business analytics - 2. cluster analysis · 2020-06-04 · business analytics 1. k-means &...

Business Analytics

Business Analytics2. Cluster Analysis

Lars Schmidt-Thieme

Information Systems and Machine Learning Lab (ISMLL)University of Hildesheim, Germany

Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Information Systems and Machine Learning Lab (ISMLL), University of Hildesheim, Germany

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Business Analytics

Outline

1. k-means & k-medoids

2. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis

3. Gaussian Mixture Models

4. Conclusion


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Business Analytics 1. k-means & k-medoids

Outline




4. Conclusion


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Partitions

Let X be a set. A set P ⊆ P(X ) of subsets of X is calleda partition of X if the subsets

1. are pairwise disjoint: A ∩ B = ∅, A,B ∈ P,A 6= B

2. cover X :⋃A∈P

A = X , and

3. do not contain the empty set: ∅ 6∈ P.


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Partitions

Let X := {x1, . . . , xN} be a finite set. A set P := {X1, . . . ,XK} of subsetsXk ⊆ X is called a partition of X if the subsets

1. are pairwise disjoint: Xk ∩ Xj = ∅, k , j ∈ {1, . . . ,K}, k 6= j

2. cover X :K⋃

k=1

Xk = X , and

3. do not contain the empty set: Xk 6= ∅, k ∈ {1, . . . ,K}.

The sets Xk are also called clusters, a partition P a clustering.K ∈ N is called number of clusters.

Part(X ) denotes the set of all partitions of X .


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Partitions

Let X := {x1, . . . , xN} be a finite set. A surjective function

p : {1, . . . ,N} → {1, . . . ,K}

is called a partition function of X .

The sets Xk := p−1(k) form a partition P := {X1, . . . ,XK}.


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Partitions

Let X := {x1, . . . , xN} be a finite set. A binary N × K matrix

P ∈ {0, 1}N×K

is called a partition matrix of X if it

1. is row-stochastic:K∑

k=1

Pi ,k = 1, i ∈ {1, . . . ,N}, k ∈ {1, . . . ,K}

2. does not contain a zero column: Xi ,k 6= (0, . . . , 0)T , k ∈ {1, . . . ,K}.

The sets Xk := {i ∈ {1, . . . ,N} | Pi ,k = 1} form a partitionP := {X1, . . . ,XK}.

P.,k is called membership vector of class k .


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The Cluster Analysis Problem

Given

I a set X called data space, e.g., X := Rm,

I a set X ⊆ X called data, and

I a function

D :⋃

X⊆XPart(X )→ R+

0

called distortion measure where D(P) measures how bad a partitionP ∈ Part(X ) for a data set X ⊆ X is,

I a number K ∈ N of clusters,

find a partition P = {X1,X2, . . .XK} ∈ Part (X ) with minimal distortionD(P).


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The Cluster Analysis Problem (given K)

Given


I a set X ⊆ X called data,

I a function

D :⋃

X⊆XPart(X )→ R+

0

called distortion measure where D(P) measures how bad a partitionP ∈ Part(X ) for a data set X ⊆ X is, and


find a partition P = {X1,X2, . . .XK} ∈ Part K (X ) with K clusters withminimal distortion D(P).


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k-means: Distortion Sum of Distances to Cluster CentersSum of squared distances to cluster centers:

D(P) :=K∑

k=1

n∑i=1:

Pi.k=1

||xi − µk ||2

with

µk := mean {xi | Pi ,k = 1, i = 1, . . . , n}

Minimizing D over partitions with varying number of clusters leads tosingleton clustering with distortion 0; only the cluster analysis problemwith given K makes sense.

Minimizing D is not easy as reassigning a point to a different cluster alsoshifts the cluster centers.


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D(P) :=n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

Pi ,k ||xi − µk ||2 =K∑

k=1

n∑i=1:

Pi.k=1

||xi − µk ||2

with

µk :=

∑ni=1 Pi ,kxi∑ni=1 Pi ,k

= mean {xi | Pi ,k = 1, i = 1, . . . , n}




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D(P) :=n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

Pi ,k ||xi − µk ||2 =K∑

k=1

n∑i=1:

Pi.k=1

||xi − µk ||2

with

µk := mean {xi | Pi ,k = 1, i = 1, . . . , n}




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k-means: Minimizing Distances to Cluster CentersAdd cluster centers µ as auxiliary optimization variables:

D(P, µ) :=n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

Pi ,k ||xi − µk ||2

Block coordinate descent:

1. fix µ, optimize P reassign data points to clusters:

Pi ,k := arg mink∈{1,...,K}

||xi − µk ||2

2. fix P, optimize µ recompute cluster centers:

µk :=


Iterate until partition is stable.


