Business and Environment

Introduction

• It is a well known fact that business is a great force for wealth creation and

is the basis of economy.

• It is also a fact that natural environment is the basis of all economic activity.

• Natural environment and ecosystem services provide us with food, water

and materials for living and production system.

• There are three legs of S.D; economic, social and environmental and all the

three are of equal importance.

• The business which has maximised the profit, i.e., it has an excellent

economic performance, and has resulted in environmental damage it cannot

be sustainable.

Poverty Remains A Major Problem: Although the

number of people living on less than the purchasing power equivalent of $1 per day in developing and transition economies fell from 28% to 24% of the population between 1987 and 2005, the absolute numbers of people in poverty hardly changed.

0 20 40 60 80 100

India

Uganda

Honduras

Indonesia

Botswana

China

Bolivia

South Africa

Russina Federation

Brazil

$1 A Day

$2 A Day

• Business Strategy• Paul Hawken published in 1993 a book, "The Ecology of Commerce" in which

he analyses that • "business has three issues to face: • what it takes, what it makes and what it wastes”. • "What it takes" is obvious.• It takes natural materials and resources from earths ecosystem through

mining, extracting, growing, hunting and other such like things.• What it makes is products (and services) derived from above resources

through industrial processes. “• What it wastes" is not only in the form of garbage or pollution but also eco-

costs (damage to ecosystem). • Our business practices cannot afford to neglect the significance of the above

analysis especially the issue of eco-costs.• Protection of environment must become part of business and an issue worthy

of commitment and action on the part of companies.• New strategies have to be responsive to changing environment.

• Marketing Strategy

• Business and marketing are interlinked concepts.

• Markets, among other things, depend upon production and

consumption of goods and services and marketing strategy is

concerned with the needs of customer and then responding

to these needs, the product or service is developed.

• The product or service is priced after taking into

consideration the channels and communication mechanisms

involved in making them available in the market.

• Market Based Instruments (MBIs)i. Many countries are offering subsidies for the companies or

industrial sectors that shift to clean technologies, recycling programmes or for energy conservation / use of non conventional energy resources.

ii. Incentive for those (companies or entrepreneurs) who incur additional costs in their operations for the protection of ecosystem.

iii. Incentives for those in the developed countries when they engage in clean technology transfer to developing countries.

iv. Taxes to be levied for activities/programmes that lead to environmental damage or resource depletion..

v. Lately, tradeable permit system has been introduced in environmental management. For example, tradeable permits for greenhouse gas emission can be exchanged through the market.

• Implications of MBIs or Command and Control Mechanism • Whether MBIs or command and control system, improvement in

environmental performance would lead to increase in costs and as mentioned earlier it would lead to increase in price.

• The customer has to pay more because companies want to maintain the profit level.

• A decade ago, the ecological services were costed as free, but now the scenario is changing in view of fast degradation of resources and environment.

• The choice is either to pay more price now or pay much more prices later after a few years or decades.

• There is no possibility of excluding eco-costs if the business is to be carried out in a responsible way. The eco-costs have to be born by either the producer or the consumer.

• A win-win situation is possible when products are ecologically sound as well as less costly. To realize this, one may look into a new approach towards raw materials and manufacturing.

• Green Marketing

• The concept of sustainable marketing is in no way different from the term

green marketing or eco-marketing.

• The essential requirements, of green marketing are

• (i) the production process is compatible with ecosystem

• (ii) it is compatible with the goals of the company

• (iii) it satisfies the customers. In marketing management we know the

essentiality of second and third requirement.

• In green marketing, the first requirement is an addition to take care of the

ecosystem, eco-costs and the hence the welfare of the society. Green

marketing is a response to demand for ecologically sound products like

recycled products, biodegradable products, energy efficient systems or

products.

• Eco – Labelling• Eco-label is an environmental claim that appears on the packaging of a

product. • It is awarded to a manufacturer by an appropriate authority. ISO 14020 is

a guide to the award of Eco-labels.• The common person is now becoming aware of the deterioration of

environment especially when it relates to human health. • There is a growing demand for goods and services that cause less damage

both to the health of human and environment. • The Government of India launched an Eco-mark Scheme in 1991 to

increase consumer awareness in respect of environment friendly products.

• Eco - labelling can lead to:i. Improvement of image and sales of products.ii. Manufacturer's being more accountable to environmental impacts.iii. Consumer's awareness that their choice of product do affect the

environment as some products are less damaging to environment than others.

