability of other nation-states,creating a cycle of real or perceived threat.

Reconciliation

A process that attempts to transform intense or lingeringmalevolence among parties previously engaged in aconflict or dispute into feelings of acceptance andforgiveness of past animosities or detrimental acts.Reconciliation may involve recourse to justice,particularly where one party has suffered egregiouslyrelative to or at the hands of the other party. It isoften considered essential to creating conditions fordurable resolutions and stability. Also, if conductedsensitively, reconciliation has tremendous healingcapacity for the injured party as well as for theperpetrators of harmful acts.

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Truth is often noted as an important dimension ofreconciliation since members of antagonistic sides are soprone to deny what the other side experiences and believes tobe true . . . . If members of one party acknowledge that anothercommunity has suffered great injury by their actions,

forgiveness or at least acceptance of their humanity becomeseasier to be felt and expressed.

Kriesberg 2003: 329, 331

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Refugee

A person seeking asylum based on the likelihood ofpersecution or imminent harm in his or her home country

due to race, religion, nationality, ethnicity, socialmembership, political opinion, or knowledge. Refugeesare commonly fleeing from war and its subsequentconditions, and they are unable to receive protectionfrom their home nation-state. Considerable debatesurrounds whether refugee status must involve one orboth of the following conditions: impending persecutionof select individuals or groups and the inability of astate system to provide protection to such persons orgroups. What constitutes protection is contested as

well. Does it involve, for instance, the provision of public order and subsistence or mere survival? TheUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)offers protective auspice for refugees.

See also asylum anddisplaced person.

Sanctions

Penalties threatened or imposed by a nation-state,institution, organisation, or group on a targeted partyfor failure, actual or anticipated, to act in accordancewith standards, obligations, or expectations. Ascountenance or encouragement, forms of sanctions mayrange from the political to the economic to the cultural.Punitive sanctions similarly have great variety. Economic

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Under the international regime, those individuals whoflee across a border from the generalized threats posedby war or civil disturbance are outside the ambit ofrefugee law. These people are not considered to have asufficiently individualized fear of persecution. Memberstates of the Organization of African Unity have adopteda broader refugee definition, which includes war and civildisorder. Governmental and expert discussions in Asiaand Latin America have also recognized the advantagesof a broader definition.

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sanctions include embargoes and prohibition of foreignaid. Political sanctions may target diplomatic links orinternational organisational participation. Culturalsanctions may limit educational exchanges and sporting

events. Implementation may be unilateral or multilateral,comprehensive or selective, and initiated by officialauthorities or civil society organisations, althoughin common usage the term is often used to describepenalties imposed among nation-states. In all cases,sanctions are enacted to coerce the party in questionand influence its behaviour.

The latent effects of sanctions are widely debated, particularly concerning the detriment to civiliansaffected in undemocratic societies because they are

often unable to influence policy in their own countryor may have been weakened by opposing the targetedregime. Selective sanctions are increasingly used totarget specific personnel and lites, thereby limitingthe effects on the general population.


Satyagraha

Deriving from Hindi and Gujarati, satya means truth,

and agraha is most commonly translated as insistenceon, pursuit of, or force. Therefore, satyagraha isoften referred to as the pursuit of truth, or morecolloquially, truth-force. The term was coined byMohandas K. Gandhi to describe his conception of non-violent action, and thus it depicts a form of conflictengagement. During the Indian campaigns against British

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There is a law of nature that a thing can be retained by

the same means by which it has been acquired. A thingacquired by violence can be retained by violence alone,while one acquired by truth can be retained only by truth.The Indians in South Africa, therefore, can ensure theirsafety today if they can wield the weapons ofSatyagraha.

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rule, satyagraha became associated with nearly all suchactivities.