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k-means: Minimizing Distances to Cluster CentersAdd cluster centers µ as auxiliary optimization variables:

D(P, µ) :=n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

Pi ,k ||xi − µk ||2

Block coordinate descent:

1. fix µ, optimize P reassign data points to clusters:


||xi − µk ||2

2. fix P, optimize µ recompute cluster centers:

µk :=


Iterate until partition is stable.Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Information Systems and Machine Learning Lab (ISMLL), University of Hildesheim, Germany

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k-means: Initialization

k-means is usually initialized by picking K data points as cluster centers atrandom:

1. pick the first cluster center µ1 out of the data points at random andthen

2. sequentially select the data point with the largest sum of distances toalready choosen cluster centers as next cluster center

µk := xi , i := arg maxi∈{1,...,n}

k−1∑`=1

||xi − µ`||2, k = 2, . . . ,K

Different initializations may lead to different local minima.

I run k-means with different random initializations and

I keep only the one with the smallest distortion (random restarts).


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Example

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6

x1 x2 x3 x4 = µ1 x5 x6

x1 = µ2 x2 x3 x4 = µ1 x5 x6

x1 µ2 x2 x3 x4 µ1 x5 x6

x1 µ2 x2 x3 x4 µ1 x5 x6

x1 x2 = µ2 x3 x4 x5 = µ1 x6

x1 x2 = µ2 x3 x4 x5 = µ1 x6

d = 33

d = 23.7

d = 16


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Example

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6

x1 x2 x3 x4 = µ1 x5 x6x1 = µ2

x1 = µ2 x2 x3 x4 = µ1 x5 x6

x1 µ2 x2 x3 x4 µ1 x5 x6

x1 µ2 x2 x3 x4 µ1 x5 x6

x1 x2 = µ2 x3 x4 x5 = µ1 x6

x1 x2 = µ2 x3 x4 x5 = µ1 x6

d = 33

d = 23.7

d = 16


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How Many Clusters K?

K

D

n σ2

01 n


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k-medoids: k-means for General DistancesOne can generalize k-means to general distances d :

D(P, µ) :=n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

Pi ,kd(xi , µk)

I step 1 assigning data points to clusters remains the same


d(xi , µk)

I but step 2 finding the best cluster representatives µk is not solvedby the mean and may be difficult in general.

idea k-medoids: choose cluster representatives out of cluster data points:

µk := xj , j := arg minj∈{1,...,n}:Pj,k=1

n∑i=1

Pi ,kd(xi , xj)


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k-medoids: k-means for General Distances

k-medoids is a “kernel method”: it requires no access to the variables, justto the distance measure.

For the Manhattan distance/L1 distance, step 2 finding the best clusterrepresentatives µk can be solved without restriction to cluster data points:

(µk)j := median{(xi )j | Pi ,k = 1, i = 1, . . . , n}, j = 1, . . . ,m


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Business Analytics 2. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis

Outline




4. Conclusion


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Hierarchies

Let X be a set.A tree (H,E ), E ⊆ H × H edges pointing towards root

I with leaf nodes h corresponding bijectively to elements xh ∈ XI plus a surjective map L : H → {0, . . . , d}, d ∈ N with

I L(root) = 0 andI L(h) = d for all leaves h ∈ H andI L(h) ≤ L(g) for all (g , h) ∈ E

called level map

is called an hierarchy over X .

d is called the depth of the hierarchy.

Hier(X ) denotes the set of all hierarchies over X .


