B U I L D I N G T Y P E B A S I C S F O R

researchlaboratories

researchlaboratories

Other titles in theBUILDING TYPE BASICS

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HEALTHCARE FACILITIESMichael Bobrow and Julia Thomas; Thomas Payette;

Ronald Skaggs; Richard Kobus

ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLSBradford Perkins

MUSEUMSArthur Rosenblatt

HOSPITALITY FACILITIESBrian McDonough; John Hill and Robert Glazier;

Winford “Buck” Lindsay; Thomas Sykes

researchlaboratories

B U I L D I N G T Y P E B A S I C S F O R

researchlaboratoriesStephen A. Kliment, Series Founder and Editor

DANIEL WATCHPerkins & Will

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

New York, Chichester, Weinheim, Brisbane, Singapore, Toronto

Dedicated to the researchers, administrators, facility engineers, fellowarchitects, and engineers who strive each day to create better research

environments, and thus contribute to new scientific discoveries that improve the quality of all our lives

Copyright ©2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise,except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, withouteither the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of theappropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should beaddressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York,NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-mail: PERMREQ @ WILEY.COM.

This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to thesubject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged inrendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, theservices of a competent professional person should be sought

This title is also available in print as ISBN 0-471-39236-7. Some content that may appear in the print version of this book may not be available in this electronic edition.

For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.Wiley.com

v

CONTENTS

Editor’s Preface, Stephen A. Kliment vii

Preface ix

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction 1

1. A New Design Model 3

Social Buildings for Team-Based Research 3

“Open” Versus “Closed” Labs 9

Flexibility 11

Designing for Technology 20

Sustainability 27

Science Parks 33

2. Laboratory Types 37

Private-Sector Labs 37

Government Labs 53

Academic Labs 68

3. Architectural Design Issues 101

The Programming, Design, and Construction Process 101

General Architectural Design Issues 105

The Lab Module—Basis for Laboratory Design 106

Site Planning 110

Exterior Image 110

Building Massing 124

Interior Image 125

Adjacencies 141

Interior Finishes 151

Acoustical Issues 152

Ergonomics 156

vi

CONTENTS

Fume Hoods 157

Safety, Security, and Regulatory Considerations 160

Wayfinding, Signage, and Graphics 172

Specialized Lab Areas 177

Specialized Equipment and Equipment Spaces 182

Vivarium Facilities 185

4. Engineering Design Issues 199

Structural Systems 199

Mechanical Systems—General Design Issues 204

Fume Hoods—Mechanical System Design Issues 216

Electrical Systems 221

Lighting Design 224

Telephone/Data System 228

Information Technology 229

Closets 230

Audiovisual Engineering for Presentation Rooms 230

Plumbing Systems 233

Commissioning 240

Renovation/Restoration/Adaptive Reuse 240

Faculty Management Issues 242

5. Cost Guidelines 245

Project Costs 245

Affordability/Value Engineering 248

Project Delivery Options 255

Trends in Project Financing 256

Summary of Cost Issues 256

Appendix: The Laboratories for the 21st Century Initiative 257

Bibliography and References 261

Index 263

vii

This book on laboratory facilities is another in Wiley’s “Building Type Basics” series.It is not a coffee-table book lavish with color photography but meager in usablecontent. Rather, it contains the kind of essential information to which architects,consultants, and their clients need ready access, especially in the crucial early phasesof a project. As architectural practice becomes more generalized and firms pursuecommissions in an expanding range of building types, the books in the series providea convenient, hands-on source of such basic information.

Like the others in the series, this volume is tightly organized for ease of use. Theheart of the book is a set of twenty questions most frequently asked about a buildingtype in the early stages of its design. These cover such concerns as programming andpredesign, project process and management, design concerns unique to the type, andsite planning. Also included are building code and ADA matters, engineering systems,energy and environmental challenges, as well as special equipment, interior design andmaterials issues, lighting and acoustic concerns, wayfinding, and renovation/upgrading. The final questions take up international challenges, operation andmaintenance, and cost and feasibility concerns.

To explore any of the twenty questions, start with the listing on the endpapers (insidethe front and back covers), locate the category you want, and turn to the pagesreferenced.

This book is designed to serve three types of user: architects; their engineering andother consultants; and private, government, and academic bodies planning a laboratoryand eager to acquaint themselves with the issues before interviewing and selecting anarchitect. Architecture students will also find the volume useful in getting a head starton a studio problem in this building type.

Laboratory design is crossing a divide marking permanent changes in the spaceprogram, form, and use of these facilities. As author Daniel Watch points out, threeconditions are driving laboratory design:

• The global marketplace. A global research marketplace is emerging, with theUnited States and many other nations investing huge sums in research intended toadvance the state of the art in science and technology and to make them morecompetitive. The proliferation of global alliances between the private and publicsectors will spur the design and construction of facilities ranging from singlebuildings to great research parks.

• Research by team. The era of the isolated researcher burning midnight oil inpursuit of a scientific grail has been replaced by that of scientists and engineers in academe, government, or private industry working in teams, and often in mega-alliances that cross institutional boundaries. The team concept has stood facilitiesdesign on its head, as laboratory structures now must provide attractive locationsthroughout the building for researchers to gather and talk. Who knows whatscientific breakthroughs are spawned in such informal settings?

EDITOR’S PREFACESTEPHEN A. KLIMENT, Series Founder and Editor

viii

• Applied computer technology. New software is able to crunch huge numbers at unheard-of speeds, communicate documents across any distance in a fewseconds, and create real-time forums for researchers in far distant parts of theworld. The implications for laboratory design are immense, demanding access to electronic communications systems throughout the building. The arrival of thewireless web may well simplify these systems, but at this writing a number ofuncertainties concerning this emerging technology keeps wired systems at theforefront of design.

A manifest outcome of these trends is the need to design flexibility into lab facilities.While they cost more to construct than single-purpose laboratories, flexible labs areproving themselves more economical over the long run. Consequently, designs willincreasingly be oriented not to a single specialty but to a range of disciplines. Ageneral laboratory may be outfitted to afford a research team all available resources,including even pilot manufacturing facilities.

Dan Watch has organized his material into five chapters. Chapter 1 describes the newlaboratory design model as it emerges from the various influences just described.Chapter 2 defines the three main laboratory categories, according to type of owner,operator, and objective—namely, private industry, academe, and government. Thischapter includes space guidelines. Chapters 3 and 4 cover architectural andengineering design issues, respectively. Chapter 3 focuses especially on planning the labmodule, key adjacencies, casework, ergonomics, fume hoods, and security. Chapter 4deals with the four main engineering systems—structure, mechanical, electrical,plumbing—along with communications and renovation. Chapter 5 offers useful costguidelines.

I hope this book serves you well—as guide, reference, and inspiration.

EDITOR’S PREFACE

ix

In my early years as an architect, I worked on a wide variety of buildings, includingcustom houses, multifamily housing, high-rise condominiums, large transportationprojects, urban design and city planning projects, a football stadium, corporate officebuildings, medical office buildings, and several design competitions. In 1990, when Iwas employed by the Philadelphia firm of KlingLindquist, I had the opportunity towork on my first laboratory project, for Glaxo in Stevenage, England. The program was1.8 million GSF for phase 1 alone. It was a wonderful project and a valuable experience.The people at Glaxo taught me the importance of designing high-quality laboratories.After that project, I knew I wanted to design more laboratories, because of thecomplexity of the work, because of the opportunity to work with researchers, and, notleast, because there was a construction boom in laboratory facilities.

From then on, each time I went to a new city, I spent time visiting academic andcorporate labs. I even spent portions of my vacation touring lab facilities. On a fewoccasions, I found myself using a frequent flyer ticket to fly across the country over aweekend to study a lab project that had just been published. I ended up seeing quite afew labs, all over the United States. The more I saw, the more I understood the widerange of labs and the wider range of design solutions. I began writing down the lessonsI'd learned, photographing the buildings, and developing an extensive library ofresources.

Now I have the opportunity to share my research with clients and with otherarchitects. I find myself giving clients and architects tours of labs to show them whatworks well and to get them in the habit of doing their own research. It is especiallyenjoyable to take clients on site visits. If a client asks me a question for which I do nothave a complete answer, I take time to do the research and find the answer. Finding theanswers to questions that clients and other architects and engineers have asked me is alarge part of the genesis of this book.

As I work on each project today, I focus on creating new and unique solutions that areappropriate for the researchers, administrators, facility engineers, and architectural andengineering design team that I am working with. When I put the plans and elevations ofeach project that I have been responsible for on the wall, I am pleased to see that no twoare alike. I am always asking myself, the client, and the design team to be creative and tothink “outside the box” to develop quality laboratory environments with the money andprogram available. I will continue to ask others what is working well in their lab facilities,and I hope people will continue to be gracious and share their knowledge with me.

The sources of information for this book include the projects I have completed whileemployed by Perkins & Will and other architectural firms, as well as resource books,conferences, and the lessons I have learned from touring more than 150 lab facilitiesover the past five years. The photos, drawings, and other images in the book—whichclarify and reinforce key issues throughout—come from approximately 50 researchlaboratory projects in the United States (about half the states are represented in theprojects illustrated here), United Kingdom, South Korea, and China.

PREFACEDANIEL WATCH

xi

I would like to thank the hundreds of researchers, administrators, facility engineers,and clients who have shared with me the lessons they have learned. I appreciate theircomments, suggestions, and time. Touring approximately 150 research buildings in the last five years and talking with these experts has helped me to understand the manyoptions and details of laboratory facility design.

I am thankful to those who have given me permission to show photographs ordrawings of their projects.

I am deeply indebted to several experts who have coauthored portions of this book:John Nelson, CEO of Affiliated Engineers, Inc. (mechanical, electrical, and plumbing);Philip Lofgren, Director of Communication Technologies for ShooshanianEngineering Associates, Inc. (information technology); Mike Fletcher of Walter P.Moore (structural); Steven Sharlach and Bevan Suits, signage and graphic designers atPerkins & Will; Richard Price, Sustainable Design at Perkins & Will; Joseph Wagner,Private Sector Labs at Perkins & Will.

I would like to thank Rick Johnson and Fisher Hamilton for information, drawings,and illustrations on the latest in casework design.

I wish to express my appreciation to the following people at Perkins & Will for theirproduction, graphic, and moral support: Alice Angus, Deepa Tolat, Gary McNay,Kimberly Polkinhorn, Lance Kirby, Marcy Snyder, and Reese Frago.

I would also like to thank my wife, Terrie, and daughters, Megan and Kalie, for theirpatience and understanding during the time I spent putting this book together.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Early labs, such as Thomas Edison’s facility in Fort Myers, Florida, were simple workareas, with basic casework and straightforward operational procedures. Technology waslimited, and there was little equipment to support the research.

The first major shift in laboratory design in the 1960s, with the development ofinterstitial space at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California. Jonas Salk led the effort tocreate the first laboratory facility that encouraged change, allowing scientists to designspaces that were appropriate for their research.

INTRODUCTION

1

� Thomas Edison’s chemicalresearch laboratory, FortMyers, Florida, 1928.

� The development ofinterstitial space. The SalkInstitute and Institute ofBiological Studies, La Jolla,California. Louis I. Kahn,architect.

2

We are now witnessing the next major shift in laboratory design. The three keydrivers of this change are the development of the competitive global marketplace, themove toward team-based research, and the use of computer technology to acceleratethe research process.

The global marketplace is changing the face of research. Many countries, includingthe United States, are investing in financial and human resources for science andtechnology (S&T), recognizing that such investment is the essential underpinning forsocial and economic well-being. Individual scientists and engineers, industrial firms,and academic institutions are taking advantage of the increasingly internationalcharacter of S&T, as witnessed by the enhanced international mobility of the S&Tworkforce, the international coauthorship of scientific publications, the development of international industrial alliances, and the global flow of technological know-how.The global marketplace has spurred the merger and consolidation of several largeresearch companies. Research parks are being constructed and growing at a rapid pacebecause of the partnering of the private and public sectors.

Major strides are increasingly likely to be made by research teams, both domestic andinternational, rather than by individuals. The globalization of science is reflected in apervasive trend in scientific publishing—greater and greater collaboration. In 1995, halfthe articles in the science journals had multiple authors, and almost 30 percent of theseinvolved international collaboration. Teamwork is necessary for sharing informationefficiently and speeding up the discovery process. Partnering and the sharing of resourcesare becoming the norm. Less time is being spent in the lab, and more in meetings, bothface-to-face and teleconferenced. Researchers are requiring breakout areas within theirlab areas to encourage spontaneous as well as planned work sessions for exchanginginformation and ideas. In addition, lab teams have to be able to change their work spacesquickly and with little cost. Lab layouts are changing to allow for interactive research.Flexible furniture that incorporates the use of the computer, casework that can be easilymoved, and engineering systems that can be cost-effectively modified are becoming moreimportant to the long-term success of a research facility.

As in any business today, the computer is a way of life and a necessity in thelaboratory. The marketplace is demanding more “discoveries” in less time than everbefore, and companies are in heavy competition to be first with a new discovery.Computer technology is speeding up the entire research process, from discovery tomarket. Computers are encouraging researchers to reinvent their laboratoryenvironments.

The burgeoning use of computers in research means that more dry labs—fitted with mobile casework for stacking computer hardware and research instruments—arerequired. The demand for and the production of more discoveries creates the need toupgrade existing labs, construct new laboratory facilities, and provide supportfunctions such as pilot plants and manufacturing facilities.

These three factors—the global marketplace, team-based research, and the increasinguse of computers—provide the context for the development of a new laboratorymodel, and it is to that subject that we first turn our attention, in chapter 1.

INTRODUCTION

A new model of laboratory design isemerging—one that creates labenvironments that are responsive topresent needs and capable ofaccommodating future demands. Severalkey needs are driving the developmentof this model:

• The need to create “social buildings”that foster interaction and team-basedresearch

• The need to achieve an appropriatebalance between “open" and “closed" labs

• The need for flexibility toaccommodate change

• The need to design for technology

• The need for environmentalsustainability

• The need, in some cases, to developscience parks to facilitate partnershipsbetween government, private-sectorindustry, and academia

In the fall of 1998, the American Societyof Interior Designers (ASID) completed asurvey that identified five key principlesfor creating a productive workplace.Although these principles are applicable toworkplaces in general, all make sense asbases for good laboratory design. Theseprinciples translate into the followingimperatives for design and management:

• Improve people's performance bycreating a team atmosphere in whichcommunication and interaction arefacilitated.

• View the designed environment as atool rather than just anotherexpenditure. Provide adequate accessto resources, including team membersand equipment. Accommodate

ergonomic needs, such as comfortableseating and flexible workstations.Create an inviting, pleasant officeatmosphere. Reduce distractions anddisruptions that hinder employeeconcentration by designingacoustically sound work environmentsthat provide appropriate levels ofprivacy.

• Redesign work processes and thephysical environment to improveworkflow within workstations andthroughout the office building.Implement process efficiencies andreduce disruptions in workflow.

• Update and maintain technology sothat employees work at their highestefficiency. Supply the right tools—computers, software, and otherappropriate equipment. Makepurchasing and planning decisionswith an eye to accommodating futureneeds.

• Offer training and educationopportunities. Maintain adequatesupport staff levels. Providecompetitive salaries, bonuses, rewards,and other incentives. Adopt flexiblepolicies, such as flextime andtelecommuting.

SOCIAL BUILDINGS FOR TEAM-BASED RESEARCHDespite popular images of scientiststoiling in isolation, modern science isan intensely social activity. The mostproductive and successful scientists areintimately familiar with both thesubstance and style of their colleagues’work. They display an astonishing

CHAPTER 1

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

3

capacity to adopt new researchapproaches and tools as quickly as theybecome available. Thus, sciencefunctions best when it is supported byarchitecture that facilitates bothstructured and informal interaction,flexible use of space, and sharing ofresources.

A “social building” fosters interactionamong the people who work there. Withthe advent of a new research model thatdeemphasizes departmental divisions andstresses the pursuit of research projects byteams (which change as projects change),

lab designers must pay increased attentionto the social aspects of laboratorybuildings.

Meeting PlacesA critical consideration in designing suchan environment is to establish places—such as break rooms, meeting rooms,and atrium spaces—where people cancongregate outside their labs to talk withone another. Even stairways—fire stairsor stairs off an atrium, with built-inwindow seats—can provide opportunitiesfor people to meet and exchange ideas.

4

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

� Stair landings offeropportunities for people tointeract. Boyer Center forMolecular Medicine, YaleUniversity, New Haven,Connecticut. Cesar Pelli &Associates, architect.

Top of stair as loungearea. Stevenson CenterComplex ChemistryBuilding, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee. PayetteAssociates, Inc., architect.

�

Designers must look for suchopportunities in public spaces, makingoptimal use of every square foot of thebuilding.

In designing meeting spaces—whetherformal or informal—care should betaken to use a variety of colors andmaterials that are pleasing to the eye.Studies have shown the use of color tocreate interior spaces can support thehealth and well-being of all who liveand work in them. Daylighting, anequally important consideration, is dealtwith in the section on sustainability.

The sharing of equipment and spacecan create further opportunities forpeople to meet each other and exchangeinformation. Recognizing this, designerscan plan instrument rooms to act as crosscorridors, saving space and money as wellas encouraging researchers to shareequipment. Common support spaces,such as cold rooms, glassware storage,and chemical storage, can be situated in a central location in the building or oneach floor, and alcoves can be created forice machines and deionized water.Planning central locations for lab support

Social Buildings for Team-Based Research

5

Properly executed,exposed piping reads as“high-tech.” ChemistryAddition, University ofVirginia, Charlottesville.Ellensweig Associates, Inc.,architect.

� A variety of colors andmaterials is pleasing to theeye. Boyer Center forMolecular Medicine, YaleUniversity, New Haven,Connecticut. Cesar Pelli &Associates, architect.

�

areas can help achieve a more socialbuilding as well as a more affordabledesign.

In academic laboratories, socialopportunities can be provided by pre-function areas leading into large lecturehalls, outdoor spaces on campus, breakrooms, mailbox and locker areas, “livingrooms” near faculty offices, studentlounges, atriums, large-volume spaces,and along corridors—all areas wherestudents and faculty might meet outsidethe classroom to discuss new ideas.

Team-Based LabsThe basic lab, oriented to the individualresearcher, is becoming increasingly lessimportant. Collaborative research requiresteams of scientists with varying expertise,who together form interdisciplinaryresearch units. As data are sharedthroughout the team and with otherteams, and as networks connect peopleand organizations around the world,designers are organizing space in newways. Laboratory designers can supportcollaborative research by:• Creating flexible engineering systems

and casework that encourage research

6

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

� Tile patterns add visualinterest. Stevenson CenterComplex ChemistryBuilding, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee. PayetteAssociates, Inc., architect.

Shared equipment roomspromote both a socialbuilding and efficient use ofresources. Storm EyeInstitute, Medical Universityof South Carolina. LS3PArchitects, Ltd.

� Ice machine located incommon area increasesopportunities for interaction.Stevenson Center ComplexChemistry Building,Vanderbilt University,Nashville, Tennessee.Payette Associates, Inc.,architect.