• Operation of Eco-mark Scheme of the Government of India

• There are three stages that lead to award of Eco-mark in India. These are:

a) The Steering Committee of the MEF determines the product categories for coverage under the scheme and to formulate strategies for implementation and future developments of the scheme.

b) The second stage is the identification of specific products to be selected and the individual criteria to be adopted by the Technical Committee of the CPCB.

c) In the third stage the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is to certify the product and formulate contract with the manufacturer allowing the use of eco-mark.

• Criteria for Eco-mark• According to MEF, criteria for awarding Eco-mark cover all the stages of

product from raw material to manufacture and to final disposal.

• The general requirements are:i. Products to meet the relevant standards of BIS.ii. Manufacturers to produce documentary evidence in regard to compliance

of EPA, Water and Air Acts and other rules and regulations.iii. The product to display the list of critical ingredients in descending order of

quantity present.iv. The material used for packaging to be recyclable/reusable/biodegradable.

• For Product Specific Requirements following issues are to be considered:i. Source of raw material.ii. Production process.iii. Energy use/conservation in the production.iv. Wastes arising from the process of production.v. Utilisation of wastes.vi. Disposal of wastes.

• Status of Eco-mark development

• According to a Report (1997) of government, 16 categories of

products have been identified by Eco-mark Steering

Committee. The Eco-mark Technical Committee has finalised

the eco-mark criteria for 14 categories. These are:

• 1. Soaps and detergents 2. Paper 3. Food items 4. Lubricating

oils 5. Packaging materials 6. Paints and powder coatings 7.

Batteries 8. Electrical/electronic goods 9. Food additives 10.

Wood substitutes 11. Cosmetics 12. Aerosol propellants 13.

Plastic products 14. Textiles 15. Fire Extinguisher 16. Leather.

• Procedure for Obtaining BIS Eco-Mark

1. The procedure for grant of licence by BIS under the scheme

of Eco-mark is the same as applicable for grant of licence by BIS

for its Product Certification Mark Scheme.

2. Under the scheme of Eco-mark, the Standard Mark of the

Bureau shall be a single mark being a combination of ISI

mark and Eco-mark.

3. The licence is granted initially for one year and is renewable.

• During the licence period, officer of Bureau makes inspections

and if he finds any deviation or non compliance, action as

provided under the BIS Act is taken.

• Materials; Manufacturing and Environment• In 'Earth in the Balance', Al Gore writes that we can produce for the world

market-place the new products and technologies that foster economic progress without environmental destruction.

• Also, Michael Porter from Harvard Business School argues that economic progress and environmental protection is not a conflicting proposition. According to these views, the successful managers if redesign the product, and adopt newer technologies that are now available, they can achieve goal of less resources depletion and less waste production.

• The present manufacturing and material-use systems are primarily geared for more sales or improving sales than for improved performance in terms of ecological considerations.

• Another dimension of manufacturing - environment relationship is the closed-loop manufacturing. In this type of manufacturing - the materials that are used do not lead to production of wastes.

• Environmental Accounting• Environmental resources constitute "natural capital". Therefore,

environmental damage and resource depletion should be reflected in the wealth/income of the nation.

• Changes in the resources and natural environment should be included in economic accounts, though we do not yet have fool proof methods to measure these changes in monetary terms.

The Government of India in the Economic survey 1997-98 has this to state:

National Accounts have been providing the most widely used indicators for the assessment of economic performance and trends in economic growth.

Integrated environment and economic green accounting, therefore, attempt at accounting for both socio-economic performance and its environmental effects and integrating environmental concerns into mainstream economic planning and policies.

• Missing markets and Accounting • The accounts take into consideration or measure things which have a price

tag or monetary value. The absence of price is a handicap in environmental accounting. The price of pollution or clean air is not easily available.

• Objectives of Environmental Accounting

• The purpose of adopting a system of environmental accounting is:

i. To incorporate the impact of environment on the balance sheet

of the organisation.

ii. To identify the stage (s) in LCA for cost reduction.

iii. To allocate the environmental costs in the process of fixing

prices.

iv. Many companies although incurring environmental costs have

not been able to identify them fully.

v. To support the sustainable practice in business.

• Environmental Protection Industry in India

• As per OECD estimates, the world market for environmental goods and services in 1990 was of the order of 200 billion US $ and is expected to touch 300 billion US $ by the year 2000.

• While the data in respect of India indicates that the Indian environmental market is relatively very small, yet it is a very positive and definite indicator of potential growth.

