burnout and self-employment: a cross-cultural empirical study

Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

S h o r t C o m m u n i c a t i o n :B u r n o u t a n d s e l f - e m p l o y m e n t :a c r o s s - c u l t u r a l emp i r i c a l s t u dy

Muhammad Jamal*,†

Department of Management, John Molson School of Business, Concordia University,Montreal, Quebec, Canada

*Correspondence to: Muhammad Jamal, PhD, Depart-ment of Management, John Molson School of Business,Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaH3G 1M8.† E-mail: [email protected]

S t r e s s a n d H e a l t hStress and Health 23: 249–256 (2007)

Published online 30 July 2007 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/smi.1144Received 10 November 2006; Accepted 21 February 2007

SummaryThis study examined the differences between full-time self-employed and organizationallyemployed individuals in Canada (n = 248) and Pakistan (n = 306) in terms of overall burnoutand its three dimensions (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and lack of accomplishment),turnover intentions and non-work satisfaction. Data were collected by means of a structured ques-tionnaire from Canadian employees in Montreal and Pakistani employees in Lahore. One-wayanalysis of variance and multivariate analysis of variance were used to analyse the data. The self-employed reported significantly higher overall burnout, emotional exhaustion, lack of accom-plishment, non-work satisfaction and turnover intention than the organizationally employed inboth countries. No significant differences were found between self-employed and organizationallyemployed in terms of depersonalization in both countries. Results are discussed in light of previ-ous empirical evidence on self-employment and the quality of work and non-work life from cross-cultural perspectives. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In present-day industrial societies, employmentcan be divided into two broad categories. Thedominant type consists of jobs whose job descrip-tions are independent of the job holders. Most ofthese jobs are embedded in hierarchies and areusually salaried jobs (Eden, 1975). These jobs aregenerally characterized by a high degree of for-malization and standardization and the dutiesand rewards are generally predetermined. Interms of work role definition, job holders’ per-sonality, skills and devotion can only make amodest difference (Lewin-Epstein & Yuchtman-Yaar, 1991). The second category differs from thefirst in that the scope of the job and its pay-offsare largely determined by the skill and motivationof the incumbent. These are typically the self-employed jobs, which generally exist outside the

Key Wordsself-employment; burnout; cross-cultural management

Introduction

This study examined the differences in jobburnout among self-employed and organiza-tionally employed individuals in Canada and Pakistan. Approximately 16 per cent of the full-time labour force in North America and otherindustrialized countries is self-employed (Cohen,1996; Parslow et al., 2004; Wiatrowski, 1994).

corporate and bureaucratic structures (Ettner &Grzywacz, 2001; Jamal, 1997).

The number of people who are self-employed,as well as the percentage of all workers who areself-employed, has continued to rise over the pastseveral years (Parslow et al., 2004; Wiatrowski,1994). In addition, the number of women whoare self-employed has risen steadily (Dallalfar,1994; Devine, 1994). For example, in 1993,women made up about one-third of the self-employed (Wiatrowski, 1994). Self-employedindividuals tend to be older than organizationallyemployed—the median age for self-employedindividuals is 44 years, as opposed to 37 years forsalaried employees. Also, self-employed individu-als in general have higher formal education than organizationally employed individuals(Robinson, 1995).

The dominant attraction of self-employmentappears to be the high degree of autonomy andindependence it allows—the freedom from con-straints associated with employment in formal,bureaucratic organizations (Chay, 1992; Eden,1975; Yusuf, 1995). In addition, a number ofother positive features of self-employment arehighlighted in the literature: freedom to makedecisions about the business; accountability onlyto oneself; potential for greater financial rewards;the opportunity to face challenges; escape fromthe subordinate employee position; relatively highjob security; and a feeling of achievement andpride (Akande, 1994; Begley & Boyd, 1987;Loscocco & Leicht, 1993; Parslow et al., 2004;Timmons, 1978).