�� Large gathering spacesare needed for specialevents and otherwise serveto welcome users into thebuilding. Vernal G. Riffe, Jr.,Building, Ohio StateUniversity, Columbus.Perkins & Will, architect.

�

Social Buildings for Team-Based Research

7

teams to alter their spaces to meettheir needs

• Designing offices and write-up areasas places where people can work inteams

• Creating research centers that areteam-based

• Creating all the space necessary forresearch team members to operateproperly near each other

• Minimizing or eliminating spaces thatare identified with a particulardepartment

• Establishing clearly definedcirculation patterns

Today, design strongly influences anorganization's ability to recruit and retain

8

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

� New constructioncreates a stronggateway to a campusand well-definedexterior spaces thatencourage informalinteractions. Chemistryand Life SciencesBuilding, University of Illinois, Urbana.Perkins & Will,architect.

� Seating at entry.McDonald MedicalResearch Center,University of Californiaat Los Angeles,California. VenturiScott Brown withPayette Associates,Inc., architects.

top talent. In an ever more competitiveenvironment, an organization looking torecruit research staff must provide morethan just a laboratory to work in.Candidates will want to know who theircoworkers will be, how they will worktogether, and how the team will besupported. And most researchers arelooking for laboratory environments thataccommodate and encourage interactive,interdisciplinary approaches to research.

“OPEN” VERSUS “CLOSED” LABSAn increasing number of researchinstitutions are creating "open" labs tosupport team-based work. The open labconcept is significantly different fromthat of the “closed” lab of the past, whichwas based on accommodating theindividual principal investigator. In openlabs, researchers share not only the spaceitself but also equipment, bench space,and support staff. The open lab formatfacilitates communication betweenscientists and makes the space more easilyadaptable for future needs. A wide varietyof labs—from wet biology and chemistrylabs, to engineering labs, to dry computer

science facilities—are now beingdesigned as open labs. A conceptual floorplan of an open lab is shown on page 10.

Most laboratory facilities built ordesigned since the mid-1990s possesssome type of open lab, and the trend isevident in government, private-sector, andacademic labs. The National Institutes ofHealth, in Bethesda, Maryland, and theCenters for Disease Control, in Atlanta,Georgia, emphasize open labs in theirbiological safety laboratories. An example

“Open” versus “Closed” Labs

9

� Mailrooms and lockers arealso common areas thatprovide for casualencounters. StevensonCenter Complex ChemistryBuilding, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee. PayetteAssociates, Inc., architect.

� Break-out rooms allowresearchers to meet outsidetheir labs. BiochemistryBuilding, University ofWisconsin, Madison. Flad & Associates, Inc., architect.

from the private sector is provided byBiogen, where open labs are designed forthe drug development process. At Biogen,in Cambridge, Massachusetts, some openlabs support the drug developmentprocess, while others (the Bio6 and Bio8buildings) primarily support discoveryresearch. Academic laboratory facilities arecombining smaller labs to create largerspaces that accommodate interdisciplinaryteams and that permit lectures andresearch to occur in the same room.

There can be two or more open labs ona floor, encouraging multiple teams to

focus on separate research projects. Thearchitectural and engineering systemsshould be designed to affordablyaccommodate multiple floor plans thatcan easily be changed according to theresearch teams’ needs.

There is still a need for closed labs forspecific kinds of research or for certainequipment. Nuclear magnetic resonance(NMR) equipment, electron microscopes,tissue culture labs, darkrooms, and glasswashing are examples of equipment andactivities that must be housed in separate,dedicated spaces.

Moreover, some researchers find itdifficult or unacceptable to work in a labthat is open to everyone. They may needsome dedicated space for specific researchin an individual closed lab. In some cases,individual closed labs can directly access alarger, shared open lab. When a researcherrequires a separate space, an individualclosed lab can meet his or her needs;when it is necessary and beneficial towork as a team, the main open lab isused. Equipment and bench space can be shared in the large open lab, therebyhelping to reduce the cost of research.The diagrams on the following pages

10

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

� New research labsallow the central space to be fitted out by theresearcher with floor-mounted equipment,computers, and mobilecasework. TechnologyEnhanced LearningCenter, State University ofWest Georgia, Carrolton.Perkins & Will, architect.

HIGHHAZARD

LOWHAZARD

hoodalcoves

bench

write-uparea

� One hundred percentopen lab.

illustrate a combination of open andclosed labs. This concept can be takenfurther to create a lab module that allowsglass walls to be located almost anywhere.The glass walls allow people to see eachother easily while also having theirindividual spaces.

The old approach of providing closedlabs throughout a facility will still benecessary for some facilities.

FLEXIBILITYMaximizing flexibility has always been akey concern in designing or renovating a laboratory building, but this has neverbeen more true than today, whencompetitive pressures and changingresearch concepts require organizations tobe as flexible as possible. Flexibility canmean several things, including the abilityto expand easily, to readily accommodatereconfigurations and other changes, andto permit a variety of uses.

Flexibility for ChurnWhen a research facility and/or itslaboratories are designed for flexibility,

the problem of churn can be addressed byfacility managers in a timely, cost-effective manner. Churn can beaccommodated in several different ways.

If churn simply entails moving peoplefrom one lab to another—keeping theexisting casework and modifying only theequipment—it can usually beaccommodated inexpensively because therenovation requirements are oftenminimal. The facility manager at the 3MResearch Complex in Austin, Texas,explained that although his facility has achurn rate of almost 35 percent each year,most of that churn simply involvesmoving researchers and equipment, withvery little change to the casework or walls.

Sometimes churn requires the renovationof a laboratory within the existing walls.Casework is modified, engineering servicesare changed, and equipment is relocated.Some institutions may, on average, changeup to 10 percent of their space in this wayeach year. The photo on page 11 illustratesan open lab that is designed to allow theresearch team to bring in its own caseworkand equipment and locate these items as

� Fifty percent open–fiftypercent closed lab.

Flexibility

11

HIGHHAZARD

LOWHAZARD

closedlabs

openlabs

team/ interactionarea

needed. The engineering services areprovided from the ceiling and along thewalls.

Sometimes, however, churn necessitatesthe demolition and reconstruction ofwalls and engineering systems. Basically,an area of the building is emptied and thespace is reconstructed. This strategy,requiring significant construction and a staging area to relocate people andequipment, is usually expensive and isimplemented less often than the simplerapproaches described above.

Finally, churn, combined with changesin the kind of research being conductedand the ways in which research isperformed, may require the constructionof a new facility and the relocation ofpeople and equipment to that location.This, obviously, is the most expensive

option of all. Maximizing flexibilitymeans reducing the chance thatsignificant renovation or newconstruction will be needed toaccommodate change.

Flexible Engineering SystemsFlexible engineering services—supplyand exhaust air, water, electricity,voice/data, natural gas, vacuumsystems—are extremely important tomost labs. Labs must have easyconnects/disconnects at the walls andceiling to allow for fast, affordablehookups of equipment. The engineeringsystems may need to be designed toenable fume hoods to be removed oradded, to allow the space to be changedfrom a lab environment to an office andthen back again, or to allow maintenance

� Open/closed lab.

� Closed lab.

12

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

HIGHHAZARD

LOWHAZARD

closed labs

openlabs

closedlabs

closed labs

LAB SUPPORTBUILDING AND

CORRIDOR

CORRIDOR

of the controls outside the lab.From the start, mechanical systems need

to be designed for a maximum number offume hoods in the building. Ductworkcan be sized to allow for change andvertical exhaust risers provided for futurefume hoods in the initial construction.When a hood is required, the duct cansimply be run from the hood to theinstalled vertical riser. When a fumehood is added or deleted, the mechanicalsystems will need to be rebalanced toefficiently accommodate the numbers ofhoods in use and the air changesnecessary through each room. Thededicated individual risers are primarilyused for the hoods that exhaust specialchemicals (such as radioactive andperchloric fumes) that cannot be mixedinto the main laboratory exhaust system.

Installing vertical risers during initialconstruction takes little time andapproximately a one-third the cost ofretrofiting and adding vertical risers later.

Engineering systems should be designedto service initial demands and at least anadditional 25 percent for anticipated

� Easy connection anddisconnection ofengineering services allowsfor ready reconfiguration ofthe lab. Courtesy FisherHamilton.

� An open lab allows theresearch team to positioncasework and equipmentfor each project. College ofMedicine, NorthwesternUniversity, Evanston, Illinois.Perkins & Will, architect.

Flexibility

13

future programs. Space should be allowedin utility corridors, ceilings, and verticalchases for future heating, ventilation, andair conditioning (HVAC), plumbing, andelectrical needs. Service shutoff valvesshould be easily accessible, located in abox in the wall at the entry to the lab orin the ceiling at the entry. All pipes,valves, and clean-outs should be clearlylabeled to identify the contents, pressure,and temperature. (Engineering systemsare discussed in much greater detail inchapter 4.)

Flexible Lab InteriorsIn the past, many labs were fitted with asmuch fixed bench space as possible. Today,

as the number of individual research labsdeclines and that of team-based labsgrows, this is no longer the best approach.Casework has to be moveable to meet ateam’s changing needs.

Equipment zonesIt typically takes about three years for alab to be designed and built. During thistime, an organization's research needsmay change or the people doing theresearch may leave and be replaced byothers. In either case, there is a goodchance that the purpose of the lab willchange. If the entire lab is fitted with newcasework, the casework may have to bechanged before anyone occupies the newlaboratory.

To minimize this problem, equipmentzones should be created in the initialdesign. An equipment zone is an area thatcan be fitted with equipment, movablefurniture, fixed casework, or acombination of any of these. Equipmentzones are usually fitted out when theresearch team moves into the lab—thatis, when the team knows exactly whatwill be needed to do the work. Thecreation of equipment zones thataccommodate change easily is a cost-effective design opportunity. The lab canbe generic, with 50 percent fixedcasework initially and the rest of the labfitted out later. The fixed casework isusually located on the outside wall, withislands defined as equipment zones. Itmay also be helpful to locate 3 ft to 6 ftequipment zones on the outside walls toaccommodate cylinders near fume hoodsand refrigerators at the perimeter.

Generic labsWhen a laboratory facility is designedgenerically, most of the labs are the same

� Laying out caseworkwithin an equipment zone.Colored floor tiles identifythe zones for equipment andcasework.

14

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

size and are outfitted with the same basicengineering services and casework.Generic labs are a sensible option when itis not known who will occupy the spaceor what specific type of research will beconducted there. Generic lab design mayalso make sense from an administrativestandpoint, since each team or researcheris given the same basic amenities. Thebest generic labs have some flexibilitybuilt in and can be readily modified forthe installation of equipment or forchanges to the engineering services orcasework. The following are threepossibilities among many variations:• 100 percent fixed casework.

• 50 percent fixed casework, 50 percentopen area, allowing researchers tobring in tables, equipment, carts, ormore casework to fit out their lab.

• 33 percent sit-down casework, 33percent stand-up casework, with therest of the space open. The sit-downcasework is for work areas, computerimaging, and other types of researchthat require the researcher to besitting down for long periods of time.

Mobile caseworkAnother benefit of creating equipmentzones is that the initial budget forcasework and construction can bereduced significantly. Casework canaccount for 10 percent or more of aconstruction budget. But, by purchasingonly what is initially needed, a facility canreduce casework costs to as little as 6 to 8percent of the overall budget. Of course,the money saved will have to be spentlater, when mobile casework is purchased.But it should be remembered that mobilecasework and equipment may be fundedthrough other budgets or grants. This is a

very important consideration for manynew lab projects where budgets arelimited and where the specific researchthat will be undertaken, and who will beusing the labs, will not be determineduntil construction is completed.Purchasing mobile casework will create aninventory of pieces that can be movedfrom one lab to another.

Technological advances allow for moreresearch procedures to be automated. Inthe past equipment was often squeezedinto an existing lab setup; today’s labsmust be designed to accept the neededequipment easily. There are several typesof movable casework to consider. Labtables with adjustable legs, which allowfor flexibility in height, can meet therequirements of the Americans withDisabilities Act (ADA) and beergonomically correct for sit-down andstand-up bench work. Storage cabinetsthat are 7 ft tall allow a large volume of space for storage and can be veryaffordable, compared to the cost ofmultiple base cabinets. Mobile write-upstations can be moved into the labwhenever sit-down space is required fordata collection.

Mobile carts make excellent equipmentstorage units. Often used in research labsas computer workstations, mobile cartsallow computer hardware to be stackedand then moved to equipment stations asneeded. Data ports are also locatedadjacent to electrical outlets along thecasework. Instrument cart assemblies aredesigned to allow for the sharing ofinstruments between labs. Carts aretypically designed to fit through a 3 ftwide doorway and are equipped withlevelers and castors. Many mobile cartsare load tested to support 2,000 lb.Mobile carts can be designed with 1 in.

Flexibility

15

vertical slots to support adjustableshelving. The depth of the shelving canvary to allow efficient stacking ofequipment and supplies.

Mobile base cabinets are constructedwith a number of drawer and doorconfigurations and are equipped with ananti-tipping counterweight. The drawerunits can be equipped with locks. Thetypical height of mobile cabinets is 29in., which allows them to be locatedbelow most sit-down benches. Also,mobile tables are now available forrobotic analyzers. The tables are designedto support 800 lb. A mobile cabinet canalso be designed to incorporate acomputer cabinet, which can be hookedup to the robotic analyzers. Mobilecomputer carts incorporate a pulloutshelf for the server and a pullout tray forthe keyboard in front of the monitor.Wire management is designed as a part ofthe cart.

16

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

� Mobile cart forinstruments. Courtesy FisherHamilton.

� Mobile carts forequipment storage.Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

Using the full volume of the lab spaceMany labs today are equipment intensiveand require as much bench space aspossible. Using the full volume of thelab space to stack equipment andsupplies can be very helpful and cost-effective. Mobile carts, as mentionedearlier, can be used to stack computerhardware as well as other lab equipment.Overhead cabinets allow for storageabove the bench, making good use ofthe volume of a space. Flexibility canalso be addressed with adjustableshelving instead of cabinets. Adjustableshelving allows the researcher to use thenumber of shelves required, at the heightand spacing necessary. If tall equipmentis set on the bench, the shelving can betaken down to allow space for theequipment. The bottom shelf should be19 in. to 20 in. above the benchtop andshould stop 18 in. below the ceiling topermit appropriate coverage by thesprinkler system.

Flexible partitionsFlexible partitions, which can be takendown and put back up in anotherlocation, allow laboratory spaces to beconfigured in a variety of sizes. Theaccordion wall systems used in the pastwere flimsy and had acoustical problems.Today, manufacturers are producing wallsystems that are very sturdy and avoidmany of the acoustical problems.Movable walls are being developed thatcan accommodate the engineeringservices as well as the casework in amodular design. The system can be asolid, full-height wall with open shelvingor overhead cabinets above the bench, ora low wall hidden behind the basecabinets. It can have slotted verticalstandards to provide an adjustable systemfor the casework components. The wallsystem can support electrical andcommunications wiring, gas distributionsystems, plumbing, and snorkel exhausts.Although the first cost of mobile walls are

� Monitor arm. CourtesyFisher Hamilton.

Flexibility

17

18

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

� Movable walls.Courtesy FisherHamilton.

higher than those of dry walls, a costbenefit should be realized with the firstrenovation and/or reconfiguration.

Overhead service carriersAn overhead service carrier is hung fromthe underside of the structural floorsystem. The utility services are run abovethe ceiling, where they are connected tothe overhead service carrier. Theseservices should have quick connect anddisconnect features for easy hookups tothe overhead service carriers. Overheadservice carriers come in standard widthsand accommodate electrical andcommunication outlets, light fixtures,service fixtures for process piping, andexhaust snorkels.

Docking stationsFloor-mounted docking stations caninclude all utility feeds and a sink.Ceiling-mounted docking unitsincorporate all utilities. An overheadservice carriage is similar to a dockingstation, minus the sink.

Wet and dry labsResearch facilities typically include bothwet and dry labs. Wet labs have sinks,piped gases, and, usually, fume hoods.They require chemical-resistantcountertops and 100 percent outside air,and are outfitted with some fixedcasework. Dry labs are usually computerintensive, with significant requirements forelectrical and data wiring. Their casework

� Overhead servicecarriers. TechnologyEnhanced Learning Center,State University of WestGeorgia, Carrolton. Perkins& Will, architect.

Flexibility

19

is mobile; they have adjustable shelvingand plastic laminate counters. Recirculatedair is sufficient. (Dry lab construction is, infact, very similar to office construction.) Akey difference is the substantial need forcooling in dry labs because of the heatgenerated by the equipment.

Wet labs cost approximately two timesmore than dry labs. A building can bezoned for wet labs and non-wet areas (drylabs, offices, meeting rooms, restrooms),thereby saving money in initialconstruction as well as long-termoperational costs. There is a trade-off,however. When a building is zoned in thisway, it will be very difficult and expensiveto change dry areas into wet labs later on.One option is to decide with the clienthow much space initially used for dryfunctions may eventually have to beconverted to wet labs. Most laboratoryfacilities do not need 100 percentflexibility, nor do most organizations havethe budget to pay for that degree offlexibility. The trick is to design for theappropriate amount of flexibility whilebalancing the initial and long-term costs.

DESIGNING FOR TECHNOLOGYTechnology plays an ever larger role inresearch and in the exchange of scientificinformation. To accommodateaudiovisual, communications, andcomputer technologies, today's labdesigners must• Create state-of-the-art conferencing,

education, and presentation center(s)to provide high-level, multi-use accessto advanced interactive computersystems.

• Establish a flexible, reliable, andaccessible voice/data networkinfrastructure that can readily respondto the rapid incorporation ofcomputers within the facility.

• Implement telecommunicationsdistribution design methods thatallow the network to be flexible,manageable, and expandable,providing the ability to adapt tochanging user and technologyenvironments to meet demands forincreased bandwidth or services.

• Ensure the efficient use oftelecommunications utility spaces andoptimize the ability to accommodatefuture changes in equipment and/orservices.

Presentation and Conferencing Spaces

TeleconferencingTeleconferencing allows companies to talkto one another as often as necessary. Itsuse is increasingly evident today, and thetechnology is becoming better. For mostcompanies, the typical conference roomof the future will have teleconferencingcapability—giving local participants thesense that they are in the same room astheir faraway counterparts and saving a

� Docking station.Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

20

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

tremendous amount of time and costonce used for travel.

Lecture areasFurniture for lecture areas shouldaccommodate information technology.The furniture should either be pre-wiredto allow a laptop to be plugged in orincorporate a raceway to accommodatewiring. Locate a front row of lights near amarker board to allow lights to wash overthe board and for zoning of differenttypes of fixtures to serve the differentactivities that will occur in the room.

Mobile Audiovisual EquipmentIn some instances, installation ofinstructional presentation systems inevery room may not be affordable. Inthese cases, with proper preparation andinfrastructure provision, transportablesystems can be used. A transportablesystem should have the audio, video, andcontrol equipment installed in a wheeled

equipment rack, with a video projectorinstalled on top of the rack. Thetransportable rack should have retractablecables for connecting the rack equipmentto a power source, to external mediasources (such as the campus CATVsystem, instructor’s computer, document

� Wet lab. DuPont,Wilmington, Delaware. The Hillier Group, architect.