• Environmental Protection Equipment Industry• Despite this encouraging growth, Indian equipment

manufacturers face a number of obstacles that include:i. Shortages of raw materials such as membranes,

activatedcarbon,resinsand other critical components;ii. Limited servicing capability, especially for more

sophisticated equipments;iii. Limited access to available technology and potential

foreign partners;iv. High cost of capital for diversification/new projects; v. Limited R&D for technology innovation and

adaptation

• Environmental Protection Services

• Environmental consultancy services are at present small, but are expected, to grow more quickly than the market for equipment as a result of increased domestic and global environmental imperatives such as Environmental Management System Certification.

• A growing number of Indian firms offer environmental services to industry.

• The Indian environmental firms can be grouped into three main categories:

i. Engineering consultancy services for the specification design, installation and commissioning of treatment systems;

ii. Environmental studies such as Environmental Audits/Waste Minimization, Environmental Impact Assessments, Safety Reports, Development of Environmental Standards and Policy Research.

iii. Environmental Monitoring and Laboratory Services for Regulatory Compliance and Treatability Studies.

Trade and Environment

• We have been witnessing an important debate regarding the relationship between trade and environment since 1990’s.

• in fact import of tuna by USA from Mexico in 1991 was orignificant milestone in this debate.

• Tuna fish import was banned by USA because its fishing method was a danger to dolphins.

• The debate on the international trade and environment relates also to the debate on the relationship between economic growth and environment.

• A school of economists believe that economic growth and trade are not harmful to environment and if environment danger occurs it is because of market failure and it can be rectified by market instruments.

• The opposite group believes that if environmental externalities are not internalized or not incorporated in economic prices, trade would then lead to unsustainable growth and environmental degradation.

• GATT/WTO*

• In 1995, World trade organisation (WTO) replaced general agreement on

trade and tariff (GATT). WTO rules have a profound effect on global socio-

economic and political development. The ideal situation is to strive for

rules and agreements that benefit all the countries and not the few ones.

• GATT was in existence for a long time before 1995, having been formed by

about two dozen countries including USA, Canada, France UK.

• At the WTO ministerial meeting in May 1999 held in Geneva, then director-

general Rennato Ruggiero called for "renewed political impetus" for the

Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE), and increased dialogue

between the trade body and environmental groups. US president Bill

Clinton called for a high level meeting of trade and environmental efforts.

• Trade Rules and Environmental Protection• The Agreement that established WTO states that in order to raise the living

standards of populations there has to be optimal use of world's resourcesin accordance with the objectives of sustainable development, seeking both to protect and preserve the environment and enhance the means for doing so in a manner consistent with respective needs and concerns of countries at different level of economic development.

• In principle, considering the importance of trade in the economy it is desired that environment policies and trade are compatible and harmonious.

• If the environmental policies are such that they become threat to trade between or among the countries, we are not going to achieve the harmonisation.

• The global economic competition, today is affecting social and political fabric of societies and the agendas of these societies.

• The WTO committee on Trade and Environment if not fully sensitised to the issues that concern international trade, we would not be able to make much headway and the scenes like seattle will keep on repeating.

• Conclusion

• In conclusion, it may be fair to say that sustainable development stresses the fair

trade and trade to reduce environmental impacts.

• Less trade barriers may increase the volume of trade and thus increase economic

growth, but it has to be sustainable.

• An international forum like WTO offers opportunities for increased trade as also

the forum for settling trade disputes.

• WTO argues that it is not a tool for promoting the interest of the powerful

business lobby as alleged. Further it says that the decisions at WTO are

democratic.

• The noted Indian environmentalist while writing in Guardian (December 1999)

has this to say: 'The roles of WTO are driven by the objectives of establishing

corporate controls over every dimensional of our lives, food, wealth,

environment, our work and our future - that rules of WTO that are establishing

global corporate rules based on monopolies need to give way to democracy.'

Forest and Wildlife Management• The management of forest resources and forest ecosystem is a challenging

task.

• This task becomes more challenging when other important related issues

like biodiversity face serious threat. (Tropical forests, for example, contain

about 90% of biodiversity).

• It is true that forests are renewable resource. Forests contribute to

economic development by providing goods and services for industry,

people and forest dwellers.

• They provide employment. They play a vital role in maintaining ecological

balance, quality of environment, preventing soil erosion, conserving water,

regulating water cycle, maintaining balance between Oxygen and Carbon

dioxide and preventing floods.