However, the advantages of self-employmentdo not come without some serious sacrifices byself-employed individuals. In many instances,work and its demands dominate the lives of theself-employed profoundly. A clean separationbetween work and non-work is generally absentfrom the lives of the self-employed. A normalwork day can be extended to 10–12h or evenlonger, and having a full weekend off (Saturdayand Sunday) is often only possible in exceptionalcircumstances (Boyd & Webb, 1982; Jamal &Badawi, 1995). Chronic uncertainty and a veryhigh rate of failure among small businesses putthe self-employed in a state of constant struggle,requiring high investment of their emotional andphysical resources. Other concerns raised in theliterature include personal sacrifices, burden ofresponsibility, dominance of professional life andloss of psychological well-being (Akande, 1994;Boyd & Gumpert, 1983; Ketz de Vries, 1980;

Loscocco & Leicht, 1993; Thompson, Kopelman,& Schriescheim, 1992).

While there are several empirical studies high-lighting the attributes and characteristics of smallbusiness managers and entrepreneurs (Herron &Robinson, 1993), there are only a handful ofstudies in existence which compared self-employed and organizationally employed indi-viduals with regard to some important outcomevariables (Chay, 1993; Jamal, 1997; Rahim,1996). To the best of our knowledge, none ofthese studies included job burnout as an outcomevariable. Job burnout has been recognized as anoccupational hazard of the modern times inindustrialized countries, especially for people-ori-ented professions such as health care, education,customer services and human services (Maslach,2003). It was first identified in the mid-1970s andit main features include overwhelming exhaus-tion, feelings of frustration, anger and cynicism,and a sense of ineffectiveness and failure. Theexperience impairs both personal and social func-tioning (Maslach, 2003). Since the burnoutconcept was originally developed in NorthAmerica, the bulk of empirical research onburnout has rightfully been carried out in devel-oped economies (Jamal, 2005). The present studywas conducted in a developed country (Canada)and in a developing country (Pakistan) toexamine differences in burnout among self-employed and organizationally employed indi-viduals. In this respect, the present study is quiteunique as it attempted to examine burnout cross-culturally in rather unique employment settings (self-employed versus organizationallyemployed). Thus, in a modest way, this presentstudy brings empirical evidence on the portabil-ity of Western management concepts to develop-ing emerging economies.

Keeping in mind the previous empirical evi-dence, the following three hypotheses were for-mulated and tested in this cross-cultural study:

H1: The self-employed will be higher on overallburnout and its three dimensions (emotionalexhaustion, depersonalization and lack ofaccomplishment) than the organizationallyemployed.

H2: Due to longer and unconventional workinghours coupled with business uncertainty, theself-employed will be higher on turnoverintention than the organizationally employed.

H3: Due to greater autonomy and independencein self-employment, the self-employed will

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Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Stress and Health 23: 249–256 (2007)DOI: 10.1002/smi

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exhibit higher non-work satisfaction thanthe organizationally employed.

Method

Research setting

The present study was conducted in two coun-tries: Canada and Pakistan. Full-time employedpeople in the cities of Montreal and Lahore pro-vided the data. Because of the objectives of thestudy, people invited to participate were eitherself-employed or organizationally employed. Inboth countries, participants attending executivemanagement programs in a local university werethe primary group. In addition, in both countries,concerted efforts were made to reach out to otherpotential participants in order to have a mean-ingful comparison between self-employed andorganizationally employed on the study’s depen-dent variables. Since it was difficult to define thepopulation of this study, employees working bothin public and private organizations as well aspart-time students taking evening courses at alocal university also provided the data.

Procedures

In both countries, data were collected by meansof a structured questionnaire. In Montreal, bothEnglish and French versions of the questionnairewere employed. In Lahore, both English andUrdu versions of the questionnaire wereemployed. In both countries, a back-to-backtranslation procedure was used, recommendedfor cross-cultural studies (Schaffer & Riordan,2003). Back-to-back translation results showed ahigh degree of reliability and validity acrossvarious translators in both countries.

In both countries, graduate students weretrained as research assistants by the researcher.They were given training in data collection, withspecific instructions on how to approach poten-tial respondents. Approximately 450 question-naires were distributed among potentialrespondents in Montreal. With one follow-up,248 completed questionnaires were returned,yielding a response rate of 55 per cent. In Lahore,approximately 450 questionnaires were distrib-uted among potential respondents. With onefollow-up, 306 completed questionnaires werereturned, giving a response rate of 68 per cent.