� Dry lab. DuPont,Wilmington, Delaware. The Hillier Group, architect.

Designing for Technology

21

camera, etc.), and to equipmentcomponents installed in the room (e.g.,program playback speakers). Rackconnections should be provided inrecessed floor boxes at the speaker’s deskor presentation location. The floor boxshould have power, data, control, andaudio and video tie-line connections tothe rack floor box (to avoid having to laycables on the floor).

The total height of the transportablerack, with the projector installed on top,should not exceed 48 in. Care should betaken to maintain sight lines to the screenfor people seated in back of thetransportable rack.

Computer TechnologyA number of computer-relateddevelopments are now influencing

laboratory design:• Computer utilization in the lab is

increasing as the ability to researchwithin “virtual” modelingenvironments increases.

• Traditional experimentation is beingaugmented or replaced by computersimulations.

• The scope of information technologyis expanding to a global network as the speed of voice and datatransmissions improve and visualcommunication is enhanced.

Because of these developments,communication technologies must beconsidered early in the design process.Data, audio, visual, and computationalcapabilities should be integrated tofacilitate new analysis techniques.

� Auditorium seating.

Multimedia seating.

22

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

�

Furniture considerationsOne important change that has occurredin the design of research facilities is thatfurniture must be designed withcomputer use in mind. For example,furniture must accommodate the cablingnecessary for PCs or laptop computers.Tables should be modular so thatthey can be added to or rearrangedconsistently with the fixed casework andthe lab equipment. Ports and outletsshould be located to accommodatemultiple furniture layouts. Write-upstations should be at least 4 ft wide toallow for knee space and hardware underthe countertop.

Workstations should be 48 in. wide and30 in. deep, at a minimum. If a computerwill be shared, the workstation should, ata minimum, be 72 in. wide and 30 in.deep. In wet labs, computer keyboardsmust be placed away from spill areas,ideally in separate write-up areas. Laptopcomputers should be considered for theircompact size, mobility, and ease ofstorage. Electrical outlets must beaccessible for plugging in adapters.Designers should consider stackinghardware vertically on mobile carts.Laptops with voice-activated microphonesare being developed for use in fumehoods, where use of standard laptops cancreate safety hazards (or where laptopsmight be damaged by chemical spills).

Computer labs should provideflexibility, allowing faculty and studentsto create different teaching and learningenvironments.

Following are three options in computerfurniture:

1. Specialized equipment enclosures.

2. Computer hardware enclosures. Thereare hardware enclosures that are fully

ventilated and secure. Security forcomputers in a lab is a managementand design issue, and designers shouldconsider mobile cabinets withadjustable shelving that can be locked.

3. Monitor arms, server platforms, andkeyboard drawer solutions. Monitorarms are capable of holding up to 100lb and can support computer monitorsof up to 21 in. Mobile serverplatforms are designed with adjustableshelving to allow stacking of computerhardware. Keyboard platforms can beadjusted vertically and can bemounted under the work surface.

Designing for Technology

23

� Classroom seating.

Wireless technologyWireless information technology systemsare around the corner. Networks will takeon new meaning when high-speeduntethered communication becomes areality. Ironically, it is difficult todetermine how much high-speed cableshould be installed for “future-ready”computing, if indeed the future is to be wireless. Currently, there are manydifficult obstacles to overcome due tofrequency limitations that are regulatedby the Federal CommunicationsCommission (FCC) and other agencies.Today, just as 8Mbps (megabits persecond) wireless networks are beginningto emerge, most hard-wired networks aremigrating from 10Mbps to the desktopto 100Mbps or higher. Barring a majortechnological breakthrough, advancednetworks will require physical cabling forquite some time to come.

RobotsToday the laboratory use of robots iscommonplace and has resulted inresearch that can be completed faster,more efficiently, more safely, and at lowercost than was previously possible. Robotsare helping industry to address key issuessuch as competition and quick responsetime. The research environment,especially in the private and governmentsectors, will see the development of moresophisticated robots and significantgrowth in their use in automated labs.

24

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

� Mobile electronicequipment furniture.Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

Hardware enclosure.Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

�

�

Tasks robots can do cost-effectively arearc welding, assembly, drilling, foodprocessing, inspection, material handling,packaging, grinding, palletizing,pharmaceutical research and development,spot welding, spraying/dispensing,testing, and water-jet cutting. In 1998there were 80,000 robots at work in theUnited States; it was estimated that10,000 robots would be added to theworkforce each year. As has beendocumented by the Robotic IndustriesAssociation, the typical robot pays foritself in two years.

Robots are usually custom-fit in a lab,requiring special space and engineering.Leonard Mayer has written, “Space

requirements for robots may consist of a series of partially overlapping circular,semi-circular, or linear workstations. Thereach or radius may be 3–4 ft and asmuch as 8–12 ft or more, depending onthe scope of the activity. The roboticsystem may also include a mechanical railor transport system connecting a series ofrobotic workstations with humanworkstations. Space must be provided forthe computer hardware components andperipherals, maintenance and repair of themachines (workshops or bioengineeringfacilities), sufficient access and clearancesfor adjustments and repair duringoperations, and space for equipment andspare parts” (Mayer 1995).

Designing for Technology

25

� Write-up stations at least4 ft wide. Courtesy FisherHamilton.

Automated LabsToday’s research environment requires the generation and analysis of enormousquantities of laboratory-basedinformation. The information avalancheis here and has led to the development ofhigh-throughput automated laboratories.Today, most laboratory activities arecarried out by technicians using variouslabor-saving devices that are semi-automated.

One factor driving the development ofautomated labs is the triple threat ofinfectious diseases, foodborne pathogens,and bioterrorism. Discovering solutionsto these problems, which threaten toaffect large numbers of people, requires(1) large quantities of data; (2) access toappropriate samples—often in greatnumbers—for testing and analysis; (3)reproducible laboratory procedures; and(4) sufficient quantities of supportingreagents.

The model of semiautomated/semi-manual laboratories has threeshortcomings. First, because such facilitiesrequire significant human involvement,they scale linearly in cost with the overallsize of the problem. Second, suchfacilities demand people to performhighly repetitive tasks, which are prone tohuman error. Third, facilities can beoverwhelmed by large surges in demand.Such acute surges in demand could occur,for example, during a rapidly spreadingepidemic or a bioterrorist attack.Fortunately, a critical number of scientificdisciplines and powerful technologies canbe combined to address this triple threat:• Molecular biologists and biochemists

have developed a variety oflaboratory-based assays that arepowerful and readily available tolarge-scale efforts.

• Engineers have developed innovativerobotic and automation technologiesthat permit an enormous, rapid rise inthe number and variety of laboratoryexperiments.

• Computer scientists have developedprogramming languages and databasemanagement systems that provide thebasic building blocks for improvedenvironments for scientificcollaboration.

• Physicists have catalyzed thedevelopment of the Internet, which isliterally transforming the ways inwhich scientific and technicalcollaboration take place. Automatedsystems are flexible, modular, andremotely accessible, thereby enablinga convenient means of “masscustomized testing” via the Internet.

Other key design issues in semi-automated labs involve the handling ofsamples to be tested and the disposal ofwastes.

Virtual LabsThroughout the research industry today,one constantly hears the phrases “virtuallabs” and “virtual reality.” Virtual labs willbecome more common each year. Someof the areas in which virtual reality willplay a key role in future research arethese:• Virtual manufacturing

• Three-dimensional calibration forvirtual environments

• Assembly path planning using virtual-reality techniques

• Virtual assembly design environment

• Knowledge-based systems

• Virtual environments for ergonomicdesign

• Telerobotics

� Space for wiremanagement. AgilentTechnologies (formerlyHewlett Packard),Wilmington, Delaware.Ellerbe Becket, architect.Courtesy AgilentTechnologies.

�� Computers in aninstrument-intensive lab.Agilent Technologies(formerly Hewlett Packard),Wilmington, Delaware.Ellerbe Becket, architect.Courtesy AgilentTechnologies.

26

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

SUSTAINABILITYA typical laboratory currently uses fivetimes as much energy and water persquare foot as a typical office building.Research laboratories are so energy-demanding for a variety of reasons:• They contain large numbers of

containment and exhaust devices.

• They house a great deal of heat-generating equipment.

• Scientists require 24-hour access.

• Irreplaceable experiments require fail-safe redundant backup systems anduninterrupted power supply (UPS) oremergency power.

In addition, research facilities haveintensive ventilation requirements—including “once through” air—and mustmeet other health and safety codes, whichadd to energy use. Examining energy andwater requirements from a holistic

perspective, however, can identifysignificant opportunities for improvingefficiencies while meeting or exceedinghealth and safety standards. Sustainabledesign of lab environments should alsoimprove productivity.

� Computers for research.Glaxo Wellcome MedicinesResearch Center, Stevenage,England.Kling Lindquist, architect.

Sustainability

27

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Key aspects of sustainable design are asfollows:• Increased energy conservation and

efficiency

• Reduction or elimination of harmfulsubstances and waste

• Improvements to the interior andexterior environments, leading toincreased productivity

• Efficient use of materials andresources

• Recycling and increased use ofproducts with recycled content

Private-sector CEOs see sustainablebuilding design as providing anopportunity to reduce long-termoperating costs while becoming bettercorporate citizens. The federalgovernment is advocating sustainablebuilding design that is based on resourceefficiency, a healthy environment, andproductivity. Many government agenciesare adopting the LEED (Leadership inEnergy and Environmental Design)Green Building Rating System, a self-assessing system designed for rating newand existing buildings that has beendeveloped by the U.S. Green BuildingCouncil and the U.S. Department ofEnergy. It evaluates environmentalperformance from a “whole building”perspective over a building’s life cycle,providing a definitive standard for whatconstitutes sustainable building design.LEED is based on accepted energy andenvironmental principles and strikes abalance between known effectivepractices and emerging concepts.Opposite is an example of a criteriachart set up for a specific project. Eachcriterion must be reviewed for eachspecific project.

Architectural ConsiderationsThe design of the building envelope—including overhangs, glazing, insulation, and (possibly) the use of photovoltaic panels—is critical to the building’s energy efficiency.

OverhangsOverhangs for shading windows are often designed as part of the wall system. Though many people believe that adding overhangs to shadewindows will reduce energy costs enoughto justify the additional cost of theoverhang, this is not the case. There is no real energy-savings payback, but overhangs do improve the quality of the natural light entering the interior space. The south elevation should have a horizontal overhang; east and west elevations usually require both horizontal and verticaloverhangs.

GlazingThe glazing material for exterior windows should have a thermal breakand an insulating section between theinner and outer sections of the frames.Wood or fiberglass frames will give much better thermal performance than aluminum. Low-E windows with at least a R-3 insulation value should be used. “Superwindows” thatincorporate multiple thin plastic films can have an R value as high as 12. Theproblem is that such windows cost up to four times as much as low-E glass.Operable windows generally will notreduce energy costs; in fact, they mayincrease energy usage, but they usuallyenhance the quality of the indoorenvironment and are therefore preferredby most clients.

Sustainability

29

Roofs and wallsThe use of light-colored roofing with ahigh-albedo coating to reflect light andheat is recommended. The amount ofwall and roof insulation needed will varydepending on the climate and the typeof lab. For example, equipment-intensivelabs will generate a lot of heat and incertain parts of the country will notrequire as much roof insulation aselsewhere. All electrical outlets and allplumbing and wire penetrations into thebuilding should be sealed, since airleakage can be a significant source ofenergy waste in some parts of thecountry.

Today, there is quite a bit of discussionabout using photovoltaic panels both toenclose a building and to generateelectricity. Photovoltaic panels can beintegrated into the building envelope asmetal roofing, spandrel glazing, orsemitransparent vision glazing. But thepanels are difficult to justify in traditionalapplications because the electricity theygenerate can cost more than electricitypurchased from the grid. To beeconomically feasible, the panels mustcover an area large enough to generateenough electricity to make a difference.

Engineering ConsiderationsSustainable engineering addresses civilengineering concerns as well as the designof mechanical, plumbing, and lightingsystems. First and foremost, the designteam and client should contact the localutility company to explore opportunitiesfor rebates to assist in the purchase ofhigh-efficiency equipment or the use ofother energy conservation measures.

Civil engineeringCivil engineering issues to consider

include the use of pervious materialswherever possible. In preparing a site for new construction, designers shouldconsider transplanting existing treesinstead of removing them.

Mechanical, plumbing, and water-conservation strategiesFor the HVAC system, it is mostimportant to simulate the operation ofthe whole system and to analyzeassumptions using whole-buildingsystems analysis software such as DOE-2.Reducing building loads is critical toimproving energy efficiency, and one keyway to reduce loads is to reduce theamount of outside air used forventilation. This raises a design challenge,however, since air supplied to laboratoriesis exposed to chemical contaminants andtherefore cannot be returned to thecentral air handling system and must beexhausted. The volume of ventilation airrequired for the laboratories is typicallygreater than that for classrooms, lecturehalls, and offices. To utilize outside airefficiently, a mechanical unit introduces100 percent outside air into classroomsand lecture halls. Return air from theseareas is reconditioned through themechanical system and then ducted tothe laboratories as supply air. The supplyair to the laboratories is exhausted. In thisway, the outside air is used twice beforebeing exhausted.

Electronic air cleaners help minimize airresistance from filters. Maintenance isalso important. Effective filter-replacement schedules help keep indoorair quality high and conserve energy.Control systems for variable speed driveson pumps, fans, and compressors shouldbe used only if the controls will beregularly maintained and calibrated.

30

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

Numerous strategies can be employedfor improving the energy efficiency ofcooling, heating, and plumbing systems:• Insulate hot water, steam, and chilled

water piping.

• Maintain condenser water as cool aspossible, but not less than 20 degreesabove chilled water-supplytemperature.

• Reuse wasted heat with a heatrecovery system.

• Install an economizer at the boiler.(The water-side economizer will helpwith humidity controls.)

• Maintain hot water for washing handsat 105 degrees F. Consider using localhot water tanks at kitchens,restrooms, and other areas instead ofcentral hot water.

• For plumbing systems, use ultra-low-flow toilets (0.5 gallons per flush) andautomated controls such as infraredsensors for faucets.

• Harvesting rainwater and reusing“gray water” from sinks for irrigationmay help reduce water costs.

Sustainable lighting designSustainable lighting design reduces energyuse while enhancing employee comfortand productivity. Sustainable lightingstrategies include the use of compactfluorescents (CFLs) rather thanincandescent lamps, maximizing naturaldaylighting throughout a facility, andemploying various photosensingtechnologies to conserve energy.

Incandescent lamps are extremelyinefficient, using only 10 percent of theenergy they consume to produce light(the rest is given off as heat). CFLsshould be used instead. Research office

lighting can be less than .75 watts/sq ftconnected load, and with lightingcontrols it may consume less than 0.5watts/sq ft. Where functionalrequirements permit, lighting designshould combine task and ambientlighting to reduce the high overall lightlevels. Good task lighting lessens glareand eyestrain.

DaylightingDaylight is an important component of sustainable design. Not only does itreduce energy use, but it increasescomfort and enhances productivity.Designers should strive to direct naturallight into most laboratory spaces andpublic areas so that, from almostanywhere in the building, people havethe opportunity to look outdoors to seewhat the weather is like and orientthemselves to the time of day. Whereverpossible, daylighting should be the

� Natural light into labspaces. Biomedical ResearchBuilding II, School ofMedicine, University ofPennsylvania, Philadelphia.Perkins & Will, architect.

Sustainability

31

primary source of illumination; artificiallighting should be thought of as a sup-plement to, rather than a replacementfor, daylighting.

Typically, the first 15 ft of depth at theperimeter of the building can be litentirely by daylight during the daytime.The use of light shelves can extend thedaylight zone as far as 45 ft into thebuilding. Clerestory windows andskylights can be used to get even morenatural daylight into the building.

Daylighting control systems determinethe amount of light available in a givenspace and switch off one or more banksof lights whenever there is enoughsunlight. Both full-range and stepfluorescent dimming systems work well.

Photosensing technologiesA key principal to remember in regardto lighting control systems is “simpler isbetter.” Some systems employ

photosensing techniques. Photosensingdevices can control off-on for exteriorlights, triggering fixtures to add light toa particular area when light levelsdecline. Also, a number of newfluorescent and metal halide fixtures areavailable that employ daylightharvesting—storing solar energy in thefixture during daylight hours and thenusing that energy to run the lamp whendaylight diminishes. Outdoor lightingsystems can easily be retrofitted for thesefixtures.

Other photosensing technologiesinclude programmable low-voltagecontrol systems and occupancy sensors.The programmable low-voltage systemscan control individual areas of thebuilding or an entire building with oneswitch. These systems interface with thebuilding automation and dimmingsystems. They are flexible, can easilyaccommodate building changes, have alocal override capability, and can be usedfor large or small systems.

Occupancy sensors typically have aone-to-two-year payback. The sensorsare designed with adjustable sensitivitylevels and timing. There are twotechnologies: passive infrared andultrasonic. Passive infrared sensors detectmovement of heat between zones. Theymust have “a line of sight” to detectpeople in the lab. Ultrasonic occupancysensors work by broadcasting ultrasonicsound waves, analyzing the returningwaves and detecting movement throughDoppler shifts. They are effective forlarger rooms and can cover a 360-degreearea. One problem is that air turbulencecan trigger their operation. Alloccupancy sensor systems must bedesigned correctly to avoid nuisanceoperation.

� Labs on the exterioroffer views of the environs.Manufacturing RelatedDisciplines Center, GeorgiaInstitute of Technology,Atlanta. Perkins & Will,architect.

32

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

“Green” productsSome casework products now beingmanufactured are considered “green.”Examples include hardwood, veneer,and plywood products that originatefrom certified sustainable forests. Steelproducts can also be “green”—forexample, steel laboratory casework andfume hoods made of sheet metal thatcontains 20 to 25 percent scrap steel.(Sixty percent of the scrap steel comesfrom old cars and appliances, the other40 percent from manufacturing fall-off.)There is one problem with recycledsteel’s “greenness,” however: recyclingsteel is highly energy-intensive, whichraises the question whether energyconservation or resource conservationis the better environmental/sustainablestrategy.

Other sustainability issuesOther sustainable design issues includecommissioning the entire building toensure that building systems are operatingas efficiently as possible. The engineersshould review the latest ASHRAE energycode requirements. The ASHRAE codesare very conservative—simply meetingcodes is not a recipe for an energy-efficient building. Direct digital controlenergy management systems are seen inmany new laboratory facilities.

Buildings should be designed withlong-term flexibility options, such as thelab module for all architectural andengineering systems, easy connects anddisconnects to the engineering systems,and flexible casework. Computers thatturn themselves off during nonworkinghours reduce energy use and cost byreducing cooling loads and electricaldemands. Laptop computers use one-tenth the energy of desktop PCs.