• Global Consensus on the Management of Forests*• The subject of forests is related to the entire range of environmental and

development issues and opportunities, including the right to socio-economic development on a sustainable basis.

• Principles 1. Nations have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and

the principles of international law.2. States have the sovereign and inalienable right to utilise, manage and

develop their forests in accordance with their development needs and level of socio-economic development.

3. Forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and

future generations.4. National policies and strategies should provide a framework for increased

efforts, including the development and strengthening of institutions and programmes for the management.

5. The vital role of all types of forests in maintaining the ecological processes

• Forestry and Agenda 21

1. Sustaining the multiple roles and functions of all types of forests, forest

lands and woodlands.

2. Enhancing protection, sustainable management and conservation of all

forests, and greening of degraded areas through forest rehabilitation,

afforestation, reforestation and other rehabilitative measures.

3. Promoting efficient utilization and assessment to recover the full valuation

of the goods and services provided by forests, forest lands and woodlands.

4. Establishing and/or strengthening capacities for planning, assessment and

systematic observation of forests and related programmes, projects and

activities, including commercial trade and process

Indian Scenario

• India has a diverse ecosystem and diverse forest spread over from North East to Western Coast and Andaman Nicobar islands to alpine forests of Himalayas.

Highlights of legislation, policies, programmes and other initiatives

• Forestry is a concurrent subject in the Indian Constitution, being under the purview of both the central and state governments.

• Systematic management of forests, began in the mid-nineteenth century.

• The first Forest policy of India enunciated in 1894 focused on commercial exploitation of timber and gave importance to permanent cultivation.

• The 1952 revision of the policy recognised the protective role of forests and proposed that one-third of the land area of the country be retained under forest and tree cover.

• The new Forest policy of 1988 focused on environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance.

Excel Books15– 27 Environmental Management (2nd Edition) N K Uberoi

Forest and Wildlife Management

C-15

Copyright © 2003, 1999, N K UberoiHighlights of major developments in the forestry sector

Year Action taken Scope1972 (amended in 1991) Wildlife (Protection) Act To protect wild animals, birds and plants including their habitat.1976 42nd amendment of the Article 48A under the Directive Principles of State Policy

Constitution of India of the fundamental duties in the Constitution mention that the ‘State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife in the country and protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife and have compassion for living creatures’

1980 Forest Conservation Act Control diversion of forest land for non-forestry use.1981 The Forest Survey of India To assess forest cover for planning and monitoring purposes.1985 Ministry of Environment Nodal agency for planning, coordination and imple-

and Forests mentation of environmental and forestry programmes. 1988 National Forest Policy Objectives summarised in Box.1990 Joint Forest Management To protect and regenerate degraded forests through people’ participation.1991 Coastal Regulation Zones Notification issued under the Environment (protection) Act, 1986 for the protection

of coastal areas.1992 National Afforestation and To promote afforestation and ecodevelopment.

Eco-development Board (NAEB)

1994 Environmental Impact Issued under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 making EIAs mandatory for 30 sectors.

1996 Convention to Combat To combat desertification.Desertification

1999 National Forestry Action A comprehensive strategy and long-term work plan forProgramme (NFAP) the next 20 years formulated to address the issues underlying the major problems

of the forestry sector in line with the National Forest Policy, 19882000 National Forestry Research Priorities and carry out research on various aspects of

Plan forestry required for sustainable development.

• Afforestation – (Compensatory Afforestation)i. Compensatory afforestation shall be done over equivalent area of

non-forest land.ii. As far as possible, the non-forest land for compensatory

afforestation should be identified contiguous to or in the proximity of Reserved Forest.

iii. In the event that non-forest land of compensatory afforestation is not available nearby, non-forest land for compensatory afforestation may be identified anywhere else in the State as near as possible to the site of diversion, so as to minimise adverse impact on the ecosystem of the area.

iv. Where non-forest lands are not available or non-forest land is available in less extent to the forest area being diverted, compensatory afforestation may be carried out over degraded forest twice in extent to the area being diverted or to the difference between forest land being diverted and available non-forest land, as the case may be.

v. The non-availability of non-forest land for compensatory afforestation would be accepted by the Central Government only on the Certificate from the Chief Secretary to the State/UT Government to that effect.