A higher response rate among Pakistani em-ployees might be due to the novelty of suchsurveys in Pakistan. In both countries, respon-dents were instructed to mail back the completedquestionnaire to the researcher at the universityaddress.

Sample characteristics

In the Canadian sample, the majority of therespondents were male (78 per cent), married (75per cent) and were born Canadian citizens (68 percent). The average respondent was 40 years of ageand had 15 years of education. The majority ofthe organizationally employed respondents (65per cent) held white-collar jobs in small ormedium-sized organizations employing fewerthan 500 employees. In the Pakistani sample, themajority of the respondents were male (88 percent) and married (82 per cent). The averagerespondent was 38 years of age and had 14 yearsof education. The majority of the organization-ally employed respondents (73 per cent) heldwhite-collar office jobs in public or private orga-nizations. In both countries, because of the natureof the sampling design, it was not possible to compare the respondents with the non-respondents.

Measures

In both countries, the same standardized scaleswere used to assess the study’s variables in orderto make the comparisons meaningful. Descrip-tions of the scales are presented below.

Burnout. Burnout was assessed with the 22-item Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach &Jackson, 1981). This scale measures employees’burnout in terms of three dimensions: emotionalexhaustion, depersonalization and lack of accom-plishment. This is a Likert-type scale, withresponse options from strongly agree to stronglydisagree. A higher score on this scale indicated ahigher degree of burnout. This scale has beenwidely used in behavioral and health sciences andhas excellent psychometric properties in cross-cultural research (Jamal, 2005; Jamal & Baba,2000).

Turnover intention. Turnover intention wasassessed by asking each respondent to give his or

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her probability of remaining self-employed ororganizationally employed 2 years from the daythe questionnaire was completed. This measurehas been reported as a reasonably valid measureof actual turnover (Lepine, Podsakoff, & Lepine,2005). A higher score on this measure indicateda higher degree of turnover intention.

Non-work satisfaction. Non-work satisfactionwas assessed by using the scale developed byRousseau (1978). This is also a Likert-type scalewith seven items. A higher score on this scaleindicted a higher degree of non-work satisfaction.

Employment status. Employment status wasassessed by asking the question, ‘Do you work forsomeone else or are you self-employed (own abusiness)?’ The measure was adopted from theMichigan Quality of Employment Survey(Naughton, 1987). Of the 248 respondents in the Canadian sample, 75 (30 per cent) reportedthat they were self-employed and 173 reportedworking for someone else. In the Pakistanisample, 83 (27 per cent) reported that they wereself-employed and 223 reported working forsomeone else. The proportion of the self-employed to the organizationally employed in thepresent study is quite similar to the proportionreported in empirical studies in the literature(Chay, 1993; Eden, 1975; Jamal, 1997; Jamal &Badawi, 1995; Naughton, 1987; Parslow et al.,2004). In both samples, the self-employed did notdiffer significantly from the organizationallyemployed on a number of sociodemographic andbackground variables such as age, gender, educa-tion and marital status.

Results

The means, standard deviations and reliabilitycoefficients (alpha) of all variables are presentedin Table I. Reliabilities varied from 0.79 (lack ofaccomplishment) to 0.92 (overall burnout) in theCanadian sample. In the Pakistani sample, relia-bilities varied from 0.73 (lack of accomplishment)to 0.89 (non-work satisfaction). In both samples,reliabilities were judged to be sufficient for surveyresearch.

Intercorrelations among the six dependent vari-ables were computed and are presented in TableII. Overall burnout and its three dimensions weremoderately correlated with turnover intentionand non-work satisfaction in both samples. Theaverage correlation of overall burnout and itsthree dimensions with turnover intention was0.41 for the Canadian sample and 0.25 for thePakistani sample. The average correlation ofoverall burnout and its three dimensions withnon-work satisfaction was −0.26 for the Cana-dian sample and −0.24 for the Pakistani sample.Since none of the intercorrelations was too high,all the dependent variables were kept for furtheranalysis.

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) andmultivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)were used to examine the relationship betweenemployment status and the six dependent vari-ables. Results obtained from one-way ANOVA,with unequal cell frequencies, are presented inTable III. The self-employed experienced higheroverall burnout, emotional exhaustion and lackof accomplishment than the organizationallyemployed in both countries. However, in both

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Table I. Means (M), standard deviations (SD) and reliability coefficients for Canadian (C) and Pakistani (P)samples.