All the architectural and engineeringissues should be studied on a project-by-project basis. Factors such as the client’sspecific goals, the type of lab beingdesigned, the part of the country wherethe lab is located, and its position on thesite will lead to different solutions. TheU.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) and the U.S. Department ofEnergy (DOE) have launched a new,voluntary program to improve theenvironmental performance of U.S.laboratories—the Laboratories for the21st Century (Labs21) initiative. Formore detailed information on thisinitiative, see the appendix to this book.

SCIENCE PARKSThe partnering of research between thepublic and private sectors has been themain reason for the development ofscience parks (research parks). BruceHaxton has summarized the history ofscience parks: “Science parks first appearedat Stanford Research Park in Menlo Park,California (1951); Research Triangle Park,North Carolina (1959); and CummingsResearch Park in Huntsville, Alabama(1962). During the 1980s, the number ofscience parks dramatically increased byapproximately 600 percent worldwide—from 39 parks in 1980 to more than 270in 1990” (Haxton 1999).

The Bay-Dole Act, passed by the U.S.Congress in 1980, allowed educationalinstitutions in the United States to profitfrom research previously funded by theU.S. government, and it spurred evenmore dramatic growth. The number ofscience parks increased 180 percentworldwide in the 1990s, from270 parksin 1990 to more than 473 in 1998. Fourmajor trends that will impact scienceand technology parks of the future are:

Science Parks

33

• Networking relationships with otherscience parks with similar interestsaround the world

• Increased use of Internetcommunication

• Increased focus on corporateincubator facilities

• Increased globalization of trade

There are several reasons to considerdeveloping and expanding research parks.Usually, the first reason has to do withlocal or regional economic development.The second is closely related: with eco-nomic development comes job creation.A third reason for developing researchparks is that they provide the opportunityfor technology transfer from the academicenvironment to the marketplace.

Almost 50 percent of developers ofscience parks are nonprofit corporations;25 percent are government authorities; 17 percent are academic institutions; and less than 10 percent are for-profit

corporations. Though most science parksare started by nonprofit organizations,more than 70 percent of the organizationsthat move into the parks are private, for-profit companies.

Several key issues affect the choice of a science park’s location:

• Proximity to research universities(almost 90 percent of research parksare located immediately adjacent to auniversity)

• Availability of a highly educatedworkforce

• Quality of life of the nearest city• Proximity to a major airport• Types and variety of research-based

companies in the area

• The amount of wet laboratory spaceavailable at nearby universities andcompanies

• Cooperation among economicdevelopment groups

• Ability to expand at the same site

� Virginia Tech CorporateResearch Center EDC,Blacksburg, Virginia.SMBW Architects.

34

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

Developing strategic alliances with otherprivate or public entities can benefit bothacademia and private industry becausephysical infrastructure and individualexpertise can be shared. Project-driveninstructional and research approaches canmake such alliances productive andprofitable if the appropriate facilities existor are developed. Benefits include sharingof equipment and resources, reduction inspace requirements and costs resultingfrom collaboration, financial support ofstudents and faculty by private industry,and the opportunity for private industryto hire the brightest young minds comingout of academia.

The growth of partnerships betweenacademia and industry in research has,however, created a set of difficultprofessional issues that educationalinstitutions must address, such asconflicts of interest or commitment onthe part of academic researchers. Often,faculty members find themselves with less

time available for their institutionalresponsibilities as they attempt to live upto their private-sector commitments.

Nevertheless, private industry isbecoming a good neighbor to academicinstitutions across the country.Researchers can reduce costs for theprivate sector by establishing some “hits”(leads) in their academic research, whichare then developed and brought tomarket with the help of private industry.

Attracting top employees is likely to continue to be a concern for most companies. By locating laboratorieson or next to academic campuses,private-sector industries that may haveproblems attracting top researchers aremore easily able to draw some of thebest young talent to their companies.Also, two-year technical colleges are now constructing computer science and general research buildings to provideyoung employees for the researchmarket. The private sector will need

� Facility lab in a researchpark. SMBW Architects.

Science Parks

35

to partner more with the technicalcolleges to be able to tap into thatpotential workforce.

Science park lab design — whetherthe park is founded by a privatecorporation or a nonprofit organization— resembles speculative office buildingdesign. During initial construction,basic engineering systems are put inplace, but little or no casework isinstalled. When a research team leasesspace, it upgrades its portion of thebuilding with additional engineeringsystems, casework, and equipment.

The initial cost of the building can beless than $100 per gross sq ft (GSF).The additional cost for outfitting canrange from as little as $25 to more than$100 per GSF. Building size typicallyranges from 20,000 to 100,000 GSF.The buildings are stand-alone structuresthat generally look like spec officebuildings, and there is minimal sitedevelopment. The base building allowscompanies to get started and to addcasework and upgrade the engineeringsystems later, when funding becomesavailable.

36

A NEW DESIGN MODEL

There are three lab sectors: private,government, and academic. Design of labsfor the private sector, run by corporations,is usually driven by the need to enhancethe research operation's profit-makingpotential. Government laboratories—including those run by federal agenciesand those operated by stategovernments—do research in the publicinterest. Academic laboratories areprimarily teaching facilities but alsoinclude some research labs that engage inpublic-interest or profit-generatingresearch. This chapter focuses on thedesign issues that differentiate each type of lab.

PRIVATE-SECTOR LABSCompanies in the private sector arefocused on making discoveries, creatinginnovations, and bringing them to marketand making a profit from their researchfor their shareholders. Because private labsare more driven to make a profit thangovernment or academic labs, they tend tobe more innovative and willing to explorenew research environments. “Speed tomarket” is an essential characteristic ofresearch companies in the private sector.Reduction of cycle time is critical,requiring organizational dynamics andtechnical solutions. Sharing information,generating knowledge, and team-basedresearch are some of the ways companiesare addressing the marketplace.

The Competitive MarketplaceBecause of the current competitivemarketplace, many private-sectorcompanies are investing more money increating high-quality spaces outside the

labs. Companies feel the strong need toattract new employees to their campusesand to keep the employees they have. Inaddition to constructing gracious publicareas (such as atriums, well-lit andfinished corridors, and break rooms) andproviding the latest computer technologyin conference areas, private researchcompanies are supplying such amenities ascentral cafeterias, child-care centers, fitnesscenters, walking trails, dry cleaners, andon-site banking. These amenities supportemployees and allow them to do theirwork more efficiently each day. Thecompetition to keep top researchers andthe need to develop more discoveries eachyear are the main differences betweenprivate-sector companies and governmentand academic facilities.

Many private-sector companies areinvolved in the discovery-to-marketphases of research. For example, in thepharmaceuticals industry, getting drugsto market requires that a company’smarketing work closely with its scientists.Marketing experts are now part of manyresearch teams, with offices locatednearby.

Teams are created to focus on specificdiscoveries each year. Because of thecompetitive market and the utilization ofcomputers and robots in research, morediscoveries are necessary each year to meeta company’s goals and satisfy itsshareholders. In the past, teams werealmost always organized around aprincipal investigator and composed of amore or less permanent set of individuals.Today, principal investigators arecollaborating more, individuals aremoving from one team to another to

CHAPTER 2

LABORATORY TYPES

37

provide their specific expertise, and theboundaries are becoming less definedwithin the research environment.

Other key attributes of private-sectorlabs include centralization of servicessuch as glassware storage, engineering

systems, and vivarium facilities. Private-sector companies are more likely thanothers to invest in technical support forthe scientists’ work. Most privatecorporations tend to implementextensive facility management to addresschurn and maintain the facilities.Facility management is important tominimize any downtime for a specificresearcher and to keep all researchershappy. Initial cost is always aconsideration, but long-term operationalcosts and return on investments are alsokey to the design and operation of alaboratory facility.

Mergers and ConsolidationsMergers and consolidations have been a main part of the corporate researchindustry in the past five years, and thistrend is likely to continue. Mergers, mostevident in the large pharmaceuticalcompanies, are intended to reduce costand competition and to allow the mergedfirms to be more competitive with theremaining larger research companies. Oncompletion of mergers, companies mustaddress concerns such as evaluatingexisting buildings for their highest andbest use, consolidation of facilities, andleasing or selling of real estate.

Startup Companies andDeveloper-Owned BuildingsAmong the results of the recent mega-mergers of pharmaceutical companies hasbeen the emergence of many startupcompanies. A startup, regardless of itsresearch mission, has a different outlookon facilities. The way in which a startupcompany obtains services to design andconstruct its facilities is in most casesdifferent from the traditional design, bid,and build process.

38

LABORATORY TYPES

� Atrium space helps createa sense of community in thisbuilding. 3M, Austin, Texas.HOK, Inc., architect.

Generally, startup companies do notwant to spend their own money onfacilities. The money they do have mustbe used to fund and obtain their researchand business goals, and they are notinterested in building corporateheadquarters per se. Companies that arein the first and second rounds of venturecapital do not construct researchbuildings but lease existing space andupfit to meet their minimumrequirements. Companies that are in the third round of funding are nowcreditworthy and have the business andscience credibility to attract investors.Still, in many cases these companies donot want to use their own capital to buildfacilities but often seek a developer tofund the project with a leaseback option.Most projects at this level come intobeing through some form of the design-build process, bringing together adeveloper, a designer, and a builder.

Because of the participation of thedeveloper, planning and design of startupfacilities are unlike planning and design forestablished companies’ research facilities.In a few cases, the facility may beprogrammed and designed to meet theindividual requirements of the user group,but in most cases the laboratories will haveto be made as generic as possible in casethe initial company is not successful andleaves the space. Another consideration—a challenge for the designer—is that in thefuture the building may have toaccommodate multiple tenants.

Where the developer owns the building,it also typically owns much of theequipment: fixed casework, fume hoods,autoclaves, and glass washers. Thedeveloper wants to have a leasable,functional laboratory building if theoriginal users leave.

In general, the concept of developer-driven projects works well in the realm oflife sciences and general sciences research.If extensive clean rooms, sterility suites,nuclear magnetic resonance machines, orpilot plant applications are required,however, the “fit” will not be as attractiveto a developer, as the building and itscentral utilities become too specialized.As in the design of any laboratory facility,good laboratory planning principles andsound life-safety practices—including the

Private-Sector Labs

39

�� An atrium also addsvisual connectivity to thebuilding. Dupont,Wilmington, Delaware.The Hillier Group, architect.

� Open lab with definingboundaries diminishing.Sigma Coating Laboratory,England. Courtesy FisherHamilton.

provision of clear circulation paths, clearand concise laboratory zones, andlaboratory support and office zones—should be followed.

International ClientsThe United States accounts for roughly44 percent of the industrial world’s totalresearch and development (R&D)investment and continues to outdistance,by more than 2 to 1, the total researchinvestments made by Japan, the second-largest performer. Many countries,however, have put fiscal incentives inplace to increase the overall level of R&Dspending and to stimulate industrialinnovation.

Architects and engineers in the UnitedStates have had many opportunities toprovide design services for researchcompanies overseas. American architects’and engineers’ fee structures can becompetitive, especially in Europe. Forexample, over the past ten years U.S. rates,when calculated for the European market,have been much lower than those chargedby European firms. American firms stand agood chance of getting commissions formajor projects in Europe because of theirexpertise and lower fees (based on theexchange rate). On such projects it istypically necessary to affiliate with a localfirm, which manages the agency approvals,contract documents, and constructionadministration. (A laboratory project inFrance may require the approval of morethan two dozen agencies!)

In Asia, however, U.S. firms’ rates aremuch higher than those of local architectsand engineers. Nevertheless, in China,the government may hire a Western firmto design and construct a building with aWestern image. A U.S. firm may receive acommission in any of the following ways:

• It can win a design competition,which usually requires an invitation.Competitions are widely used onmost major projects in China today.

• It can team with a local firm that isresponsible for the constructiondocumentation and constructionadministration. This approach savesthe Chinese government money, letsit employ its own people, andincorporates the U.S. expertise at theU.S. billing rates.

• If a project is too large and complexfor the Chinese to complete thecontract documents and constructionadministration, then an Americanfirm may be commissioned to do theentire project based on U.S. billingrates.

A key difference in designing and buildingoutside this country is that all calculationsare done in the metric system. Thedesigner must have a clear understandingof the typical room construction methods,materials, and details of the country inwhich he or she will be working. It is alsoextremely important to understand thecapabilities of the local constructionindustry. For example, for a large researchproject in England, pre-cast concretepanels were fabricated by a company inthe United States. No concrete companyin all of Europe could produce theconcrete panels for less than it cost tomake and ship the product from theUnited States. In China, it is common tosee granite flooring and interior wallsbecause it is difficult to obtain good gyp-sum wallboard construction, carpeting, orceiling tiles. At the beginning of thedesign phase it is important to understandwhat can be built locally, at what quality,and at what cost.

40

LABORATORY TYPES

21'- 0"

18'-0"

18'-0"

18'-0"

18'-0"

18'-0"

18'-0"

21'-0"

19'-7"

WRITE-UP AREA

42'-8"

30'-4"

A noteworthy international project isthe Jahwa Research Facility, in Shanghai,China, which demonstrates the Chinesegovernment’s new desire to provideresearchers with safe, world-class labs toenhance China’s position in the interna-tional R&D market (see pages 43–44).

Space GuidelinesIn most cases, private-sector research labsare slightly more expensive and largerthan government or academic labsbecause competitive markets require morediscoveries each year and because private-sector companies must spend more onfacilities to retain their employees.

Benchmarking is used to estimate thecost of a laboratory or research buildingas well as the amount of space andcasework to be provided to eachresearcher. It is a risky and very difficultprocess, in part because it is hard toacquire solid, relevant benchmarkingdata. With the development of thecomputer and team-based research labs,benchmarking data will changesignificantly over the next ten years.

It is sometimes necessary to make broadassumptions of scope and cost well beforeany predesign investigations begin. Thefollowing examples are presented for use insuch a situation. They are not intended as

Private-Sector Labs

41

� The equivalent linearfootage of bench (ELF)factor depends on the kindof research.

a substitute for programming and shouldalways be superseded by more accurateinformation, as it becomes available.

Abbott Laboratories estimates$250,000 per scientist for a facility builton its campus. It typically includes shellspace for new and remodeledconstruction projects so that it canaffordably address growth in theorganization. At its recently completedlaboratory facility, Chiron spent$158,200 per scientist (see pages 48–50).

Benchmarking labs can be done bycalculating the equivalent linear footage ofbench (ELF) factor. Typically, the ELF isbased on anything that occupies floor areain the lab, such as casework, equipment,and storage. Today’s concern for safetyand environmental protection dictates thebasic minimum allocation for an organicchemist’s benchtop as being no less than21 ELF. The space consists of 8 ft of fumehood, 8 ft of bench, 2 ft of sink, and 3 ftof refrigerator/freezer. A biologist, on theother hand, needs far less fume hood

space but has a significantly greater needfor ancillary equipment such asrefrigerators, incubators, centrifuges, andenvironmental rooms. Therefore, anindividual biologist’s bench need caneasily exceed 30 ELF.

The following values and squarefootages are drawn from the May 2000issue of Earl Wall Associates’ quarterlyLaboratory.

ELF values per person per discipline(without animal, greenhouse, and pilotareas):

Organic chemistry 24–28Physical chemistry 24–33Instrumental analytical chemistry 33–41

Microbiological and immunological 20–31

Net lab square footage per personaccording to the preceding ELF values(based on a 10 ft 6 in. wide module):

Organic chemistry 126–147Physical chemistry 126–173

� Floor plan, JahwaShanghai Lab, Shanghai,China. Perkins & Will,architect.

42

LABORATORY TYPES

UP

Lab Lab Lab

LabLab

Instrumental analytical chemistry 173–215

Microbiological and immunological 103–163

The numbers are typical for the kind ofresearch being conducted but may varyconsiderably depending on individualresearch efforts.

Case Studies

Jahwa-Shanghai Lab

Shanghai, China

Architect: Perkins & Will97,000 GSF(9,000 gross square meters)Construction cost: To be determined

The new Jahwa-Shanghai research facilityis part of a master plan at the firm’smanufacturing campus in Shanghai. The97,000 GSF facility containspharmaceutical, cosmetic, fine chemistry,and basic research laboratories, combinedwith an administrative and creativedevelopment and exhibition component.The building is intended to provideclosure and definition to the campusfront lawn, creating a sense of place byreinforcing the southern edge of the site.The architectural expression of thebuilding reinforces the programmaticdichotomy of the creative and thescientific. Public and administrativefunctions make up the southern bar of

Private Lab Case Studies: Jahwa-Shanghai Lab

43

� Model, night view, Jahwa-Shanghai Lab.

the project, the most striking featurebeing the three-story-high glassexhibition space, or “creative idea salon.”The south bar acts as a screen or filter,making a transition from the more openand public functions to the highlytechnological lab and research spaces inthe northern block.

The laboratories are based on the latestideas and technology developed in theUnited States: open labs, equipmentzones, modular design of architecturaland engineering systems, zoning of thebuilding between lab and non-lab spaces,and team-based research and computerapplications. The fume hoods, other keytypes of lab equipment, and the mainmechanical systems serving the buildingwill be built in the United States orEurope, then installed in the facility inChina.

DuPont Medicinal Chemistry Building

Wilmington, Delaware

Architect: The Hillier GroupOccupied: 1996Size: 132,000 GSFConstruction cost: $42,000,000 (1995)

The DuPont Medicinal ChemistryBuilding (MCB) received special mentionin R&D magazine’s 1997 Lab of the Yearawards. It is an excellent example of aprivate-sector laboratory.

The participation of a user groupthroughout the design process was key tothe overall success of the design. DuPontgathered scientists together to develop awish list, which included three-personlabs with three 12 ft hoods. (Eachscientist received a 12 ft hood.) Thebench space was increased to 7 linear ft

44

LABORATORY TYPES

� Second floor plan,Building E-500. DuPontMedicinal ChemistryBuilding.

� Twelve ft fume hood.DuPont Medicinal ChemistryBuilding, Wilmington,Delaware. The Hillier Group,architect.

per occupant to take advantage of thelatest instrumentation technology. Thechemical handling areas are immediatelyadjacent to the labs and can be accessedfrom the service corridor, which isseparated from public areas of thebuilding. Offices are on the opposite side of the labs, directly adjacent tothem, and can be accessed from thepublic corridor. More ventilated chemicalstorage space was provided to reduce the risk of personnel exposure, and moreventilated bench space for chemicaltransfer operations was constructed. A creative, interactive environmentimproved the ability to recruit and retain top scientists.

The building design is based on a 21 ft x 27 ft module that allows plenty ofspace for a principal investigator and twoscientists. The 12 ft fume hoods havefour independently operating verticalsashes for maximum flexibility.Depending on the work area required,two sashes can be fully raised or all foursashes can be raised to half height,providing a total operating face openingof 50 percent.

Flexibility was created with a service corridor, which has all theengineering systems exposed in an open ceiling. The systems connect to the rear of each lab, allowing mainte-nance workers to make changes withoutentering the lab areas. Glassware andchemical storage can also be accessedfrom the service corridor without labentry.

The offices are located around theoutside wall, affording views to theexterior. The scientists can write up theirresearch while overseeing their lab spaces.