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Hierarchies / Example

X : x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6

◦

◦

◦

◦

◦


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X : x1 x3 x4 x2 x5 x6

◦

◦

◦

◦

◦

L = 0

L = 1

L = 2

L = 3

L = 4

L = 5


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X : x1 x3 x4 x2 x5 x6

◦

◦

◦

◦

◦ L = 0

L = 1

L = 2

L = 3

L = 4

L = 5


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Hierarchies: Nodes Correspond to Subsets

Let (H,E ) be such an hierarchy:I nodes of an hierarchy correspond to subsets of X :

I leaf nodes h correspond to a singleton subset by definition.

subset(h) := {xh}, xh ∈ X corresponding to leaf h

I interior nodes h correspond to the union of the subsets of their children:

subset(h) :=⋃g∈H

(g,h)∈E

subset(g)

I thus the root node h corresponds to the full set X :

subset(h) = X


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Hierarchies: Nodes Correspond to Subsets

X : {x1} {x3} {x4} {x2} {x5} {x6}

{x1, x3}

{x2, x5}

{x2, x5, x6}

{x1, x3, x4}

{x1, x3, x4, x2, x5, x6}


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Hierarchies: Levels Correspond to Partitions

Let (H,E ) be such an hierarchy:

I levels ` ∈ {0, . . . , d} correspond to partitions

P`(H, L) := {h ∈ H | L(h) ≥ `, 6 ∃g ∈ H : L(g) ≥ `, h ( g}


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Hierarchies: Levels Correspond to Partitions

{x1} {x3} {x4} {x2} {x5} {x6}

{x1, x3}

{x2, x5}

{x2, x5, x6}

{x1, x3, x4}

{x1, x3, x4, x2, x5, x6} {{x1, x3, x4, x2, x5, x6}}

{{x1, x3, x4}, {x2, x5, x6}}

{{x1, x3}, {x4}, {x2, x5, x6}}

{{x1, x3}, {x4}, {x2, x5}, {x6}}

{{x1, x3}, {x4}, {x2}, {x5}, {x6}}

{{x1}, {x3}, {x4}, {x2}, {x5}, {x6}}


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The Hierarchical Cluster Analysis Problem

Given


I a set X ⊆ X called data and

I a function

D :⋃

X⊆XHier(X )→ R+

0

called distortion measure where D(P) measures how bad a hierarchyH ∈ Hier(X ) for a data set X ⊆ X is,

find a hierarchy H ∈ Hier(X ) with minimal distortion D(H).


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Distortions for Hierarchies

Examples for distortions for hierarchies:

D(H) :=n∑

K=1

D̃(PK (H))

where

I PK (H) denotes the partition at level K − 1 (with K classes) and

I D̃ denotes a distortion for partitions.


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Agglomerative and Divisive Hierarchical Clustering

Hierarchies are usually learned by greedy search level by level:I agglomerative clustering:

1. start with the singleton partition Pn:

Pn := {Xk | k = 1, . . . , n}, Xk := {xk}, k = 1, . . . , n

2. in each step K = n, . . . , 2 build PK−1 by joining the two clustersk, ` ∈ {1, . . . ,K} that lead to the minimal distortion

D({X1, . . . , X̂k , . . . , X̂`, . . . ,XK ,Xk ∪ X`)


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Note: X̂k denotes that the class Xk is omitted from the partition.


Agglomerative and Divisive Hierarchical Clustering

Hierarchies are usually learned by greedy search level by level:I divisive clustering:

1. start with the all partition P1:

P1 := {X}

2. in each step K = 1, n − 1 build PK+1 by splitting one cluster Xk in twoclusters X ′k ,X

′` that lead to the minimal distortion

D({X1, . . . , X̂k , . . . ,XK ,X′k ,X

′`), Xk = X ′k ∪ X ′`


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Note: X̂k denotes that the class Xk is omitted from the partition.


Class-wise Defined Partition Distortions

If the partition distortion can be written as a sum of distortions of itsclasses,

D({X1, . . . ,XK}) =K∑

k=1

D̃(Xk)

then the optimal pair does only depend on Xk ,X`:

D({X1, . . . , X̂k , . . . , X̂`, . . . ,XK ,Xk ∪ X`) = D̃(Xk ∪ X`)− (D̃(Xk) + D̃(X`))


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Closest Cluster Pair Partition Distortions

For a cluster distance

d̃ : P(X )× P(X )→ R+0

with d̃(A ∪ B,C ) ≥ min{d̃(A,C ), d̃(B,C )}, A,B,C ⊆ X

a partition can be judged by the closest cluster pair it contains:

D({X1, . . . ,XK}) = mink,`=1,K

k 6=`

d̃(Xk ,X`)

Such a distortion has to be maximized.

To increase it, the closest cluster pair has to be joined.