Variable Sample Number of items M SD Alpha reliability

(1) Overall burnout C 22 47.12 13.33 0.92P 22 43.24 11.59 0.83

(2) Emotional exhaustion C 9 24.11 8.23 0.84P 9 21.33 7.78 0.86

(3) Depersonalization C 5 10.59 4.93 0.89P 5 9.11 4.61 0.84

(4) Lack of accomplishment C 7 19.61 9.31 0.79P 7 19.96 6.77 0.73

(5) Turnover intention C 1 2.13 1.09 —P 1 1.87 1.34 —

(6) Non-work satisfaction C 7 19.70 9.37 0.83P 7 19.79 9.84 0.89

countries, the self-employed and the organiza-tionally employed did not differ significantly onthe dimension of depersonalization. Thus,hypothesis 1 was partially supported in this cross-cultural study. Consistent with hypothesis2, the self-employed showed significantly higherturnover intention than organizationallyemployed people in both countries. Significantdifferences in predicted direction were foundbetween self-employed and organizationallyemployed people in terms of non-work satisfac-tion in both countries, thus clearly supporting

hypothesis 3. In sum, results from the one-wayANOVA were generally supportive of the hypoth-esized relationship between employment statusand five of the six dependent variables in theCanadian and Pakistani samples.

Since the dependent variables were moderatelycorrelated, MANOVA was also computed.Employment status served as an independentvariable and the six outcome variables served asdependent variables. Multivariate effects foremployment status were significant both for theCanadian sample [F(6,245) = 12.96, p < 0.01]



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Table II. Intercorrelations among the study’s variables for Canadian (C) and Pakistani (P) samples.

Variables Sample (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1) Overall burnout C* —P† —

(2) Emotional exhaustion C 0.82 —P 0.80 —

(3) Depersonalization C 0.79 0.66 —P 0.86 0.69 —

(4) Lack of accomplishment C 0.66 0.39 0.52 —P 0.69 0.46 0.44 —

(5) Turnover intention C 0.39 0.49 0.33 0.41 —P 0.27 0.21 0.36 0.19 —

(6) Non-work satisfaction C −0.27 −0.22 −0.31 −0.25 −0.18 —P −0.27 −0.17 −0.26 −0.29 −0.27 —

* n = 248: r = 0.13; p < 0.05; r = 0.17; p < 0.01.† n = 306: r = 0.11; p < 0.05; r = 0.15, p < 0.01.

Table III. One-way analysis of variance between employment type and the six dependent variables for Canadian(C) and Pakistani (P) samples.

Variable Sample Mean F-value

Self-employed Organizationally employed(C) n = 75 (C) n = 173(P) n = 95 (P) n = 211

(1) Overall burnout† C 38.13 31.96 18.84**P 33.23 28.44 8.99**

(2) Emotional exhaustion C 26.13 22.23 15.59**P 23.11 19.67 12.86**

(3) Depersonalization C 9.97 11.05 1.89P 9.29 8.87 0.88

(4) Lack of accomplishment C 21.98 17.66 7.38**P 22.63 17.09 9.35**

(5) Turnover intention C 2.44 1.87 8.17**P 2.25 1.59 8.85**

(6) Non-work satisfaction C 20.44 18.85 3.93*P 22.11 17.35 10.23**

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.† Entries in columns are cell means: degrees of freedom (df) associated with each F-value are 2,248 for the Canadian sample and2,305 for the Pakistani sample.

and the Pakistani sample [F(6,299) = 9.58, p <0.01]. Univariate results showed significant dif-ferences in five of the six dependent variables inboth countries, indicating a high degree of simi-larity with the results obtained from the one-wayANOVA. In both countries, depersonalization didnot have significant main effects in the univariateanalysis.