Key design features include the selectiveplacement of glass in the walls separating

corridors, offices, and labs to createa transparency that allows one to seethrough the building from the publiccorridors to the outside (if the blinds arenot down). Suspended indirect lighting

� Service corridor. DuPontMedicinal ChemistryBuilding.

Private Lab Case Studies: DuPont Medicinal Chemistry Building

45

� Central atrium space as “core” of building.DuPont MedicinalChemistry Building.

46

LABORATORY TYPES

fixtures hang in vaulted ceiling areas overthe reagent shelving. The combination of wood and metal casework is visuallyappealing. Transparent glassware cabinetsare accessible from the labs and servicecorridors.

The central atrium space, where allcommon amenities are located, alsoallows people to meet throughout theirdaily routines and offers opportunities to

“cross-pollinate” ideas. Marker boards are located throughout the building. The use of different materials and colorsensures that the entire building isdetailed at the same level of quality asthe atrium. During design, a mock-upsynthetic chemistry lab and offices wereconstructed (at a cost of $30,000) so that researchers could tour it and providefeedback.

Private Lab Case Studies: DuPont Medicinal Chemistry Building

47

� Suspended indirectlighting. DuPont MedicinalChemistry Building.

Wood and metalcasework. DuPont MedicinalChemistry Building.

�

Chiron Life Sciences Building(Building 4)

Emeryville, California

Architect: Flad & Associates, Inc. Occupied: 1998Size: 285,000 GSF (building)Construction cost: Confidential(The central utility plant, 10,000 sq ft,houses the main electrical switch gear,HVAC systems, chillers, boiler systems,and cooling towers.)

When Chiron made the commitment to redevelop its site in Emeryville,California, Flad & Associates was selectedas architect of record for Phase One(Building 4) of the 11-phase, 30-yeardevelopment plan. Flad worked with ateam of nationally and internationallyknown consultants, including Mexicanarchitect Ricardo Legorreta, whodeveloped the master plan for the 2.2million sq ft build-out of the campus.From the beginning, Chiron made itclear that this project was fundamental tomeeting its goal of creating a productiveand stimulating work environment forscience. Chiron wanted to create a newtype of lab building.

The concept of Legorreta Architectos’master plan was inspired by the plan oftraditional Mexican cloisters. A series ofatriums, patios, plazas, and open spacesare organized around working spaces. Thespaces, each unique, interconnect withone another to create a large, multilevelcampus of research villages thatencourages communication andinteraction among employees.

The laboratory incorporates aphilosophy of business integration thatstresses teamwork and the sharing ofideas. The first level of high bay spaceincludes building mechanicals, specialized

48

LABORATORY TYPES

Private Lab Case Studies: Chiron Life Sciences Building

49

LabLab Support

OfficeOffice SupportFellows AreaCorridor

Mechanical

Courtyard

Water Feature

Roof Terrace

� Courtyard, inspired by theplan of traditional Mexicancourtyards. Chiron LifeSciences Building 4,Emeryville, California. Flad& Associates, Inc., architect.Photograph copyrightLourdes Legorreta, courtesyFlad & Associates, Inc.Other photographs, pages 48–50, copyright JohnSutton Photography,courtesy Flad & Associates,Inc.

Exterior view. Chiron LifeSciences Building 4.�

lab spaces, and offices, allowing businessgroups to support the efforts of theirresearchers. The next three levels includelabs designed to maximize availability ofdaylight as well as to be flexible enoughto adapt to the needs of diverse businessgroups. These labs are located aroundinterior courtyards and atriums tofacilitate interaction, demonstrating theowner’s commitment to the social as wellas the technical aspects of science.

The lab planning goals remained a keen

focus throughout project planning anddesign. The labs are inviting, functional,and flexible. Each has three 24 ft longisland benches, with 7 ft of bench spaceper person and a sink at the end of eachbenchtop. The perimeters of the labs haveno fixed casework, reserving space forlarge equipment such as refrigerators,freezers, and mobile workstations used forstacking electronic equipment andmoving it where needed as experimentschange.

� Floor plan. Chiron LifeSciences Building 4.

The lab offices are directly next to thelab interiors but separated from them bydividing walls. Office windows look intothe labs for convenient viewing ofongoing experiments. The result is apleasant and functional lab environment,with natural daylight and views to thesurrounding hills of Berkeley. This designgives priority to the human side ofscience. This facility received “Laboratoryof the Year” distinction by R&Dmagazine in 1999.

50

LABORATORY TYPES

� Atrium, adding visualconnectivity between alllevels. Chiron Life SciencesBuilding 4.

� View of exterior courtyard from lab. Chiron Life SciencesBuilding 4, Emeryville, California.Flad & Associates, Inc., architect.

Glaxo Group Research, Ltd.

Stevenage, United Kingdom

Architect: Kling LindquistOccupied: Spring 1995Size: 1,800,000 GSFConstruction cost: $571,000,000

This new research campus, about 30miles north of London, accommodatesapproximately 1,400 employees. Thecampus houses chemistry, microbiology,pharmacology, and biochemistry researchand drug evaluation; pilot plants forchemical and microbiology development;and administrative support. The campusis organized around a courtyard.Approaching the site, you are stopped at

the security gate. After permission toenter is obtained, you drive up to theparking area that is north of a man-madewater feature. You proceed by walkingover a bridge, then into theadministrative building, which is locatedto the north. Employee parking is to theleft and right of the administrativebuilding. The administrative buildinghouses a 200-seat lecture hall, a cafeteria,an executive dining area, and offices formore than 200 employees, includingresearch executives, administrative staff,and internal scientific affairs personnel.

To the east is the chemistry wing andchemistry pilot plant, supporting morethan 500 scientists. The building rises

� Aerial view. GlaxoWellcome MedicinesResearch Center, Stevenage,United Kingdom. KlingLindquist, architect. Allphotographs, pages 51–53,courtesy Glaxo Wellcome.

Private Lab Case Studies: Glaxo Group Research, Ltd.

51

four stories above the courtyard; a lowerlevel houses building support services. Acentral node provides space foradministration and support functions oneach floor. The research building connectsdirectly to the pilot plant. It is organizedaround a dedicated three-corridor system:the central corridor for services to thelabs, and two perimeter corridors forpersonnel circulation outside the labs.

The labs are generic, with the write-upareas immediately adjacent. There isplenty of interior glazing to allow peopleto see one another, the research labs, andthe exterior views.

The microbiology complex is at thesouthwest corner of the campus. Thevivarium and microbiology buildings arethe only two buildings constructed withan interstitial space. The genericmicrobiology lab is similar to thechemistry labs, with the write-up stationsimmediately adjacent to the labs andplenty of interior glass. The corridorsystem uses only a single-corridor schemebecause the services are handled above, inthe interstitial space.

The biology building is to the west andhouses approximately 250 researchers.The first three floors are forpharmacology, the upper floor forbiochemistry and cell biology.

The entire complex of buildings is linkedwith a “tour route” on the first floor thatwraps around the entire courtyard. Thebuilding services, including loading docks,are located at the lower level with acommon corridor. There is a central plantthat services the entire complex.

� Research lab. GlaxoWellcome MedicinesResearch Center, Stevenage,United Kingdom. KlingLindquist, architect.

Microbiology labcorridor. Glaxo WellcomeMedicines Research Center.

� Gateway to researchfacility. Glaxo WellcomeMedicines Research Center.

52

LABORATORY TYPES

�

The exterior facades are constructed ofprecast concrete fabricated in the UnitedStates. The windows all have light shelvesto minimize glare into the labs. Theexterior facades of all the buildings are ofsimilar design and detail. Most of thebuildings were planned for futureexpansion, and, in fact, the microbiologybuilding has already been expanded.

GOVERNMENT LABSThough federal funding for research andnew construction had for a time declined,that trend appeared to be changing by thelate 1990s. The National Institutes ofHealth (NIH), for example, has increasedgrant money for research to severalacademic research institutions. In February1999, the National Science Foundationdocumented that the differential growth offederal research dollars for various agencieshad resulted in increased shares for the lifesciences and for mathematical andcomputer sciences; fairly constant sharesfor the environmental sciences andpsychology; and declining shares for thesocial sciences and engineering.

The life sciences should see continuedresearch growth. Much of the funding forthe life sciences involves NIH. In a 1996research and development symposium,NIH representatives explained what theybelieve some of the future trends will be:• More human(e) environments

• Continued team concept

• Continued focus on safety

• Reduction in fume hood requirements

• Increase in support labs

• Modular basic labs

• Decrease in the size ofinstrumentation, but more of it

• Increase in repetitive tasksGovernment research facilities are similarto those of the private sector in that theyfocus solely on research; they usually havefew or no teaching labs. Government labsusually follow the private sector indeveloping new and innovative facilities.Several government labs test the researchfindings of many private-sectorcompanies. For example, the primaryfocus of the Food and Drug

Government Labs

53

Bridge links entirecomplex. Glaxo WellcomeMedicines Research Center.

� Another view of bridge.Glaxo Wellcome MedicinesResearch Center.

�

Administration (FDA) is to review andapprove the findings presented by privatecorporations before products can bemarketed.

ImageIn the past, laboratories and public areasin government research facilities tendedto be more conservatively designed thanin private-sector facilities. The mainreason for the conservative approach wasthat government agencies are fundedwith tax dollars, and decision makerswere concerned about taxpayers’perceptions of how their money wasbeing invested. In the past few years,however, the federal government hasdeveloped programs for major newlaboratories that, like those in the privatesector, focus on team-based labs.

The typical government laboratorybuilding (including state-funded as wellas federal facilities) has a clearly definedentry and, usually, a gracious lobby. Mostlobbies have information boards,computer kiosks, and display areas thatshow examples of the research that hasbeen conducted there in the past (somesuch display areas are aimed at thegeneral public). The lobby is monitoredby security personnel, cameras, and,typically, a card access system. It is verydifficult for a visitor to get beyond theentry lobby unescorted.

The following list of program objectivesfor the National Neuroscience ResearchCenter (on the NIH’s Bethesda,Maryland, campus) is representative ofmany government laboratory facilities:• Create a complex that promotes

world-class biomedical researchthrough communication andcollaboration as a means to facilitateinnovation and creativity.

• Serve the government’s needs forfunctional research and support spacethat is efficient, reliable, flexible,adaptable, safe, secure, readilymaintained, cost-effective, energyefficient, and supported by state-of-the-art infrastructure systems.

• Provide biomedical researchlaboratories, vivarium facilities, andshared support spaces that fosterinteraction among scientists andpromote a collaborative workenvironment.

• Enhance security and access control.

• Develop a functional and congenialresearch environment to ensure a highquality of life for staff that will helpattract and retain world-classresearchers.

• Complete the project at the mostreasonable cost to the government.

• Complete the project on schedule inthe most efficient and expeditiousmanner.

• Minimize disruption to ongoing NIHfunctions/building programs.

• Provide a visual testimony to scientificintegrity and public accountability inthe conduct of science.

• Facilitate NIH’s neuroscience researchmission with a structure that serves asa worldwide research icon and anasset to both the NIH campus andthe neighboring community.

Replacement Facilities/Strategicand Master PlanningMany government laboratory facilitieshave been in use since the late 1940s orearly 1950s. Over five or six decades, theyhave been renovated, repaired, and

54

LABORATORY TYPES

adapted. Now, some federal and stategovernment funding is available to buildnew laboratory facilities that incorporatethe latest technology and that are flexibleenough to be changed quickly and cost-effectively.

Another key objective for governmentresearch campuses is to provide strategicand master planning evaluations beforenew buildings are constructed. Manygovernment research campuses do nothave a resolved strategic plan with clearphasing or smart, cost-effectiveprogrammatic uses for renovatedfacilities.

Strategic planning is also beneficial inidentifying the level of quality for thefacilities and in creating basic designstandards. The U.S. economy andresearch environments are very strongtoday, providing the country a uniqueopportunity to provide truly state-of-the-art facilities. All too often, governmentresearch buildings have been constructed

with labs and offices that are smaller thandesired because of budget considerationsor because of the number of people theywill house. An alternative strategy is to

� Partial Interstitial space.NIH Building 40, Bethesda,Maryland. HLM, architect.

� Open lab under construction(with interstutial space above).NIH Building 40, Bethesda,Maryland. HLM, architect.Courtesy NIH.

Government Labs

55

design optimal-sized labs and offices, andthen move only as many staff into thenew building as it will comfortablyaccommodate. When the next fundingpackage for an addition or new buildingbecomes available, the remainingresearchers can move into that facility. Ifdecision makers simply try to maximizethe program, placing as many people inthe spaces as possible, then for the nextseveral decades government researchbuildings will have to be adapted,renovated, and retrofitted just to makeends meet.

SchedulingTypically, a publicly funded project cantake two to three times longer toconstruct than a private-sector laboratoryfacility. The funding is appropriated eachyear. If Congress or a state legislature doesnot include the project in a particularyear’s budget, the work stops.

Many state and federal laboratoryprojects have experienced significantdelays during design and construction.Money is usually appropriated for

programming, which is often contractedto an architectural firm that has anindefinite delivery contract with theruling agency. Once programming iscompleted and funding for the projecthas been made available, the governmentpublicly announces a request for proposal(RFP). The interview process can takethree to four months to resolve before thearchitectural and engineering design anddocumentation can occur. After thedesign is started, there can be months ofreview by various federal agencies aftereach submittal. And most projects arecompetitively bid.

There has been some progress, however.On some recent projects, the federalgovernment has hired a constructionmanager to accelerate the constructionprocess. The construction of Building 40at NIH has been a fast-tracked project.“Fast-tracked” simply means that thecontractor starts to clear the site andbegin construction of the foundationwhile the contract documents (drawingsand specifications) are being completedon other areas of the project.

� Building 40 wasconstructed on anaccelerated schedule.NIH Building 40, Bethesda,Maryland. HLM, architect.

56

LABORATORY TYPES

Case Studies

Rodman Materials ResearchLaboratory

Aberdeen, Maryland

Architect: The Benham GroupOccupied: 1999Size: 292,000 GSFConstruction cost: $73,300,000

The purpose of this project is to providea national center of excellence formaterials research and development,including processing and manufacturingresearch, in support of future U.S. Armyacquisition systems and cost reduction ofcurrent systems. The design promotesinteraction between scientists andengineers outside the laboratories, whileproviding a state-of-the-art researchenvironment in 149 separate laboratories.

The research laboratory is located onthe crest of a hill along a major approachroute to Aberdeen Proving Ground. Thefacility, consisting of more than 290,000sq ft of research laboratories and supportspaces, is tucked into an existing tree line,with the utility-intensive laboratoriesbacking up to an existing forest. Thelaboratories are screened from public viewby the offices, library, and atrium areasacross the front of the property.

The interior layout emphasizes thevisibility of people’s movement within thebuilding. A secure exterior courtyardbetween the administrative and researchspaces allows personnel to discussclassified work outdoors while remainingin a secure environment. Numerous“nodes” encourage scientists andengineers to interact regularly. Moreover,the lab’s four-story atrium makes

� Building exterior.Rodman Materials ResearchLaboratory, Aberdeen,Maryland. The BenhamGroup, architect. Allphotographs, pages 57–60,courtesy Alan Karchmer.

Government Lab Case Studies: Rodman Materials Research Laboratory

57

movements visible and links offices withlab spaces, creating closeness andcommunity despite the large size of thetotal structure.

The building, a highly energy-efficientfacility, was designed to integrate certainmechanical and electrical systems into theoverall building aesthetics. Bright yellowoutside air intakes make a boldstatement, signaling that this is alaboratory facility. Energy consumption isreduced through extensive use of naturallighting, accomplished through anintegrated architectural and engineeringapproach to the building’s design.Atriums, clerestories, and skylights allowdaylight into the interior of the building,

58

LABORATORY TYPES

� Main entrance lobby.Rodman Materials ResearchLaboratory, Aberdeen,Maryland. The BenhamGroup, architect.

� Secure exteriorcourtyard. RodmanMaterials ResearchLaboratory.

where photo-sensors automatically dimthe installed lighting in response toambient light levels. Light shelves on thebuilding exterior provide a shading effectduring mid- to late afternoon and reflectlight into the building at other times ofday. The interior office layout features acirculation corridor adjacent to theexterior windows, thereby introducingnatural light into the open office areas.

The new lab provides significant life-cycle cost savings through its sustainabledesign and energy-efficiency features.Building finishes, selected with durabilityand environmental soundness in mind,include drywall and ceiling tile madefrom recyclable material, nontoxic paints,carpet with low volatile organicemissions, chlorofluorocarbon-freeinsulation, and chemically nonreactivecountertops.

59

� Floor plan. RodmanMaterials ResearchLaboratory.

� Mechanical systemsintegrated into overallbuilding aesthetics. Rodman Materials ResearchLaboratory.

Government Lab Case Studies: Rodman Materials Research Laboratory

� NEC acceleratorlaboratory. RodmanMaterials ResearchLaboratory, Aberdeen,Maryland. The BenhamGroup, architect.

Robotics acceleratedAging laboratory. RodmanMaterials ResearchLaboratory.

� Exposed mechanicalsystems in the interior.Rodman Materials ResearchLaboratory.

60

LABORATORY TYPES

�

Walter Reed Army Institute ofResearch (WRAIR)

Forest Glen, Maryland

Architect: HLW InternationalOccupied: Fall 1999Size: 474,000 GSFConstruction cost $147,300,000

This Department of Defense laboratory,housing 1,000 scientists, is a state-of-the-art research facility focusing oninfectious disease, combat casualty care,operational health hazards, and medicaldefense against biological and chemicalweapons. The exterior of the building ispredominantly red brick with precast

concrete trim. One architectural featureis the inclusion of a passive sun-screening system to reduce glare and heatgain through the perimeter windows.The roof penthouse contains much ofthe mechanical equipment. The exhauststacks march along the penthouse, basedon the lab module. The mechanicalexhaust system is primarily a manifoldedsystem, requiring fewer exhaust stacks atthe building exterior. There are somededicated exhaust stacks located withinthe rectangular stack enclosures. The useof glass along the main entry corridoradmits light into the building, framesviews of the site, and complements the

� Building exterior.Walter Reed Army Instituteof Research, Forest Glen,Maryland. HLW International,architect. All photographs,pages 61–63, courtesy HLW International.

Government Lab Case Studies: Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

61

artworks located along the interiorsolid walls.

Shared amenities include a 300-seatauditorium, classrooms, conferencerooms, a cafeteria, a library, a centralatrium space, and an exterior terrace. The auditorium has a level floor andremovable seating that allows for multipleuses by WRAIR personnel and the localcommunity. State-of-the-art

telecommunications capabilities areprovided in the auditorium and adjoiningconference room and classrooms. Thelibrary houses the institute’s collection ofrare books as well as materials from theformer Gorgas Hospital in Panama. Thecentral stair is constructed of wood,concrete, and metal, providing a visuallypleasing centerpiece in the volume ofspace. People can easily see each other at

� Atrium stair. Walter ReedArmy Institute of Research,Forest Glen, Maryland. HLWInternational, architect.