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Single Link Clustering

dsl(A,B) := minx∈A,y∈B

d(x , y), A,B ⊆ X


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Complete Link Clustering

dcl(A,B) := maxx∈A,y∈B

d(x , y), A,B ⊆ X


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Average Link Clustering

dal(A,B) :=1

|A||B|∑

x∈A,y∈Bd(x , y), A,B ⊆ X


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Recursion Formulas for Cluster Distances

dsl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) := minx∈Xi∪Xj ,y∈Xk

d(x , y)

= min{ minx∈Xi ,y∈Xk

d(x , y), minx∈Xj ,y∈Xk

d(x , y)}

= min{dsl(Xi ,Xk), dsl(Xj ,Xk)}

dcl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) = max{dcl(Xi ,Xk), dcl(Xj ,Xk)}

dal(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) =|Xi |

|Xi |+ |Xj |dal(Xi ,Xk) +

|Xj ||Xi |+ |Xj |

dal(Xj ,Xk)

agglomerative hierarchical clustering requires to compute thedistance matrix D ∈ Rn×n only once:

Di ,j := d(xi , xj), i , j = 1, . . . ,K


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dsl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) = min{dsl(Xi ,Xk), dsl(Xj ,Xk)}dcl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) := max

x∈Xi∪Xj ,y∈Xk

d(x , y)

= max{ maxx∈Xi ,y∈Xk

d(x , y), maxx∈Xj ,y∈Xk

d(x , y)}

= max{dcl(Xi ,Xk), dcl(Xj ,Xk)}



|Xj ||Xi |+ |Xj |

dal(Xj ,Xk)


Di ,j := d(xi , xj), i , j = 1, . . . ,K


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dsl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) = min{dsl(Xi ,Xk), dsl(Xj ,Xk)}dcl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) = max{dcl(Xi ,Xk), dcl(Xj ,Xk)}

dal(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) :=1

|Xi ∪ Xj ||Xk |∑

x∈Xi∪Xj ,y∈Xk

d(x , y)

=|Xi |

|Xi ∪ Xj |1

|Xi ||Xk |∑

x∈Xi ,y∈Xk

d(x , y)

+|Xj |

|Xi ∪ Xj |1

|Xj ||Xk |∑

x∈Xj ,y∈Xk

d(x , y)

=|Xi |


|Xj ||Xi |+ |Xj |

dal(Xj ,Xk)


Di ,j := d(xi , xj), i , j = 1, . . . ,K


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dsl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) = min{dsl(Xi ,Xk), dsl(Xj ,Xk)}dcl(Xi ∪ Xj ,Xk) = max{dcl(Xi ,Xk), dcl(Xj ,Xk)}



|Xj ||Xi |+ |Xj |

dal(Xj ,Xk)


Di ,j := d(xi , xj), i , j = 1, . . . ,K


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Business Analytics 3. Gaussian Mixture Models

Outline




4. Conclusion


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Soft Partitions: Row Stochastic MatricesLet X := {x1, . . . , xN} be a finite set. A N × K matrix

P ∈ [0, 1]N×K

is called a soft partition matrix of X if it

1. is row-stochastic:K∑

k=1

Pi ,k = 1, i ∈ {1, . . . ,N}, k ∈ {1, . . . ,K}

2. does not contain a zero column: Xi ,k 6= (0, . . . , 0)T , k ∈ {1, . . . ,K}.

Pi ,k is called the membership degree of instance i in class k or thecluster weight of instance i in cluster k .

P.,k is called membership vector of class k .

SoftPart(X ) denotes the set of all soft partitions of X .


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Note: Soft partitions are also called soft clusterings and fuzzy clusterings.


The Soft Clustering Problem

Given


I a set X ⊆ X called data, and

I a function

D :⋃

X⊆XSoftPart(X )→ R+

0

called distortion measure where D(P) measures how bad a softpartition P ∈ SoftPart(X ) for a data set X ⊆ X is,


find a soft partition P ∈ SoftPart (X ) with minimal distortion D(P).


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The Soft Clustering Problem (with given K )

Given


I a set X ⊆ X called data,

I a function

D :⋃

X⊆XSoftPart(X )→ R+

0

called distortion measure where D(P) measures how bad a softpartition P ∈ SoftPart(X ) for a data set X ⊆ X is, and


find a soft partition P ∈ SoftPart K (X )⊆ [0, 1]|X |×K with K clusters withminimal distortion D(P).