Discussion

The results of the present study derived from full-time employees in Canada and Pakistan indicatedthat self-employed individuals experienced higheroverall burnout, emotional exhaustion and lackof accomplishment than those organizationallyemployed. Moreover, in both countries, the self-employed reported a higher turnover intentionthan the organizationally employed. In addition,the self-employed reported higher non-work sat-isfaction than the organizationally employed inboth countries. Before the findings are discussedany further, a note of caution is warranted aboutthe limitations of this study, which may includeself reported measures of job burnout and non-work satisfaction, cross-cultural research design,and modest response rate. For future research, itwill be highly desirable to use some objectivemeasures along with subjective measures and toutilize a longitudinal research design for greaterconfidence in results (Baba, Jamal, & Tourigny,1998).

As mentioned previously, job burnout was notexamined among self-employed individuals indeveloped or developing economies, although ithas been studied extensively in other employmentsettings (Jamal, 2005; Maslach, 2003). Therefore,the findings of the present study are quite uniquein showing consistent differences in overallburnout, emotional exhaustion and lack ofaccomplishment between the self-employed andthe organizationally employed in a developed andin a developing country. In general, our resultstend to be somewhat supportive of the role accu-mulation model when applied to employmentstatus (Jamal & Badawi, 1995; Sieber, 1974). Themodel asserts that the sum of positive experiencesin a role outweighs the negative experiences(cost). Moreover, it has been suggested that thepositive aspect of a work role may actuallyincrease energy levels (a spill-over effect) whenthere is a high demand for personal energy neededin the job (Jamal & Mitchell, 1980; Naughton,

1987; Rodgers & Rodgers, 1989). In the presentstudy, the self-employed put 30 per cent moretime at work in an average workweek in Canadaand 40 per cent more time at work in an averageworkweek in Pakistan, as compared with theorganizationally employed. A recent study of theself-employed among members of a visible minor-ity in North America also reported that the self-employed put in 25 per cent more time at workper week than did salaried employees (Jamal &Badawi, 1995). Eden (1975) also found that theself-employed spent around 20 per cent moretime at work per week than organizationallyemployed people in a sample of nationally col-lected data regarding working conditions in theUnited States.

The findings of higher turnover intentionamong the self-employed as compared with theorganizationally employed in Canada and Pakistan may be explained in terms of the timeframe of data collection. Data in both countrieswere collected after the 9/11 unfortunate event. It is suggested by some that the 9/11 aftermathresulted in economic recession, downsizing,massive lay-offs and general business insecurity inmany countries, which might have pushed manypeople into self-employment without properpreparation and motivation. In general, motiva-tion encourages people to exert more energy in their activities voluntarily. Perhaps an understanding of pull and push factors in self-employment might be quite important. If the self-employment was the result of economic push inthe sense that nothing else was available, thenself-employment might not be a relatively satisfy-ing or permanent solution. On the contrary, ifindividuals were pulled into self-employmentbecause of their personal interest and liking, thenself-employment might be a relatively stableoption in the sense that individuals would be less likely to leave self-employment. Futureresearchers should try to examine the role of pull and push factors in self-employment in order to better understand the dynamics of self-employment.

In sum, the present study found differencesbetween self-employed and organizationallyemployed individuals in Canada and Pakistan interms of overall burnout, emotional exhaustion,lack of accomplishment, turnover intention andnon-work satisfaction. Perhaps, these findings areunique as they are derived from employees in adeveloped and in a developing country. Ingeneral, the present study discovered more simi-

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larities than differences among Canadian andPakistani employees. Our results, along with theresults of a few available studies on similar topics,should be of interest to practising managers andresearchers because they suggest that the worldsof work of the self-employed and the organiza-tionally employed are sufficiently different tojustify further research. As the process of global-ization becomes more intense in the coming years,it becomes more important to conduct this typeof research with a cross-cultural perspective (Al-Roubaie, 2002).

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by grants from the Social Sci-ences Research Council of Canada (410-99-0203; S00802, 2003-2006) and Fonds pour la formation dechercheurs de l’aide à la recherche (99-ER-0506) fromthe Province of Quebec, Canada. The author acknowl-edges the cooperation and help of Dr Amer Al-Roubaie, Dr Muhammad Anwar and the manyresearch assistants in data collection and analysis.Requests for reprints should be made to Dr Muham-mad Jamal, Department of Management, John MolsonSchool of Business, Concordia University, Montreal,Quebec, Canada H3G 1M8.

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