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LABORATORY TYPES

multiple floor levels. The atrium occurs atthe intersection of the two wings of thebuilding and is a logical place for peopleto meet. At the main level, wood-crafteddisplay cabinets are located within thevarious departments, providingresearchers with an opportunity topresent information about their work.There are wood tables and chairs forinformal meeting and work sessions, aswell as lounge chairs for relaxing. “Ifscientists rub shoulders they will create adifferent science,” said planning chiefColonel Henry Fein, M.D.

The desire to create a collegial researchenvironment inspired the use of woodfinishes throughout. It was agreed that itwas extremely important to have a qualityfacility that people would want to workin and that could be used to draw otherresearchers.

The organization of the laboratories andresearch offices is modular, with themechanical systems located in aninterstitial space above each lab. Theinterstitial space should provide theneeded flexibility to accommodatecurrent and future military medicalresearch and development as program

evolution and consolidation continue.The clear area in the interstitial is 6' 11",since if the space had 7' clear it wouldcount as an additional floor and wouldaffect building code compliance.

Instead of customizing the labs,designers planned five generic types of

Government Lab Case Studies: Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

63

� Floor plan. Walter ReedArmy Institute of Research,Forest Glen, Maryland. HLWInternational, architect.

� Equipment zone. WalterReed Army Institute ofResearch.

� BL3 lab. Walter Reed ArmyInstitute of Research.

�

labs to serve most research functions.Each researcher is then placed in a lab,where minor alterations can be made.The labs are located along the perimeterof the building, with support spaces atthe interior. In addition to the genericBiosafety Level 2 (BL-2) labs, there areseven BL-3 labs, three of which arestacked above each other and share anexhaust fan system. All seven labs haveshower-out facilities.

The building is run off a central plant,with a separate mechanical system for thevivarium. The vivarium is located in thebasement and also has a full interstitialspace for engineering services. Thecorridor of the vivarium is painted inmultiple colors to add interest to what inmost facilities is a boring space.

The design process for the new buildinginvolved the end users in programmingand design. A particular group wasresponsible for policy for the overallbuilding. Design decisions were based ontried-and-true, economical, and state-of-the-art ideas. At the beginning of theproject, the decision makers toured otherrelevant laboratory facilities. The LewisThomas Laboratories in Princetonencouraged the WRAIR team to developthe building as a collegial environment.The WRAIR facility places seniorscientists directly across the corridor fromtheir laboratories. Technicians’ and juniorscientists’ offices are directly adjacent tothe laboratories, separated only by largewindows and sliding glass doors. Theinterstitial design was mandated by Armyguide plates for hospital construction.The general and mechanical contractorsvisited the Hutchinson Cancer Center inSeattle to understand the high-qualityinterstitial space and returned to conductextensive coordination meetings to ensure

that the space was easily traversable formodification and service work.

The researchers were asked to provideinput on their laboratory space. A full-size lab mock-up was constructed at theend of design development. Eachresearcher was encouraged to visit themock-up and “kick the tires.” Involvingthe researchers and other key decisionmakers throughout the entire designprocess minimized changes duringconstruction and made for happier clientswhen the building was occupied. Eachscientist was assigned one lab module towork in, and all were treated equally tominimize the creation of fiefdoms. A 30ft x 30 ft lab (two lab modules) isassigned to two scientists.

Georgia Public Health Laboratory

Atlanta, Georgia

Architect: Lord, Aeck & Sargent, Inc.Occupied: 1998Size: 66,027 GSFConstruction cost: $10,501,943

The Georgia Public Health Laboratory—named Laboratory of the Year by R&Dmagazine in 1988—is functional,pleasant, and well lit with natural indirectsunlight. The key idea guiding thefacility’s creation was the open lab. R&Dmagazine quoted Richard Rietz, one ofthe competition’s jurors, as saying, “That’squite a departure for a public building,but especially for a building full oftechnicians. These people generally getthe short end of the stick when it comesto accommodations. Here finally theyhave a nice work space.”

The building is organized with a two-story entry lobby that has paintedaluminum sunscreens allowing soft,indirect light into the space. The research

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LABORATORY TYPES

offices are located along the outside wall,administrative workstations in a largeopen area, large open labs in the center,and lab and building support along theback wall. The large open labs are locatedon the second floors, with the teachinglabs at the ground level.

The clinical testing laboratory willconduct about 2.5 million tests on morethan 1.5 million clinical specimens eachyear. The open lab concept evolved froma decision to separate the accessioningand testing functions. The open BL-2 labcreates a collaborative environment. Theopen labs have write-up areas along themain corridor adjacent to the benchspace and near the administrativeworkstations. Clerestory windows belowthe curved ceiling allow light into the

main labs and permit views to theexterior. Elizabeth Franko, lab director,explained, “A bright, open work area wasthe number one request from my staff.Everybody wanted to have some sense oflight and the outside. So care was takento create an environment that is pleasantto work in, promotes interaction, andinspires pride.” The interior glazingallows light in and creates a saferenvironment: if an accident occurs, it canbe seen and managed more easily.

The client desired to change the way itslab employees work in two fundamentalways: through the utilization of a centralaccessioning facility and the developmentof an open laboratory concept.

A more streamlined method of gettingspecimens to the labs was developed

Government Lab Case Studies: Georgia Public Health Laboratory

65

� Building exterior.Georgia Public HealthLaboratory, Atlanta. Lord,Aeck, & Sargent, Inc.,architect. All photographs,pages 65–67, copyrightJonathan Hillyer.

with central accessing, utilizing a single location for opening containersand distributing specimens. Specimensand materials flow from receiving to the central accessioning area, where theyare opened, numbered, and recorded.This procedure allows more reliabletracking, with information electronicallyrecorded. The specimens are then sent tothe large open lab, which accommodatesthe BL-2 lab groups, or to the separateBL-3 lab area.

The open lab concept was a key featurein achieving project goals. Previously, thevarious laboratory groups worked insmaller, separate laboratories, with limiteddaylight and limited contact with othersoutside the group. To make the new ideaof an open lab work for people who wereaccustomed to small, subdivided spaces,the project team provided all disciplinesample equipment and instrumentation ina bright and spacious laboratoryenvironment. All benches are the same,with common infrastructure elementsthat accommodate individual researchrequirements. Gas, vacuum, andemergency power, deionized watercapability, first aid, spill control, a burnkit, and fire extinguishers are available ateach bench. Slightly wider than normalbench-to-bench spacing (10' 8") isprovided to accommodate differentscientific operations conducted side by side.

Program requirements dictated that theopen lab should be located in the middleof the building, between the servicecorridor and the open clerical area,creating a “building within a building.”Therefore, to get natural light to the labspace, the ceiling plane was given a gentlecurve upward to the west, with clerestorywindows added beneath. Windowsbetween the lab and the clerical areafurther open the space and provide visualcommunication between the two areas.Windows are placed between the clericalarea and the west offices, allowinglaboratory staff to see through the officesto the landscaping outside. The viewthrough the clerestory reveals the tops oftrees and the sky.

A sunscreen consisting of curvedaluminum tubes surrounds the glazedcurtain wall in the lobby area. To the

66

LABORATORY TYPES

� Two-story entry lobby.Georgia Public HealthLaboratory, Atlanta. Lord,Aeck, & Sargent, Inc.,architect.

west, granite piers are configured to act asvertical sunscreens, which help to shadethe office areas from late-day sun.Insulating low-emissivity coated glass isutilized on all exterior applications toreduce energy costs. The roof isconfigured as a single uninterrupted slopefor easier construction and low-costmaintenance. The six fume hood exhaustfans interrupt the roof surface like asculpture.

Georgia granite recovered from

tombstone scrap was used to provide aninexpensive, durable, and long-lastingground-level connection with the site. Itis particularly effective around theloading dock, where durable, low-maintenance materials are required. Thebeautiful, low-maintenance copper-shingle siding used in this building wasfabricated from recycled material at aboutthe same initial price as a brick wall andwill be even more cost-effective over thelife of the building.

Clerestory glazing allowslight in. Georgia PublicHealth Laboratory.

� Different colors and tilepatterns add to the visualappearance of a space.Georgia Public HealthLaboratory.

Government Lab Case Studies: Georgia Public Health Laboratory

67

� Floor plan. Georgia Public Health Laboratory.

�

ACADEMIC LABSAcademic laboratories include bothresearch and teaching labs. Academicresearch labs can be very similar to thoseof the private and government sectors;teaching labs are unique to the academicsector.

Undergraduate Teaching LabsTeaching laboratories differ from researchlabs in a number of ways. Becauseinstruction occurs in them, a specificbench or lectern for the lecturer may berequired. Benches are oriented toward the professor and the marker boards.Computer equipment, such as electroniccameras, computer boards, and Elmos(overhead projectors tied into acomputer), enhances the learningenvironment. Casework is usually fixedaround the perimeter, though manyteaching labs have mobile casework in themiddle to allow lectures and research tooccur in the same space. To increaseutilization, casework is installed in a waythat allows for different teachingenvironments and for multiple classes tobe taught in the same space. Storage forstudent microscopes, book bags, andcoats is necessary for most teaching labs.Casework is commonly equipped with

locks. There is less instrumentation inteaching labs than in research labs. Forundergraduate courses, write-up areas areusually provided inside the lab. (Write-upareas for graduate students are generallylocated outside the lab, in offices.) Ateaching lab must accommodate morepeople (i.e., students) and stools thandoes a typical research lab. Prep rooms,which allow faculty to set up suppliesbefore classes, may be located betweentwo teaching labs.

The number of students typicallyenrolled in a course usually determinesthe size of the teaching lab used for thatcourse. A typical lab module of 10' 6" x 30' (320 net square feet [NSF]) maysupport four to six students. An organicchemistry lab for 24 students would beapproximately 1,600 NSF. Usually thereis very little, if any, overhead shelving inthe center of a lab. Overhead storage is atthe perimeter walls, and the center of thelab has only base cabinets so as tomaintain better sight lines for teachingand learning.

Lab courses are commonly taughtMonday through Friday from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. Most faculty and students prefernot to have classes in the evening or onSaturday. As budgets tighten and

68

LABORATORY TYPES

30' -

0"

CLE

AR

42'-0" CLEAR

� Casework designed forteams of four compared tothe typical table with twostudents.

continuing education and distancelearning continue to grow in popularity,however, evening and Saturday classesmay become more common in manycolleges and universities. Moreover, someteaching labs being designed today willalso be used for research. Because of thesereasons, mechanical systems should bedesigned to be able to run at full capacity24 hours a day, seven days a week.

Depending on the discipline andnumber of students, shared bench spacecan range from 15 to 30 linear ft perteaching laboratory, is usually configuredas perimeter wall bench or center islandbench, and is used for benchtopinstruments, exhibiting displays, ordistributing glass materials. Ten to 20linear ft of wall space per lab should beleft available for storage cabinets, as wellas for built-in and movable equipment

such as refrigerators and incubators. Atypical student workstation is 3–4 ft widewith a file cabinet and data and electricalhookups for computers.

Some teaching labs use casework that a student can easily change in height toaccommodate sit-down (30 in.) or stand-up (36 in.) work. The flexibility of thefurniture encourages a variety of teachingand learning scenarios. The additionalcost of flexible furniture is offset by theamount of space saved by eliminating therequirement for separate sit-down andstand-up workstations. Fume hoodsshared by two students should be at least6 ft wide. The distance between studentworkbenches and fume hoods should beminimized to lessen the possibility ofchemical spills.

A flexible design is recommended toaccommodate enrollment fluctuations.

Academic Labs

69

30' -

0"

CLE

AR

42' - 0" CLEAR

� Consider casework that can be organized in many different ways in the same space.

A separate discussion room shared by several teaching labs may be analternative to accommodating lecturesin the lab. Teaching labs may be locatedadjacent to research labs in order toshare resources. For example, advancedorganic and inorganic chemistry labsand introductory chemistry labs canshare some equipment.

The illustrations opposite and on page72 represent a range of teaching labs.

Integrating Teaching andResearch LabsAs the need for flexibility has grownand as science instruction, even at theundergraduate level, more and morefocuses on hands-on experience, thetraditional distinction between teachingand research labs becomes lessimportant. An increasing number ofinstitutions are integrating these areasto enhance undergraduate curricula andto facilitate communication betweenfaculty and students at all levels. Thegreatest variances between teaching andresearch labs are space allocation andequipment needs. To compensate forthose differences, some new facilities aredesigned with greater flexibility to allowlab space to be more adaptable andproductive. There are several reasons forcreating homogenous lab facilities:• Students at all levels are introduced

to current techniques.

• Such facilities encourage interactionbetween faculty, graduate students,and undergraduates.

• A standard laboratory module withbasic services accommodates changequickly and economically.

• Common and specializedequipment may be shared.

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LABORATORY TYPES

� Team station withcomputer and sink to be used during lecture and research.

� Another example of ateam-oriented workstation.

Academic Labs

71

� Separate space forstorage, lecture, andresearch.

� Research and lecture inthe same teaching lab.

72

LABORATORY TYPES

� Another example ofresearch and lecture in thesame teaching lab.

� Sinks as docking stationsorganize this teaching lab.

• Common facilities can share supportspaces, such as instrument rooms,prep rooms, and specialty rooms.

• Greater utilization of space andequipment enhances project costjustification.

• Teaching labs can be used for facultyresearch during semester breaks.

Academic Lab DesignRequirementsRequirements differ widely according tothe kind of lab being designed. Academiclabs include the following categories:

Biology labs

Physics labs

Chemistry labs

Engineering labs

Geology labs

Computer science labs

In general, biology labs require the mostservices to the benches and chemistry labsthe most fume hoods. Physics labs haveminimal requirements for services.

Biology labsBiology Labs are wet labs requiring thefollowing:• Layout and equipment to serve a

variety of teaching models

• Fume hoods and biosafety cabinets

• Space for incubators, refrigerators, andfreezers of various sizes

• Bench and storage space forequipment and student materials

• High-quality water at the sink

• Cabinets for chemical and flammablesstorage

• Adjacent prep, storage, and equipmentsupply to support efficient use of theteaching lab

Biology labs should be flexible enough to accommodate anatomy, biochemistry,general biology, microbiology, cellularbiology, and molecular genetics.

Support spaces for biology labs includevivarium facilities, greenhouses, tissueculture areas, environmental rooms,incubators, growth chambers, glasswashing areas, darkroom areas,instrument rooms, storage, and shops.Plant and animal specimen storage anddisplay rooms should be located in closeproximity to the biology teaching labs.

Physics labsPhysics labs require significant computerand telecommunications support. Thekey design issues for physics labs includethe following:• Layout and equipment to serve a

variety of teaching models

� Research and lecturein the center of the lab withthe fume hoods around the perimeter.

Academic Labs

73

FE

• Noise and vibration control foraccurate measurements

• Magnetic shielding

• Extensive electrical powerrequirements

• Durable and mobile casework

• Extensive computer networking

• Flexible workspace

• Storage on shelves or in cabinets forexperiment “kits” in small containers

Some physics labs are dry labs that do notrequire 100 percent outside air. There isminimal need for fume hoods. Labs withspecialized requirements includeworkshops for optics, metalworking andelectronics, high bay pilot and equipmentareas, isotope labs, and equipmentstorage. Physics labs require storage

rooms for large equipment. Mobile cartsmay be used to move equipment betweenlabs and storage. Floor loads may behigher than in most other labs.

Chemistry labsAreas to focus on in designing teachinglabs for chemistry include the following:• Layout and equipment to serve a

variety of teaching models

• Adequate bench space for equipmentand instrumentation

• Under-hood or under-bench storagefor student experiments

• Large number of fume hoods alongperimeter walls

• Write-up areas for documentingresearch experiences

Synthetic chemistry (organic and

� Some examples of biologylabs. Fixed casework aroundthe perimeter with moveablecasework in the center.

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LABORATORY TYPES

30' -

0''

CLE

AR

42'-0'' CLEAR

Fixed BenchesMovable Tables

Movable Tables Movable Tables

inorganic) labs generally require 3 linearft of fume hood for each student.Adjacent prep, storage, equipment, andchemical and glassware supply areas helpto support efficient use of the teachinglab. Instrument labs often have splitbenches and flexible utility service carriersfor unique equipment needs.

Chemistry labs are wet labs requiringpiped gases, heavy electrical and datainfrastructure for instruments, and 100percent outside air ventilation. Chemistrysupport and research areas include gaschromatography labs, mass spectroscopy,NMR apparatus, and imaging.

Engineering labsEngineering labs are typically like largeworkshops, often requiring custom-madesetups or provisions for equipment thatmay be too tall for a standard lab ceiling.

The labs are usually open, with little fixedcasework; utility services are located alongthe wall and overhead. The following arekey characteristics of engineering labs:

• Flexible open space for largeequipment

• A greater volume of space for tallapparatus

• Overhead cranes to move large and/orheavy equipment

• Heavy floor loads (may requirelocating such labs on the lowest levelof the building)

• Wide and tall doorways to allowforklifts to haul in equipment

Engineering labs may be wet labs,requiring fume hoods and 100 percentoutside air. There are also many dry labsfor engineering research.

Academic Labs

75

30' -

0''

CLE

AR

42' - 0'' CLEAR � A variety of physics labs.

76

LABORATORY TYPES30

' - 0

'' C

LEA

R

42'-0'' CLEAR

General ChemistryFixed Pennisula Benches

Organic Chemistry

Write

Equipment

Up

Up

AD

A

6' Fume Hood

EQUIPMENT ZONE

WRITE UP AREA

EQUIPMENT ZONE

EQUIPMENT ZONE

EQUIPMENT ZONE

WRITE UP AREA

GAS GUN LAB

WIND TUNNEL LAB

60'-0"

21'-4

"

42'-8"21'-4"

30'-0

"

87'-8"

30'-0

"

� Chemistry labs with fumehoods along the outsidewalls.

� Organic and inorganicchemistry labs with prep andequipment support in themiddle.

� Engineering labs aredesigned in a variety of sizesdepending on theequipment and amount ofbench space necessary.

Geology labsGeneral geology labs are usually dry labsthat require a significant amount of spacefor the hanging of maps and for rockstorage and display. The casework isunique to these types of labs. Large flatfiles (4 ft wide and 3 ft deep) arenecessary to hold maps. Cabinets for rockstorage need to have sturdy drawers ofvarious sizes. It is important to reservewall area above the casework for hangingmaps. Some geology labs may requirehoods and sinks that may need waterservice and drains to support largeexperiments with custom apparatus.Small hydraulic lifts are often provided toassist in moving large, heavy rocks.

Computer science labsThe computer science lab is a fairly newtype of space. Most are dry labs that needextensive wire management. Electricaland data wiring must be readily accessibleat the floor, walls, and ceiling toaccommodate the teaching and researchneeds. An individual lab needs to beflexible enough for both lectures andhands-on learning. Glare from naturallight always is a concern. A variety oflighting options should be provided toaccommodate research at the computerand the team work environment.Curtains may be necessary to controllighting in an area of the lab.