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Mixture Models

Mixture models assume that there exists an unobserved nominalvariable Z with K levels:

p(X ,Z ) = p(Z )p(X | Z ) =K∏

k=1

(πkp(X | Z = k)δ(Z=k)

The complete data loglikelihood of the completed data (X ,Z ) then is

`(Θ;X ,Z ) :=n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

δ(Zi = k)(lnπk + ln p(X = xi | Z = k ; θk)

with Θ := (π1, . . . , πK , θ1, . . . , θK )

` cannot be computed because zi ’s are unobserved.


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Mixture Models: Expected Loglikelihood

Given an estimate Θ(t−1) of the parameters, mixtures aim to optimize theexpected complete data loglikelihood:

Q(Θ;Θ(t−1)) := E[`(Θ;X ,Z ) | Θ(t−1)]

=n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

E[δ(Zi = k) | xi ,Θ(t−1)](lnπk + ln p(X = xi | Z = k ; θk))

which is relaxed to

Q(Θ, r ; Θ(t−1)) =n∑

i=1

K∑k=1

ri ,k(lnπk + ln p(X = xi | Z = k ; θk))

+ (ri ,k − E[δ(Zi = k) | xi ,Θ(t−1)])2


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Mixture Models: Expected LoglikelihoodBlock coordinate descent (EM algorithm): alternate until convergence

1. expectation step:

r(t−1)i ,k := E[δ(Zi = k) | xi ,Θ(t−1)] = p(Z = k | X = xi ; Θ(t−1))

=p(X = xi | Z = k ; Θ(t−1))p(Z = k ; Θ(t−1))∑K

k ′=1 p(X = xi | Z = k ′; Θ(t−1))p(Z = k ′; Θ(t−1))

=p(X = xi | Z = k ; θ

(t−1)k )π

(t−1)k∑K

k ′=1 p(X = xi | Z = k ′; θ(t−1)k )π

(t−1)k

(0)

2. maximization step:

Θ(t) := arg maxΘ

Q(Θ, r (t−1); Θ(t−1))

= arg maxπ1,...,πK ,θ1,...,θK

n∑i=1

K∑k=1



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Mixture Models: Expected Loglikelihood

2. maximization step:

Θ(t) = arg maxπ1,...,πK ,θ1,...,θK

n∑i=1

K∑k=1


π(t)k =

∑ni=1 ri ,kn

(1)

n∑i=1

ri ,kp(X = xi | Z = k ; θk)

∂p(X = xi | Z = k ; θk)

∂θk= 0, ∀k (∗)

(*) needs to be solved for specific cluster specific distributions p(X |Z ).


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Gaussian Mixtures

Gaussian mixtures:

I use Gaussians for p(X |Z ):

p(X = x | Z = k) =1√

(2π)m|Σk |e−

12

(x−µk )T Σ−1k (x−µk ), θk := (µk ,Σk)

µ(t)k =

∑ni=1 r

(t−1)i ,k xi∑k

i=1 r(t−1)i ,k

(2)

Σ(t)k =

∑ni=1 r

(t−1)i ,k (xi − µ

(t)k )T (xi − µ

(t)k )∑n

i=1 r(t−1)i ,k

=

∑ni=1 r

(t−1)i ,k xTi xi − µ

(t)k

Tµ(t)k∑n

i=1 r(t−1)i ,k

(3)


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Gaussian Mixtures: EM Algorithm, Summary1. expectation step: ∀i , k

r̃(t−1)i ,k =

1√(2π)m|Σ(t−1)

k |e−

12

(xi−µ(t−1)k )T Σ

(t−1)k

−1(xi−µ(t−1)k ) (0a)

r(t−1)i ,k =

r̃(t−1)i ,k∑K

k ′=1 r̃(t−1)i ,k ′

(0b)

2. minimization step: ∀k

π(t)k =

∑ni=1 r

(t−1)i ,k

n(1)

µ(t)k =

∑ni=1 r

(t−1)i ,k xi∑n

i=1 r(t−1)i ,k

(2)

Σ(t)k =

∑ni=1 r

(t−1)i ,k xTi xi − µ

(t)k

Tµ(t)k∑n

i=1 r(t−1)i ,k

(3)


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Gaussian Mixtures for Soft Clustering

I The responsibilities r ∈ [0, 1]N×K are a soft partition.