Scheme for Compensatory Afforestation

• The scheme for compensatory afforestation should contain the

following details:

a) Details of equivalent non-forest or degraded forest land identified

for raising compensatory afforestation.

b) Delineation of proposed area on suitable map.

c) Agency responsible for afforestation.

d) Details of work schedule proposed for compensatory afforestation.

e) Cost structure of plantation, provision of funds and the mechanism

to ensure that the funds will be utilised for raising afforestation.

f) Details of proposed monitoring mechanism.

Lands Identified for Compensatory Afforestation to be Transferred to the Forest

Department

i. Equivalent non-forest land identified for the purpose is to be transferred

to the ownership of the State Forest Department, and declared as protected

forests so that the plantation raised can be maintained permanently. The

transfer must take place prior to the commencement of the project.

ii. The compensatory afforestation should clearly be an additional

plantation activity and not a diversion of part of the annual plantation

programme.

iii. In each case where the afforestation target is over 500 hectares in plains,

and 200 hectares in hills, a Monitoring Committee shall be established with

a nominee of the Central Government to oversee that the stipulations,

including those pertaining to compensatory plantation are carried out.

• Deforestation

• Despite various kinds of acts, rules, regulations and streamlining

procedures, forests continue to be denuded.

• It is estimated that between 1950-1980, nearly 4.5 million hectare forest

area was diverted.

• After Forest Act (1980) there has been reduction of diversion for non-

forestry purposes and according to Economic Survey Report, the present

rate of diversion is 16000 hectare annually. (The forest area in the recent

years has not changed much because its diversion for non-forestry

purposes has been more or less compensated by afforestation).

• The annual deforestation rate during 1981-90 (10 year period) was 0.6%

(0.34 million hectares) according to FAO.

Degradation of Forests

• Besides deforestation which is diversion of forest to other uses, another phenomenon

namely the degradation of forests has been occurring.

• It means reduction in the productivity of the forests due to unsustainable harvesting,

forest fires, pollution and pests.

• Productivity mainly refers to production of timber, fire wood, fodder and industrial

wood.

• Degradation has its own impacts. People indulge in over exploitation of forest

resources which have declined due to degradation.

• Declining forest resources affect the poor people and those dwelling around forest

areas for sustenance.

• Degradation affects the ecosystem and capacity of forests as Carbon Dioxide sinks.

Another effect is on biodiversity.

• There is always a threat of species extinction and loss of genetic resources.

Desertification too is affected by forest degradation.

• Management of Forestsi. Since the adoption of the Forest Principles at the Rio Conference,

tangible progress has been made in sustainable forest management at national, regional and international levels and in the promotion of international cooperation of forests.

ii. Yet there is urgent need to implement the proposals agreed by the Panel in an effective manner and in collaboration with indigenous people and local communities.

• Forest Management is a complex system that deals with various aspects as:

i. Legal;

ii. Administrative;

iii. Economic;

iv. Social;

v. Scientific.

• Role of Forests for Maintaining Ecosystem

• This includes:

i. Protection of fauna and flora;

ii. Carbon cycle;

iii. Protection of endangered/threatened species;

iv. Wildlife conservation;

v. Preservation of National Parks/Sanctuaries;

vi. Tourism;

vii. Control of soil erosion;

viii. Reclamation of eroded land;

ix. Irrigation and control of water runoff.

• Forests as resources for consumption by Indigenous

people/forest dwellers/rural and deprived population

• This includes use/consumption of:

i. Fuel wood;

ii. Grazing of livestock;

iii. Fruits and herbs;

iv. Household uses like sheds, furniture, poles, etc.;

v. Weaving material like ropes and baskets;

vi. Food products like honey

• Industrial Uses

i. Pulp wood for various purposes like newsprints,

paper, packaging;

ii. Poles;

iii. Sawlogs;

iv. Gums, resins, oils, etc.;

v. Particle boards, fiber boards;

vi. Veneer logs for plywood, furniture.

• Strategies for Sustainable Development• The most common problem confronting the forestry sector is its inability to

satisfy the many conflicting and escalating demands being placed on it. • It is evident that future sustainable forestry development for India will

require a comprehensive balanced and targeted strategy.• It is estimated that about 270 million tonnes of fuelwood, 280 million

tonnes of fodder, over 12 million cubic metres of timber and countless non-wood forest products are removed from the forests annually, which are far beyond the sustainable limits.

• The average volume of 74.42 m3/ha with an incremental annual growth of 1.36 m3/ha/year of Indian forests compares poorly with the global average volume of 120 m3/ha and average annual growth of 2.1 m3/ha.