Many computer science labs requiremagnetic-field shielding and an extensivelightning protection system. Clean power,separate from the ordinary electricaloutlets, is necessary in each room. Thelength of wire runs should be minimizedfor efficiency of operation. Raisedflooring may be helpful for wiremanagement and for underfloor deliveryof cool supply air. Because of the heavy

use of computers and other equipmentthe need to cool the space is of highimportance. The raised floor can alsohelp protect the room from electro-magnetic fields.

Computer science labs also require avacuum system and compressed air. Labdoors should be wide enough to allow

Academic Labs

77

WR

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AR

EA

CA

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WO

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4' WHITE BD.

WRITE UP AREA

AD

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WRITE UP AREA

WR

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UP

AR

EA

WR

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UP

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320 NSF - 1 LAB MODULE 640 NSF - 2 LAB MODULES

960 NSF - 3 LAB MODULES

1280 NSF - 4 LAB MODULES

10'-8" 21'-4"

3'-6

"

3'-6

"

5'-0

"

WRITE UP AREA

30'-0

"

32'-0"

30'-0

"42'-8"

30'-0

"

5'-6"5'-8"5'-8"5'-6"

5'-2

"

� Some examples ofundergraduate researchlabs.

large equipment and racks of computersto be moved in and out. Some doors androoms for chip design and circuitry willrequire special shielding to minimize thepenetration of radio frequencies.

Research Labs forFaculty/StudentsThe faculty’s primary responsibility isteaching first, then research, at mostundergraduate facilities. Faculty researchand advanced-study student research isoften performed in shared faculty/studentresearch labs. Shared research labs forfaculty and upper-level students aretypically two lab modules in size (640NSF). Such labs often require multipleresearch and write-up stations within thelab. Overhead service carriers are oftenused to bring utilities to the bench orequipment, while allowing for the mostflexible use of floor/bench space.

Space GuidelinesToday’s teaching labs are designed toprovide experimental experiences that areopen-ended and hands-on.Undergraduate lab work is no longerlimited to textbook experiments that arebegun and completed in one class period.To accommodate these changes incurriculum and teaching styles, thefollowing guidelines should be consultedin designing space in teaching labs:• Space requirements depend heavily on

the discipline, course level, equipmentused, lab type, and the amount offlexibility needed.

• Standard NSF per student for variousdisciplines:General biology 50–60General chemistry 50–80General geology 40–60

General physics 40–60Psychology 30–40Biochemistry 50–70

The table opposite compares severaluniversities across the country and theNSF per full-time faculty for variousdepartments.

The square footage for each student in aclass laboratory can vary greatly becauseof the differing space requirements ofdifferent kinds of laboratories. Moreover,graduate-level laboratories usually requiremore space per station thanundergraduate labs. The University ofNorth Carolina has developed assignablesquare footage (ASF) per station fordifferent discipline categories of space:

• Highly intensive (engineering labs):108 ASF

• Intensive (biological and physicalsciences): 70 ASF

• Moderately intensive (computer/information technologies, psychology): 50 ASF

Total student stations can be estimatedfor certain disciplines by dividing thenumber of teaching labs into the numberof students in a class. The following table,drawn from Susan Braybrooke's Designfor Research (1993), shows typical sizes forsome disciplines:

Lab Students/ lab

General biology/ 32–40microbiology

Other biology 20–24

Chemistry 16–24

General physics 24–32and geology

Other physics 16–20Planetarium 20–50

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LABORATORY TYPES

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SPACE REQUIREMENTS PER FULL-TIME FACULTY, TEACHING UNIVERSITIES

Institution State Space Requirements by Discipline (NSF)Biology Chemistry Psychology Physics

Institution A NC 1,461 2,043 2,075 2,030

Institution B GA 1,378 1,142 356 1,664

Institution C IL 2,489 2,178 1,380

Institution D WI 2,375 2,102 3,800

Institution E AL 2,200 2,270 2,050 1,983

Institution F ME 3,043 3,683 2,400 3,275

Institution G MN 3,976 2,917 2,604 2,783

Institution H ME 2,400 3,029 1,117

Institution I NC 1,167

Institution J PA 2,613 1,436

Institution K IA 2,551 3,038 3,198

Institution L MI 2,012 1,793 646

Institution M WI 3,804 3,109 2,925

Institution N MN 2,699 2,561 1,314 3,029

Institution O GA 1,067 1,223 1,812

Institution P GA 1,451 1,292 1,570

Institution Q NJ 2,505 2,052 1,302

Institution R GA 1,267 1,221 1,142

Institution S MN 2,117 1,858 2,222

Institution T GA 1,618

Institution V MA 2,168 1,393

Total NSF 40,963 41,742 14,005 36,668

Number of Universities 18 19 9 17

Average 2,276 2,197 1,556 2,157

Standard classroomsThe number of students that a classroomcan accommodate is an important factorin determining how efficiently classroomspace can be used. This can be measuredin terms of net square feet per seat andthe average number of seats perclassroom. The table below is used by thestate of North Carolina and others toprogram classrooms.

Typical classroom prototypes areillustrated on the oppposite page. The prototypes should be used as a guide,especially during the programming and design phases.

In the State University System ofGeorgia’s 34 colleges and universities, the following were the average squarefootages assigned campus-wide for each full-time student in 1995:

• 10.8 for classroom space. This figurewas calculated by dividing the totalassignable square feet of classroomscampus-wide by the equivalent full-time enrollment. The classroomsinclude general classrooms and largelecture halls used primarily forinstruction.

• 6.7 for teaching laboratories. Teachinglaboratories include physics andchemistry labs and other types ofspecialized classrooms used primarilyfor instruction. This figure wascalculated by dividing the totalassignable square feet of teachinglaboratories campus-wide by theequivalent full-time enrollment.

The State of North Carolina in 1997completed a study of public and privatefacilities that inventories space utilizationof colleges and universities. The purposesof the study include providing facilitiesdata to federal and state authorities,making data on North Carolina facilitiesavailable to other commissions forcomparative purposes, and providingparticipating institutions with data thatmay be helpful in the management of theirfacilities. The table at right is from thisstudy of 112 institutions in the State ofNorth Carolina.

Classroom utilization ratesTo determine the number of classroomsrequired, one must look at class schedulingto determine classroom utilization rates.

To maximize efficiency, classroomscheduling should be done campus-wide,not by department. Some schools havepolicies requiring higher or lowerutilization rates than those given in thepreceding. Utilization rates may also takeinto account evenings and Saturdays.

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CLASSROOM SPACE REQUIREMENTS

Number Area per Seat (NSF)of Tables Armchair Tablet

Seats & Chairs Desks Armchair Desks(small) (large)

10–29 20–30 18 22

30–39 20–24 16 18

40–49 18–22 15 16

50–59 18–22 14 16

60–99 18–22 13 15

100–149 16–20 11 14

150–299 16–20 10 14

300+ 16–18 9 12

CLASSROOM UTILIZATION RATES

Hours Used Seatsper Week Occupied (%)

Classrooms 25–30 60Lower-level labs 15–20 80Upper-level labs 8–12 80

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640 NSF2 Lab Modules30 Seats

640 NSF2 Lab Modules30 Seats

960 NSF3 Lab Modules60 Seats

1280 NSF4 Lab Modules90 Seats

1600 NSF5 Lab Modules120 Seats

3' MIN

8'-0

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� Prototypical classroomdesigns based on a 10' 8" x 30' lab module.

SPACE UTILIZATION, COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES*

1997 1996 1995 1994 1993

Academic Facility Area Per Full-Time Student (sq ft)Research universities 170 169 164 137 139Master’s universities & colleges 92 92 89 96 93Baccalaureate universities & colleges 142 143 134 127 122

Average Weekly Hours of Instruction in ClassroomsResearch universities 30.0 28.5 28.2 29.4 28.3Master’s universities & colleges 25.1 24.2 24.4 25.2 25.7Baccalaureate universities & colleges 22.1 20.5 21.4 20.4 19.0The University of North Carolina standard is 35 hours of instruction in classrooms per week.

Average Weekly Hours of Instruction in LaboratoriesResearch universities 18.4 11.3 11.3 13.0 12.2Master’s universities & colleges 15.4 14.1 14.7 14.1 14.2Baccalaureate universities & colleges 11.6 11.2 11.1 11.0 9.1The University of North Carolina standard is 20 hours of instruction in laboratories per week.

* Based on a State of North Carolina Study, 1997.

High-Technology InstructionalEnvironments

Interactive learningMost educators today agree thatproblem-solving and reasoning skillsshould be fostered and that learningshould be an active process. Thechallenge of preparing for a lifetime oflearning, growing, and changing requiresabilities far different from those thathelped people learn and thrive in morepredictable times. Learning in a diverse,multidisciplinary team environment isincreasingly emphasized, with the intentthat students will be better prepared toaddress the changing demands in their

research. Teaching is much morecooperative and collaborative, withdepartmental groupings replaced byinterdisciplinary groupings and acurriculum that connects learning withthe real world.

Two fundamental concepts areimportant for team-oriented learningand research environments: flexibilityand visibility. The engineering systems,as well as the furniture, must be flexible,encouraging the users to change theirenvironment. The spaces should behighly visible, with minimal walls andoverhead shelving and some interiorglazing.

� Teamwork area providedin the lab encouragesseveral people to worktogether. Stevenson CenterComplex ChemistryBuilding, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee. PayetteAssociates, Inc., architect.

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LABORATORY TYPES

A number of schools have begundecreasing the time students spend inlectures and have introduced moreopportunities for smaller-group learningactivities. Computer-assisted instructionalprograms are being used to supplementteaching on specific topics. Teaching labsand classrooms are often combined intoone space.

Teachers are promoting interactivelearning, requiring students tocommunicate more with one another.Computer boards, electronic kiosks, andother multimedia systems are beingincorporated throughout lab buildings.Corridors, meeting rooms, lounges, mailrooms, and conventional and electroniclibraries are necessary extensions of thelaboratory. The entire building should beutilized for research opportunities.

Distance learningAccording to Michael D. Kull,“Distance learning technology is drivingthe trend toward ‘virtual universities’ ”(Kull 1999). In designing distance-learning environments, it is importantto distinguish between synchronous andasynchronous learning environments.The synchronous delivery mode fordistance learning requires the learner tobe available at the same time the courseis being delivered. The asynchronousmode of delivery allows the learner toparticipate off-site; questions andgroup discussions take place via e-mailor other types of remote correspondenceand collaboration that does not requireeveryone to be present at the sametime.

Synchronous distance learningSynchronous learning is popular becausemany educators (and students) believe that

classroom collaboration is an importantpart of the learning and educationalprocess. The challenge of emulating aclassroom environment is inherent indesigning space for synchronous distancelearning. This objective may beaccomplished by the following:• Placing monitor(s) toward the back of

the room so that instructors can “see”the remote classroom as a virtualextension of the existing environmentwithout having to turn their backs onthe people in the class. Conversely, awall-mounted monitor placed in thefront of the room or a screen splitter(a device that allows a display to bedivided into distinct view ports) willallow those present to “see” remotestudents displayed in a small windowon the main screen.

• Screen splitters will also allowinstructors to display inputs frommultiple sources (e.g., Elmo, VCR,computer-based images, etc.).

• Audio classroom participation isachieved by the use of microphones.Microphones may be either voiceactivated or push-button activated.Cameras can be programmed toautomatically pan to “active”microphone locations.

The instructor should feel free to moveabout during his or her lecture withoutbeing concerned about camera placementor audio pickup. Effective use of wirelessmicrophones and infrared trackingdevices on cameras are one way toaccomplish this. The instructor shouldalso be able to easily control what willand what will not be displayed on theclassroom monitors or what information(audio or video) is broadcast to theremote sites.

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83

Asynchronous distance learningAsynchronous distance-learning systemsinclude correspondence courses,electronic bulletin boards, and Web-based courses. The objective is to create alearning environment that allowsstudents to see the visual presentationand hear oral presentations or commentseasily and to be comfortable with boththe delivery medium and their physicalsurroundings.

Asynchronous learning environmentsallow instructors to record the audioportion of their programs through the useof instructor and student microphones. Adetermination must be made as to thelevel and type of asynchronous distance-learning program desired. For example, itis possible to record the audio portion ofthe classroom but not the visual (video).Thus, handouts and classroompresentation materials, along with therecorded classroom session, can be postedfor download and review at a later dateor time.

Computer labs facilitating bothsynchronous and asynchronous learningneed proper integration of informationtechnology into the building and eachclassroom, as well as appropriate furniturethat is wired for computers,ergonomically correct, and flexible tooperate. Realistic funding for equipment,design, maintenance, and technicalsupport is also necessary. The cost ofwiring, computer equipment, andfurniture designed for the computer caneasily be as much as 15 percent of theconstruction cost.

Attention to detailThe World Wide Web and e-mail nowprovide easy access for scientists and

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students to collaborate with colleaguesaround the world. This requires attentionto detail, including the amount of deskspace (personal area) that should beallocated to accommodate computers,notebooks, and other accessories in theclassrooms and large lecture halls. Lecturehalls should be configured to allowinstructors to control the classroomenvironment from a teaching podiumwith a touch-screen computer interface.The interface should allow the user tocontrol light levels, acoustic levels,peripheral display equipment (VCR,visual display devices, compact discplayer, etc.), electronic screen, andcameras.

The lectern for computer controlsshould be small and placed on the rightor left front edge of the room, facing thestudents. This arrangement is similar to

that needed for slide presentations.Faculty will find it desirable to facestudents when using a computer in aclassroom. Massive desk/console barriersbetween faculty and students should beavoided. For comfortable viewing,television sets should be 52 in. above thefloor. The center of the screen will beapproximately 66 in. from the floor, andthe student’s sight line to the TV screenwill be the same as the sight line to theteacher’s head in the classroom. At thisheight the controls are easily accessible.For fixed monitor (or TV) locations (e.g.wall mounted), it is important to keep inmind the uniform federal accessibilitystandards and guidelines of the Americanswith Disabilities Act (ADA), which statethat “objects protruding from walls morethan 4" shall have 80" minimum clearhead room.”

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� Each room should bedesigned to accommodatemultiple layouts.

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LABORATORY TYPES

� Mobile computer boardscan be very cost effectiveand flexible for the studentsand faculty.

� Motorized tables can beraised or lowered duringclass. Marist High School,Atlanta, Georgia. P&W,architect.

Proper room lighting can go a long way towardpreventing screen flicker and glare. One way tominimize glare from ceiling lights is to tilt thedisplay slightly toward the floor. Generally, a 2 in. high wood strip under the back of thedisplay should provide enough tilt to preventglare. As a rule of thumb, one monitor can servea classroom of 35 students; two are required for35–60 students. Students should sit no closer tothe monitor than four times the diagonalmeasurement of the display device and nofarther than seven times the diagonalmeasurement of the display device. The bestviewing for a 27 in. display device is between 9 and 16 ft; for a 31 in. display, between 10 and 19 ft.

Equipping computer labs and classrooms with movable furniture allows experimentationwith a variety of teaching and learningmodalities (e.g., a typical lecture arrangementwith all desks facing forward or a groupingarrangement that encourages break-out sessions

or team collaboration). At the StateUniversity of West Georgia's TechnologyEnhanced Learning Center, the computerlabs were designed with data andelectrical outlets along the walls and inthe floor. There is one standard 4 ft wideworkstation for each student. Theworkstations can easily be moved by thestudents and faculty to create differentteaching and learning environments inthe same space.

Specially outfitted classrooms areaugmented with gear that includes one ormore electronic white boards, as well asaudio and video equipment. Slides andother images projected on white boardsare recorded along with the voice of thelecturer—and even extra notes written inthe margins of slides as the classprogresses.

Facilitating hands-on learning was themain focus of a recent sciencedepartment renovation at Marist HighSchool in Atlanta. The students andfaculty were provided new adjustableresearch tables, which could be raised orlowered electronically. The instructorcontrols the switch, and a student simplyturns a key at an individual table until itis at the appropriate height. Each tableaccommodates four students, twocomputers, a chemically resistant top, anda sink. The table can be adjusted toseating height (approximately 30 in.) forlectures. When active research begins, theheight of the table can be increased tostand-up height (approximately 36 in.)within two minutes. The tables can be setat the height that is most comfortable forthe students. The computers arenetworked together, and students candownload information during class time.The advantage here is that much less timeis spent on the traditional note taking

and more time is spent on hands-onlearning activities.

Computer boards in teaching labsThe computer boards being used in manylearning environments today are designedto interface directly to a PC or datanetwork. At this time, there are threetypes of computer boards:• Copy-boards are stand-alone white

boards that come with their ownprinters and can be mobile. The costcan range from $1,000 to $5,000.

• PC-peripheral boards connect to thecomputer, allowing sessions to besaved as files for printing or electronicdistribution. The cost can range from$600 up to $3,000.

• Interactive boards can be used withprojectors or laptops to transform acomputer board into an interactivecomputer screen. Prices range from$1,000 to $25,000.

At the State University of West Georgia,students in the chemistry teaching studiosuse sit-down stations during lectures andhands-on research activities (seeillustrations on pages 88–89). By simplyturning around, students can work intheir own 36 in. high wet bench researcharea. During research time the professorcan easily walk around to each station andtalk with the students. Large computerboards are located on the front and sidewalls to assist in the educational processduring both the lecture and research time.

The laptop environmentIn most labs the PC is more commonthan the laptop, primarily because of the difference in cost. A PC takes upmore space than a laptop, but as thedevelopment of the latter continues and

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87

the price becomes more competitive,laptop use is expected to increase.Laptops will become personalizednotebooks that can be used anywhere bytheir owners, allowing them to maximizeboth their workday and their leisure time.This dynamic creates the need forubiquitous computing environments thatallow people to access these campusnetworks anywhere, anytime, and ondemand. Many campuses are becominglaptop institutions, requiring students tobring their laptops to class.

Security issuesSecurity becomes a more important issuewhen computers are being used. Themain problem with laptops and PCs isthat they are relatively easy to steal (acommon problem in both privateindustry and academia). Many academicfacilities have had problems with people,usually students, stealing PCs, laptops

and audio video equipment. For thisreason, security systems are being usedthat extend from main entrances, alongeach departmental zone, and into specificrooms. To prevent thieves from movingfrom one room to another (by removingthe ceiling tiles), wall construction maygo all the way to the underside of thefloor system above. Closed-circuit TV canmonitor main corridors, entryways, exitpoints, and doors into high-security labs.It is good practice to provide a means oflocking portable computers when theyare not in use.

Budget issuesInadequate budgeting for presentationsystems has been a recurring problem.Historical cost data for such technologiesare limited. Furthermore, thesetechnologies are advancing at such a pacethat the historical data that do exist arepotentially misleading.

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� Tier casework for theinteractive chemistry studio.

Data do indicate, however, that addinginstructional presentation systems canincrease the overall cost of a new buildingproject by 8–15 percent. This budgetaryimpact results from the installed cost ofthe cable plant, equipment, and design.Provisions for specialized lighting oracoustical treatments should also beconsidered. In addition, the computerfurniture discussed above costs more thanthe traditional furniture used in the past.

