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Business Research Methods 2011 Anna Lund Jepsen1

Research philosophies and

approaches

What is a research paradigm?

Characteristics of research paradigms

Ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodology

Pragmatism

Research Approaches

Induction & Deduction

The most important paradigms to know

Positivsm, realism (post/neo positivism), Interpretivism


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The research onion

Fig 4.1. in Saunders et al, (2008)


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Research philosophy

Research philosophy is an over-arching term

relating to the development of knowledge and

the nature of that knowledgeAdapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

A paradigm is a basic set of beliefs that guide

action, whether of the everyday garden

variety or action taken with a disciplinedinquiry.

Guba, Egon 1990. The Paradigm Dialog. London: Sage, p. 17.


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Deduction

5 sequential stages of testing theory

Deducing a hypothesis

Expressing the hypothesis operationally Testing the operational hypothesis

Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry

Modifying the theory (if necessary)

Adapted from Robson (2002)


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Characteristics ofDeduction

Explaining causal relationships between variables

Establishing controls for testing hypotheses

Independence of the researcher

Concepts operationalised for quantative measurement

Generalisation


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Induction

Building theory by

Understanding the way human build their world

Permitting alternative explanations of whats

going on Being concerned with the context of events

Using more qualitative data

Using a variety of data collection methods


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Positivism

Tries to uncover the one truth about how things are or aleast what we focus on.

(Social) Science then is: A structured method combininglogical deduction with precise empirical observations (of the

behaviour of individuals) to reveal and confirm causalrelationships that are generally valid with a known probalityand which can therefore be used for prediction.


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Positivism

The purpose of science is then to uncover the truth to be ableto control and predict.

Humans are expected to be rational.

Objectivity and precision is important. Therefore measurementand measures, tools and procedures are very important.

Because reality is stable and thruths are generally valid, vi kandeduct new thruths from the ones that we know.


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Positivism How must we conduct research?

Set up hypotheses which the researcher seeks toverify logically and empirically

It is important that hypotheses are set up in a way

that makes testing possible.

Test by different researchers under different

circumstances is important - replication

If empirical research does not support the

hypothesis, it may be an anomali, methodologicalproblems or that the theory is not correct.


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Positivism How are results presented?Facts, and how these facts were reached.

Research is assumed to be free of values and values

therefore has no influence on research or results.

The good academic secretary

(Den gode embedsmand)


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OntologyIs there one truth

and can it be

found?

EpistemologyRelationship with the

researched : Objectivity

(observing) or

Subjectivity (empathy)

AxiologyThe role of values and ethics

MethodologyHow should research be

conducted?

Realism there is

one reality, and

we can find it.

We can describe

thruths that are

valid at all times,

regardsless of

persons and

places (contexts).

Research is tofind these.

The researcher

should not influence

what is research.

Objectivity requires

refrainment from

contact

observation of facts

is preferable

The researcher must be(and

can is, in fact) free from

value ladennes and does

not interpret.

Knowledge must be

independent of the

individual conducting the

research.

Verification of hypotheses

RCT Randomized

controlled trialIf necessary interviews

about facts

Analytical mindset

- Split problem in small

entities- Aggregate results by

summing up

Optimization

Paradigm: Positivism (natural sciences)


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Neo or postpositivism/Critical realism

Humans have bounded rationality and are not completely free of values

and interpretations

There is an imbalance between

Rigor and relevance

Internal versus external validity

Laboratory or field research

Precision and richness Precise measurements versus learning during research

Replication versus catching the nuances/small differences

Quantitative versus qualitative

Elegance and applicability

Grand theories are they applicable?

General theories versus specific contexts Discovery versus verification

Discovery is not science however new things are discovered through exploratin

Verification is science but discoveres nothing new

Guba pp. 21


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Ontology

Is there one truth and can it be

found?

Epistemology

Relationship with theresearched : Objectivity

(observing) or Subjectivity

(empathy)

Axiology

The role of values andethics

Methodology

How should research beconducted?

There is one

reality but

humans have abounded

rationality and

are therefore

not capable of

fully

understanding it.

Critical realism

Complete objectivity is

not possible but the

good researcher must tryto acheive it.

Accept that interaction in

some instances is

unavoidable.

But the researcher must

act as neutral as possible.

Very conscious about

own and participants

values andinterpretations

Falsification of hypoteses

Multiple methods

depending on research

topic and context

Triangulation methods,

data, theories, researchers

A focus on context and

synergies.

Systems

Satisfication

Paradigm:Neo or postpositivism/Critical realism


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Interpretivism

Related to humanism, hermeneutic, konstructivism

There is not an eternally valid truth about reality.

Reality is a social construction (social constructivism)

A lot of concepts describe things that are not physically

there Science should aim at understanding how the individual

perceives reality


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Interpretivism how do you do research?

To get a better understanding of how other human beingsperceive the world around them and themselves, you have to

identify with them. This means that the researcher cannot

and should not be objective but still try to be free of

judgements.

The researcher has to experience/sense and then consider

what this means. A piece of text can be read in many ways

depending on the spectacles you put on.

A process from intrasubjectivity til intersubjectivity

The hermeneutic circle/spiral


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Interpretivism how do you do research?

Often, it is necessary to interpret the observed tounderstand behavioiur as behaviour is full of symbolic

gestures

The researcher kan never be completely objective our

senses and prior experiences and knowledge differ andtherefore we interpret things differently

If we do not know what is interesting in advance, we need to

gather many data make thick descriptions


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Interpretivism - results

Descriptions of the observed and the interpretationsmade and development of concepts which can describe

the experienced

Results often presented with data in the form of citations

Results can be a theory about how an individual or agroup of people experince something. This theory is put

into some form of theoretical context


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Ontology

Is there one truth and can it be

found?

Epistemology

Relationship with the

researched : Objectivity(observing) or Subjectivity

(empathy)

Axiology

The role of values and

ethics

Methodology

How should research be conducted?

Relativistic reality is a social

construction something that is

recreated by human minds

No theory can ever be verified

beyondeverything. Every test is

partial.

Reality is the common

realization of the world.

The social reconstruction.

This requires empathy and

thus the researcher must

be subjective. And use

subjective judgements which still have to be valid

and argumented for.

Data are never free of

interpretation. They are

interpreted based on

prior theoretical

knowledge and

experiences of the

researcher.

Data are never free of

values. Whether a result

is bad, good, important or

not is judged on the basis

of ethical values.

Whethera problem is

relevant to use resourcesto solve is based on

ethicalvalues.

The choice of methodology must

ensure that the social

reconstruction of reality is correct.

Often, this is done in a hermeneutic

circle.

Constant shift between fieldwork

and interpretation.

Paradigm: Interpretivism (humanistic)


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Choosing your research approach

The right choice of approach helps you to

Make a more informed decision about the researchdesign

Think about which strategies will work for yourresearch topic

Adapt your design to cater for any constraints

Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)


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Deductive and Inductive research

ajordifferences between these approaches

Saunders et al, (2009)

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