For Gandhi, satyagraha could be understood morally and politically. He personally upheld both aspects and

encouraged others to do the same, but he recognisedthat not all people who put satyagraha into practicewould share the moral conviction as well. Given his philosophical perspective, Gandhi sought a broadermeaning of satyagraha that embodied a lifelong pursuitof Truth. In this sense, the term transcends the morelimited definition of non-violent action.

For further reading, see Krishnaalal Shridbarani, War without Violence:A Study of Gandhis Method and Its Accomplishments (New York, Harcourt,Brace and Company, 1939).

Security

A subjective state in which an individual or collectivityfeels free from threats, anxiety, or danger. Securitystands along a continuum and, therefore, cannot beunderstood in absolute terms. Given relative perceptions,reaching or maintaining security is almost alwayscontentious. To ensure security at the nation-statelevel, governments must trust their ability to deterattacks or to defend against them. Such capacity hascentred historically on relative military power amongnation-states. Given the subjective and relative natureof such parameters and security more generally, obviousdifficulties arise. An expanse of activities haveconsequently resulted in the name of security, includingexpansionist policies, wars of conquest, armaments races,acts of intervention, and alliance formations.

Governments have traditionally been solely responsiblefor providing their own security, which is commonlycalled strategic security. More recently, areconceptualisation of security is emerging in the formof collective security. This expanding doctrine includesnew terminology, such as human security, commonsecurity, co-operative security, democraticsecurity, environmental security, and preventivesecurity. Under these new developments, the nation-state neither plays the dominant role in formulatingand implementing security strategy and policy, nor isit the intended unit to necessarily be protected. Thepopulations of nation-states and individuals have become

the primary concern.

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Sources of power

The origins or loci of political power: legitimacy,human resources, skills and knowledge, material

resources, intangible factors, and sanctions. Sourcesof power can be identified in any politically symbioticrelationship, as can their manifestations throughinstitutions and organisations. The supply of thesesources by one or various parties is directly relatedto the political power of the party that receives them.

See alsolegitimacy, non-violent action, pillars of support , andsanctions.

Strategy

The activity, process, or plan to attain desiredobjectives or goals as efficiently as possible, usuallyin the face of or in competition with others who aredeveloping and implementing similar activities. Strategyis essentially the application of means to attain desiredends. Here, means are expressed widely, suggestingavailable or retrievable political, economic, social,and psychological resources. The use of strategy ismost frequent in connection with warfare, but the conceptpermeates politics and other fields, where the logic

remains the same. Strategy focuses on questions of how,when, and where and determines how the subsequent answersare interdependently formulated. Strictly speaking,strategy is understood as direct or indirect competitionwith others. Three broad forms can be identified:offensive, defensive, and deterrent. Offensive strategies pertain to seeking objectives actively throughinitiative. Defensive strategies involve denying theaccomplishment of the objectives of an opponent.Deterrent strategies aim to persuade an adversary toabandon pursuit of objectives in light of the estimated

or perceived cost of such pursuit.

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SWhenever strategy is less than fully realized it does notassess, continuously and comprehensively . . . all the factors

that are likely to bear on the outcome of a conflict, and adjustthe groups behavior to them in real time to achieve the besteffect. To the extent that strategic assessment is present atall, so long as it remains unarticulated and inchoate it is

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Successful strategies must be informed by the politics,ethics, and culture of the context and the partyresponsible for development and implementation. Theterm is derived indirectly from the Greek strategos

(general), although in modern usage a comparableequivalent would have been strategike episteme (generalsknowledge).

See also grand strategy andtactics.

Structural violence

Embedded social and political hierarchiesenacted mostoften by nation-states and their institutionsthat imposeconditions which place people at high risk for negativeconsequences, such as unemployment, malnutrition, mental

illness, suicide, crime, disease, and ill health. Thesources of structural violence may be difficult toidentity, but its results are normally visible.