P := r

I The negative expected loglikelihood can be used as cluster distortion:

D(P) := −maxΘ

Q(Θ, r)

I To optimize D, we simply can run EM.

For hard clustering:

I assign points to the cluster with highest responsibility (hard EM):

r(t−1)i ,k = δ(k = arg max

k ′=1,...,Kr̃

(t−1)i ,k ′ ) (0b′)


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Model-based Cluster Analysis

Different parametrizations of the covariance matrices Σk restrict possiblecluster shapes:

I full Σ:all sorts of ellipsoid clusters.

I diagonal Σ:ellipsoid clusters with axis-parallel axes

I unit Σ:spherical clusters.

One also distinguishes

I cluster-specific Σk :each cluster can have its own shape.

I shared Σk = Σ:all clusters have the same shape.


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k-means: Hard EM with spherical clusters

1. expectation step: ∀i , k

r̃(t−1)i ,k =

1√(2π)m|Σ(t−1)

k |e−

12

(xi−µ(t−1)k )T Σ

(t−1)k

−1(xi−µ(t−1)k ) (0a)

=1√

(2π)me−

12

(xi−µ(t−1)k )T (xi−µ

(t−1)k )

r(t−1)i ,k = δ(k = arg max

k ′=1,...,Kr̃

(t−1)i ,k ′ ) (0b′)

arg maxk ′=1,...,K

r̃(t−1)i ,k ′ = arg max

k ′=1,...,K

1√(2π)m

e−12

(xi−µ(t−1)k )T (xi−µ

(t−1)k )

= arg maxk ′=1,...,K

−(xi − µ(t−1)k )T (xi − µ

(t−1)k )

= arg mink ′=1,...,K

||xi − µ(t−1)k ||2


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Business Analytics 4. Conclusion

Outline




4. Conclusion


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Conclusion (1/2)I Cluster analysis aims at detecting latent groups in data,

without labeled examples (↔ record linkage).

I Latent groups can be described in three different granularities:I partitions segment data into K subsets (hard clustering).I hierarchies structure data into an hierarchy,

in a sequence of consistent partitions (hierarchical clustering).I soft clusterings / row-stochastic matrices build overlapping groups

to which data points can belong with some membership degree (softclustering).

I k-means finds a K -partition by finding K cluster centers withsmallest Euclidean distance to all their cluster points.

I k-medoids generalizes k-means to general distances; it finds aK -partition by selecting K data points as cluster representativeswith smallest distance to all their cluster points.


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Conclusion (2/2)

I hierarchical single link, complete link and average link methodsI find a hierarchy by greedy search over consistent partitions,I starting from the singleton parition (agglomerative)I being efficient due to recursion formulas,I requiring only a distance matrix.

I Gaussian Mixture Models find soft clusterings by modeling data bya class-specific multivariate Gaussian distribution p(X | Z ) andestimating expected class memberships (expected likelihood).

I The Expectation Maximiation Algorithm (EM) can be used tolearn Gaussian Mixture Models via block coordinate descent.

I k-means is a special case of a Gaussian Mixture ModelI with hard/binary cluster memberships (hard EM) andI spherical cluster shapes.


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Readings

I k-means:I [HTFF05], ch. 14.3.6, 13.2.3, 8.5 [Bis06], ch. 9.1, [Mur12], ch. 11.4.2

I hierarchical cluster analysis:I [HTFF05], ch. 14.3.12, [Mur12], ch. 25.5. [PTVF07], ch. 16.4.

I Gaussian mixtures:I [HTFF05], ch. 14.3.7, [Bis06], ch. 9.2, [Mur12], ch. 11.2.3, [PTVF07],

ch. 16.1.


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References

Christopher M. Bishop.

Pattern recognition and machine learning, volume 1.springer New York, 2006.

Trevor Hastie, Robert Tibshirani, Jerome Friedman, and James Franklin.

The elements of statistical learning: data mining, inference and prediction.The Mathematical Intelligencer, 27(2):83–85, 2005.

Kevin P. Murphy.

Machine learning: a probabilistic perspective.The MIT Press, 2012.

William H. Press, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling, and Brian P. Flannery.

Numerical Recipes.Cambridge University Press, 3rd edition, 2007.


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business analytics - 2. cluster analysis · 2020-06-04 · business analytics 1. k-means &...

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