• In addition, although the pace of diversion of forestland has come down, the area stipulated for compensatory afforestation has not been commensurate.

• With these initiatives, it is expected that the objective of the National Forestry Action Programme – to enhance the contribution of forestry and tree resources to ecological stability and people centered development through qualitative and quantitative improvement in the forest resources – would be realised.

• Tropical Rain Forests• Some of the important observations on Tropical Rainforests: Management of Tropical Rain Forests involves sustainable concept in

which there is a balance between harvest and regeneration. Plants including trees are continually dying in these forests; it is better

they are harvested within the limits permitted by ecosystem. It must be realised that trees in these forests produce many useful

products like rubber, nuts and fruits and it is better to harvest these products rather than cutting the whole tree for timber.

Besides above, the general principles of Forest Management are applicable here, viz.

a) improving the lives of rural people;b) improving methods of shifting cultivation;c) improving food production;d) increasing supply of fuel wood or providing alternative source;e) expanding employment and incomes.

• Mangroves• India has some of the best mangroves in the world located in the deltas of

river Ganga, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery and on Andman and Nicobar Islands. Government of India initiated a scheme on Conservation and Management of Mangroves and Coral Reefs in 1986-87.

• A National Committee on Conservation and Management of Mangroves and Coral Reefs was constituted.

• Based on the recommendations of this committee, mangroves and Coral Reefs have been identified for intensive conservation and management.

• State Level Committees have also been constituted to prepare and implement Management of mangroves and coral reefs. Management Action Plan for the following mangrove areas have been considered by the MEF.

• Sunder Bans (West Bengal); Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu); Muthupet (Tamil Nadu); Goa (Goa); Coringa (Andra Pradesh); East Godavari (Andhra Pradesh); Krishna (Andhra Pradesh); Andman and Nicobar Island.

• Details of India’s Achievement for Sustaining the Multiple Roles and Functions of all Types of Forests, Forests Lands and Woodlands

Institutional set-up• The country has a strong institutional set-up for the conservation and

management of forests. • The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF) is the nodal agency for

planning, promotion, coordination and overseeing the implementation of various environment and forestry programmes.

People’s Participation• The growing depletion of forest resources and increasing deforestation, led

to the realisation that active and willing participation of the forest fringe communities is necessary for any forest regeneration programme to succeed.

• It was also realilsed that village communities will have little incentive to participate unless they benefit directly and have sufficient authority.

• Therefore a new strategy, called Joint Forest management (JFM) was adopted to protect and regenerate degraded forests.

• Wildlife and Its Protection• Usually the large animals (mostly birds and mammals) which are not domesticated

constituted wildlife. • Recently, certain other animal groups like fishes (due to their commercial value)

amphibians like frog and toads and other smaller animals and plants have been included under wildlife category.

• Preservation and protection of wildlife is important from the ecological point of view. The role of individual species in ecosystem, (for example in food chain) cannot be undermined.

• Amphibians today are under a threat, their population has declined. This is a cause of ecological concern because some habitats, and biomass of amphibians can exceed all other large animals combined.

• Their role in food chain is crucial; they eat both plants and small animals like insects including mosquitoes and amphibians themselves constitute food for birds, mammals, man, reptiles and fishes.

• Wildlife, besides its crucial role in preventing ecological degradation, has other values like serving as a genetic pool for livestock improvement, for pharmaceutical industry and other commercial value like providing furs and wools.

• Wildlife Conservation in India*• Various activities relating to wild life conservation and implementation of the

Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 are being carried out by government and its agencies. The details are as follows:

• Enforcement of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Export-Import Policy• The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, the provisions of the Convention of

International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and Export and Import Policy of India continue with the help of State Wildlife departments, the state police departments, BSF and Coast Guards .

• During the year 2001-2002, ban on export of 29 species of plant, plant portions and their derivatives obtained from wild were continued.

• Export of six species of exotic birds was continued subject to pre shipment inspection and CITES permit wherever required.

• The MEF has, in consultation with scientific institutions and experts working in this field, included the following marine species under the purview of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972:

• - Ten species of sharks & rays (These are fishes)• - Nine species of mollusecs• - All species of sea horses

Control of Illegal Trade Revision of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL) National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) Development of National Parks and Sanctuaries Project Tiger Creation of six new Tiger Reserves Beneficiary Oriented Scheme for Tribal Development Objectives

and Components Project Elephant Wildlife Institute of India (WII) Central Zoo Authority Rescue Centres