During the twelve years that Mohandas K. Gandhi spentin South Africa after 1902, he came to see the impactthat structural forms of violence could have on society:hunger, poverty, the oppression of women, the privilegeof the few, and the powerlessness of the many. Observinga pathological violence ingrained in societal structuresa structural exploitation more than intentional harm

inflicted upon innocent victims by evil peoplewouldfuel Gandhis campaigns and underlie his insistence onthe technique of non-violent resistance. For Gandhi,what he saw in South Africa highlighted the depths ofinstitutionalised violence and convinced him of theneed for a procedure that could undermine such violencefrom within.

The concept of structural violence also hints attransactional relationships with other types of violence,such as domestic violence, sexual exploitation of

children, and drug trafficking. Such silent types ofviolence have a mutual effect on one another and oftena disproportionate impact on marginalised populations.

Tactics

Limited and particular actions decided on short-termbases. In conflict situations, tactics refer to suchactions during encounters with contending parties. Ifconducted efficiently, the choice of tactics will be

informed by a strategy.

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See also grand strategy andstrategy.

Terrorism

Violent actions inflicted upon secondary targets thatmay be conducted by an individual, group, or governmentwith the wider purpose of attracting attention, gainingsupport, or forcing concessions from the primary targeton personal or political issues. Perpetrators ofterrorism normally select, either purposefully orindiscriminately, illegitimate secondary targets (i.e.,non-combatants and civilians) and target them withbombings, hijackings, and other violently coercivemethods. These targets can be viewed as the intermediaries

used by terrorists to manipulate the primary target andsubsequently achieve an objective. A dominant theoryregarding terrorism posits that such actions are employedin expectation that a harsher reaction by the primarytarget will in turn generate support for the issuesespoused by the terrorists.

Deriving from the Latin terrere (to frighten), in apolitical sense terror was first used to describe themethods of the French revolutionary government againstits adversaries. Although state terrorism remains today,

the concept is understood as a nation-state that supportsor condones activities as described above. As a techniqueof waging war, terrorism was first developed byrevolutionaries in czarist Russia in the 1870s. Theterm international terrorism denotes actions conductedby groups outside the country of their origin, residence,or the location from which their activities are co-ordinated. Terrorism primarily involves semi-clandestinegroups opposed to their home or an external government.

Some groups that employ acts of terrorism reject the

stigma attached to this method of conflict engagement,which is widely considered illegitimate and egregious.

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Thus, it may be a strategic choice to use massdemonstrations and strikes to force a violent regime torecognize human rights standards, but it is a tactical

choice to conduct certain demonstrations in a silent anddignified manner, as opposed to a boisterous or

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This is especially true in cases where terrorism is oneof several techniques employed and the aspired objectivesare widely believed to be legitimate and worthwhile.Nonetheless, the method usually overshadows the issues.

Treaty

A legally binding written agreement of mutual relationsthat is ratified by two or more nation-states or otherinternationally recognised subjects. Treaties aredeveloped by co-operative production of drafts byauthorised agents, adoption of a final text,authentication through designated signatories,ratification through respective constitutional procedures, and enactment as a binding force.International treaties today are legally founded on theprinciple of pacta sunt servanda (pacts made in good

faith shall be observed). Outside internationaljurisprudence, treaties, particularly in Africa, oncewere enforced by the swearing of oaths.

Truth (and reconciliation) commission

A temporary fact-finding body that aims to elucidatepast human rights violations and war crimes and addressissues of reparation and rehabilitation. The ultimateobjective of truth commissions is to create conditionsthat lead to healing from suffered losses or injuries

and which foster stability and reconstruction. Suchcommissions are normally empowered to grant partial

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[Historically,] there were three principal objectives [ofterrorism]. One was self-advertisementwhat was calledPropaganda of the Deedto show the world that the groupexisted and was ruthless in its determination to achieveits ends. The second was to demoralise the governmentand its supporters. And the third was to provoke the

government into such savage acts of suppression that it forfeited public support and awoke popular andinternational sympathy for the revolutionary cause. Thiswas known as a strategy of provocation.

Howard 2001

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