Furthermore, presentation systemsrequire routine maintenance and mayneed to be upgraded over time. Costs foradding trained technical staff familiarwith the systems and their individualcomponents should be considered,although they will typically be borne inadministrative budgets rather than projectconstruction budgets. Many schoolsystems are allocating 3 percent of theoperating budget for computertechnologies expenses, including (but notlimited to) advanced local- and wide-areanetworks, high-speed cable plants (e.g.,fiber-optic and Category 5e+ UTPcopper infrastructures), computers,servers, storage devices, video devices, andcommunication equipment. Marketingcourses and student support services areadditional costs.

Case Studies

Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical Science Center, Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, Florida

Architect: Perkins & WillCompletion: Winter 2002Size: 90,000 GSFConstruction budget: $15,100,000

Florida Atlantic University has created anew concept that combines both openand closed labs to accommodate coreresearch teams. Many researchers stillprefer to have some research space oftheir own. Consequently, 640 NSF areprovided for each researcher, primarily for his or her own use and specificequipment. Another 640 NSF have beenprogrammed for each researcher, locatedin a large open lab. This lab has fumehoods, laminar flow hoods, equipment,and casework to be shared by the entireresearch team. There can be a variety ofresearch core areas (82 ft x 82 ft) on thesecond and third floors.

Another idea implemented in thisfacility is a two-directional grid thatallows the casework to be organized ineither the north/south or east/westorientation. This provides for maximum

Academic Lab Case Studies: Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical Science Center

89

� Both sit-down andstandup casework isprovided in this chemistrystudio.

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LABORATORY TYPES

� Research core area. CharlesE. Schmidt Biomedical Center,Florida Atlantic University,Boca Raton. Perkins & Will,architect.

� View of atrium. Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical Center.

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Academic Lab Case Studies: Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical Science Center

91

� Typical research floor organizedwith two research teams. Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical Center.

� Classroom level. Charles E.Schmidt Biomedical Center.

flexibility and allows the researchers tocreate labs that meet their needs.

The labs are arranged with 50 percentcasework and 50 percent equipmentzones. The equipment zones allow theresearch team to locate equipment, mobilecasework, or fixed casework in their labwhen they move in. The equipment andfuture casework will be funded with otherbudgets or grants. This concept is veryimportant for this project for two reasons.

First, the university has not yet hired thefaculty, so the specific researchrequirements are still unknown. Second,this concept reduces the casework cost inthe initial construction budget by at least40 percent ($600,000). The cost will beadded to the furniture budget when themobile casework is purchased.

The interior design is being developedwith the use of the three-dimensional (3-D) modeling. The computer modeling

� Team area as you enterthe main open labs. CharlesE. Schmidt BiomedicalCenter, Florida AtlanticUniversity, Boca Raton.Perkins & Will, architect.

� North elevation. Charles E. SchmidtBiomedical Center.

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LABORATORY TYPES

� Lab interior. Charles E.Schmidt Biomedical Center.

� South elevation.Charles E. SchmidtBiomedical Center.

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93

gives the design team and, mostimportant, the client an opportunity to study all aspects of the interior spacesas they will exist when the project iscompleted. The 3-D modeling alsoensures that all design decisions arethoughtfully resolved by the end of thedesign development process.

Concept diagrams for all theengineering systems are fully coordinatedat the end of schematic design. Creating

these diagrams gets the engineers involvedin the design, ensures that the designteam has fully coordinated all systems inthe building (not just architectural), andshould simplify coordination for the restof the project. The intent here is to beproactive early in the design process, so as to reduce the number of change ordersduring construction. The building iszoned with lab and non-lab spaces todecrease overall construction costs.

Bicentennial Hall,Middlebury College

Middlebury, Vermont

Architect: Payette Associates, Inc. Occupied: 1999Size: 215,000 GSFBuilding cost: $38,574,308

The goal of this project was to create amultidisciplinary science teaching andresearch building, designed to encouragecross-pollination between the sixdepartments: Biology, Chemistry andBiochemistry, Geography, Geology,Physics, and Psychology.

Planning began with a rigorousassessment of growing enrollment needs.Fostering discovery while keeping pacewith the rapidly changing sciencelandscape and a more student-centeredexperience with student research spaces,even for undergraduates, has become asignature of science at Middlebury. Thecollege has adopted a more collaborative

pedagogy, whereby students thrive in aninquiry or problem-based setting thatincludes design experiments, working onmultidisciplinary teams, independentinvestigations, learning to makeconnections between disciplines, andcommunicating ideas effectively.

Because all the science departments arehoused in this building, the size and scaleposed several challenges, such asintegrating the building into the campusfabric and life. This objective wasachieved by:• Designating the building for true

multipurpose academic uses

• Creating shared teaching, research,and social spaces

• Locating a two-story science libraryon the main entry floors

The distinctive topography of the site andthe building's cruciform shape define fourdistinct outdoor spaces that link theinternal program with the exterior

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LABORATORY TYPES

� Typical research level.Bicentennial Hall,Middlebury College,Middlebury, Vermont.Payette Associates, Inc.,architect. Copyright PayetteAssociates, Inc.

environment at multiple levels. The GreatHall, a four-story atrium space, forms thepivot, connecting the separate functionsin each wing of the building as well asallowing vertical visual and spatialconnection. The hall—the central spaceat the heart of the building—functionsas a village square, heavily used for study,meeting, and informal learning. Bridgesleading from each wing to the soaringGreat Hall are accented by informal“learning lounges.” The ends of eachwing also have lounges that allowindependent work or collaboration in aquieter setting. The hall affords dramaticviews of the Adirondack Mountains,drawing the lush green countryside intothe life of the campus.

In fact, the intense use of this space andthe building by students to study,collaborate, interact, and gatherthroughout the semester has caused thecollege to rethink its future plan for acentral library and student center. The

center of gravity of the entire campus hasshifted to Bicentennial Hall.

The exterior image is reminiscent ofNew England mill buildings, composedof quarried and cut Adair limestone, withsignificant sections of curtain wallfiltering in natural daylight.

Another success of this project is itsapproach to sustainability, striking ahealthy balance between sustainabletechnologies, costs, and benefits. Thisacademic structure contains “greencertified” timber harvested and processedby ecologically sensitive means. Otherenvironmental features include linoleumflooring made from wood flour andlinseed oil, super-insulated walls and roof,an energy-responsive HVAC system for a100-year design mandate, and recycledplastic decking on walking portions ofthe roof. The drywall is composed of 65percent recyclables; recycled steel is usedin the soundproofing system; and mortarnetting used for masonry work is from

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95

� Chemistry research laboratory.Bicentennial Hall.

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LABORATORY TYPES

recycled plastic. Sustainable aspects ofmechanical, electrical, and plumbing(MEP) systems include:• An energy-efficient building envelope

and low-impact effluent discharge

• Absorption refrigeration to enhancecampus cogeneration performance

• Air side heat recovery and processcooling loop

• Exhaust plume mitigation andvibration control to accommodate the needs of the observatory

The innovative generic lab concept usedin this project was developed for anumber of reasons:• To reduce the quantity of space

required by dedicated introductorylabs by creating shared space for alldepartments except Chemistry

• To encourage the exchange of ideasbetween departments that share thespaces

• To allow other disciplines andprograms to utilize the space outsidethe academic schedule

The generic lab consists of a 36 ft x 28 ftlab plus a 12 ft x 28 ft support room.Electrified epoxy-topped tables can bearranged in a square, a horseshoe, back-to-back rows, front-facing rows, or otherdesired layouts to accommodate variousteaching styles.

In the two main laboratory wings,teaching labs run down the west side of acentral corridor, with associated researchlabs and faculty offices across from themon the east side. Unlike some academicbuildings where researchers’ offices aresharply segregated from student labs,Bicentennial Hall was designed to putstudents in proximity to serious research,grouped in clusters according to speciality.

Specialized lab setups include thefollowing components:• A 600 sq ft chemistry/biochemistry

lab with a laminar flow hood and anincubator station on the biochemistryside, and a fume hood, refrigerator,bench space, and desks on thechemistry side

• A theoretical chemistry research labdesigned to accommodate intensivecomputer work

• A field geology lab that can handlelong cores taken from LakeChamplain

• A physics lab containing a largeatomic beam apparatus, mounted ontrack rails in the center of the room,plus a laser

• A 300 sq ft cell culture facility

• A 1,000 sq ft advanced microscopylaboratory

Bicentennial Hall won a Laboratory ofthe Year (2000) award from R&Dmagazine and the Scientific Equipmentand Furniture Association.

McDonnell Research Building,Washington University School ofMedicine

St. Louis, Missouri

Architect: Perkins & WillOccupied: 1999Size: 230,000 GSFBuilding cost: $55,000,000

The Washington University School ofMedicine required additional space for its renowned pediatric, biomedical, andcancer research programs. The new 11-story facility includes generic laboratories,support space, and offices for biomedicalresearch. A repetitive laboratory planallows for maximum flexibility among

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� Atrium at the heart of thebuilding, used for study,meeting, and informallearning. Bicentennial Hall,Middlebury College,Middlebury, Vermont.Payette Associates, Inc.,architect. Photographcopyright JeffGoldberg/Esto.

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Academic Lab Case Studies: McDonnell Research Building, Washington University

99

diverse tenants and future researchpractices. The project construction wasfast-tracked to accommodate the earliestmove-in date for researchers.

The laboratory facility is located in themidst of a dense medical school campus,which includes Washington UniversitySchool of Medicine and four prominenthospitals affiliated with the school. Thenew biomedical facility connects toadjacent facilities, providing directcirculation patterns between researchareas, animal facilities, and clinical serviceslocated in St. Louis Children’s Hospital.

The floor plan allows for a courtyard at the north side of the building forpedestrian access and laboratory supportspace and provides direct natural lightinto the laboratories and officesthroughout. A unique plan was developedthat incorporated a linear equipmentspace to provide the most flexible and

adaptable research environment possible.Offices were clustered on the building’sexterior, separate from the interior labspaces, permitting both spaces to takeadvantage of the building’s perimeter andallowing natural light to flow through thespaces.

The most important aspect of the newbuilding has been WashingtonUniversity’s clear direction that it be astate-of-the-future research facility. As aresearch institution consistently rankedwithin the top five in the country,Washington University wanted to projecta strong image with this new facility. Theidea of the traditional research lab as atight rectilinear building was challengedby the design team working directly withthe lead principal investigator. Acurvilinear, sculptural building mass wasdeveloped, incorporating a highlyefficient laboratory plan.

� Exterior. McDonnellResearch Building, School ofMedicine, WashingtonUniversity, St. Louis,Missouri. Perkins & Will,architect.

� Typical laboratory.McDonnell ResearchBuilding, School ofMedicine, WashingtonUniversity, St. Louis, Missouri.Perkins & Will, architect.

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Over the past 30 years, architects,engineers, facility managers, andresearchers have refined the design oftypical wet and dry laboratories to a veryhigh level. This chapter focuses on manyof the lessons learned and identifies thebest solutions in designing a typical lab.(At the end of the chapter, designconsiderations for specialized labs arediscussed.)

Much of the information gathered herecomes from researchers, administrators,and facility managers of more than 150laboratory facilities in the United Statesand Europe. Design guidelinespromulgated by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Association forAssessment and Accreditation ofLaboratory Animal Care (AAALAC), theVeterans Administration (VA), GlaxoWellcome, and several state agencies havealso been reviewed, studied, andincorporated.

The chapter is organized as follows:1. The programming, design, and

construction process

2. General architectural design issues

3. The lab module

4. Site planning

5. Exterior image

6. Massing

7. Interior spaces

8. Adjacencies

9. Interior finishes

10. Acoustical issues

11. Casework

12. Ergonomics

13. Fume hoods

14. Safety, security, and regulatoryconsiderations

15. Wayfinding, signage, and graphics

16. Specialized lab areas

17. Specialized equipment and equipmentspaces

18. Vivarium facilities

THE PROGRAMMING, DESIGN,AND CONSTRUCTION PROCESSThe programming, design, andconstruction process is complex. For anew laboratory building, it usually takesseveral years to complete. The variousphases, along with the key architecturalresponsibilities, are discussed in thefollowing paragraphs.

ProgrammingVery early in the programming phase,designers should determine the project'soverall goals and objectives. Often,programmers employ a questionnaire,circulated among laboratory managers andother staff, to define problems andpossible solutions. The following areamong the questions such a questionnairemight ask:1. What are the overall objectives of this

new research facility or renovation?

2. What type of research culture do youwant to create?

3. What image would you like thebuilding exterior to convey?

4. Where should offices be located inrelation to labs?

5. How important is it that labs haveviews to the exterior and naturaldaylighting?

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

101

6. How often do customers visit thislaboratory?

7. What do you like best about yourcurrent laboratory workspace?

8. What do you like least about yourcurrent laboratory workspace?

9. What can be shared within a projectteam, and between teams?

10. What are the main traffic flowpatterns in the laboratory?

11. List spaces (existing and required).

12. List major items of equipmentrequiring floor space and specialservices.

13. Do you need any special casework?

14. What types of hoods are necessary?

15. What waste-management plan willyou require?

16. How flexible do you want the labsand building to be?

The following matters should bedetermined during the programmingphase:

• All budgets for the project

• Probable construction cost ascompared with project budget (basedon unit cost per gross sq ft [GSF] ofthe building)

• Flexibility requirements

• Size of typical lab module

• Number and types of individualrooms required

• Architectural and engineering criteriafor each room

• Desired relationships between roomsand large groups of researchers

• Preferred location of the labs inrelation to offices and lab support

• Number and types of fume hoods

Programmers should also obtain data onany special pieces of equipment that willgo into the lab and develop a preliminaryfloor plan illustrating the casework, fumehood, and equipment layout. By the endof the programming phase, the overallproject schedule should also bedetermined.

The sample room criteria sheet at rightillustrates many of the architectural andengineering issues that must be resolvedduring programming.

During either the programming or theschematic design phase, it may bebeneficial to tour other, similarlaboratories to benefit from lessonslearned by peer institutions.

Schematic DesignDuring schematic design, designers focuson the following:1. Development of the exterior image

2. Building configuration, coordinatedwith the laboratory module

3. Blocking and stacking: where roomsare located on each floor and how thefloors relate to one another

4. Conceptual diagrams of theindividual engineering systems, basedon the lab module

5. Update of statement of probable cost

Code reviews must also be performedduring this stage. The local buildingagencies may have to review the initialfloor plans.

Design DevelopmentDuring design development, theschematic design is developed three-dimensionally and all design decisionsregarding the site development, exteriorimage, and casework layouts for each lab

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are finalized. By the end of this phase, allengineering systems should be fullycoordinated with the architectural plans.As part of the design development work,

sessions should be held with the end usersto coordinate room adjacencies, colorschemes and finishes, and final caseworkselections.

TYPICAL LAB CRITERIA SHEET

The Programming, Design, and Construction Process

103

DDEPARTMENT Chemical aanndd Materials EngineeringSSPACE NAME Typical ResseeTypical Research Lab FFUNCTION

NNUMBER OF SPACESSSIZESSTUDENTS/STAFF

AArchitectural MMechanical PPlumbingFFloor TTemperature LLaboratory Natural Gas(LG)

VCT (Chemical Resistant) 72 degrees + 2 degrees LLaboratory Vacuum (LV)VCT 68-75 degrees + 2 degrees LLaboratory Air (LA)Welded Seam Mipolean HHumidity CCompressed Air, 100psi

Carpet General or Individual Stacks IIndustrial Hot Water (IHW)Sealed Concrete 50% + 20% IIndustrial Cold Water (ICW)

PPartitions Uncontrolled PPotable(Drinking) Hot WaterGyp Board, Paint HHoods PPotable(Drinking) Cold WaterGyp Board, Epoxy Paint Chemical Fume Hood HHigh Purity Water (DE)Concrete Block Radioisotope Hood PProcessed Chilled WaterShielding Laminar Flow Hood SSteam Condensed Return

BBase Bio Safety Cab (30-100%) CCarbon Dioxide (CO2)4" Vinyl Snorkel NNitrogen Gas (N2)Integral w/ Floor Canopy Hood CCylinder Gases

CCeiling Low Slotted Exhaust InertExposed Structure Other Flammable

Acoustic Tile Air Changes Toxic(2x4), (2x2) FFloor Drain (FD)

Gyp Board EElectrical FFloor Sink (FS)Height 1110V / 20A, Phase 1 SSafety Shower / Eyewash (SS)

DDoors 2208V / 30A, Phase 1 DDrench Hose (DH)Width 2208V / 30A, Phase 3 TTemp Require. Process Piping

Height 4400V / 100A, Phase 3 SStructuralVision Panel (Glazing) IIsolated Ground Power Outlet Vibration Criteria

LLighting EEmergency Power 125-150 psf for live loads

Natural Daylight - Preferred UUPS (OFO)

Natural Daylight - Indifferent PPhone EEquipmentNo Natural Daylight DData

SSpecial Considerations CCable TVGlass at the entry alcoves only IIn Use LightOffices on outside wall TTask LightingWrite up areas along the corridor 100fc at Bench / Desk

75fc at Bench / Desk

SSecurity SSafe LightLLevel of Security SSpecial Lighting

Locks Only DDarkenableCard Access ZZoned LightingOther DDimming SystemCard Access for Building only OOther

Adjacency Requirements / Speciaal Consideraattiions

Remarks

Design development should finalize:1. Detail layouts for each laboratory,

including service requirements forraceways, panel boxes, and piping for mechanical and plumbing

2. Specifications for systems andmaterials

3. Strategy for add alternates ordeductive alternates if there is to be a bid process

In addition, the statement of probablecost should be updated.

Construction DocumentsDuring the construction documentphase, all working drawings andspecifications necessary to build theproject are completed. The architects and engineers spend most of their timeduring this phase coordinating andfinalizing all issues related to the building construction. The end usersneed to be available only to answer any questions that may come up or to review the documents to make sure the drawings and specifications meet their requirements.

Construction documents include:

1. Drawings and specifications forbidding and construction

2. Final cost estimate

Bid PhaseThe project is bid and the construction price is finalized before the actual construction begins. (There are some instances in which a contractor or constructionmanagement team gets involved earlierin the project to determine theconstruction cost.) During the bid phase:

1. Drawings and specifications are issued for bidding.

2. Construction bids are received andreviewed.

3. The contract is awarded.

Some projects involve a negotiatedprice. Contractors are asked to on bidthe project, and then the ownernegotiates the final cost with thepreferred contractor. During thisprocess, there may be a valueengineering session with the architectsand engineers. The contractor proposesoptions to reduce cost, and the ownerand design team decide whether toaccept these choices. With this approachthere is usually less risk for both theowner and the contractor, because thescope and costs are discussed, thenagreed upon. The hard bid process,which does not allow for negotiation, isused for almost all publicly fundedprojects. If the design-build process isused, a guaranteed maximum price(GMP) is usually agreed upon at theend of the design phase or during theconstruction documentation phase. Thedesign-build process does notrequire a bid phase, which saves sometime and money.

Construction AdministrationConstruction of a typical laboratorybuilding can range from 15 to 36months—the larger and more complex the project, the more timenecessary. This phase involves the review, coordination, and approval of shop drawings. The architect makesregular site visits to make sure thatconstruction is proceeding in accordance with the contract documents.

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GENERAL ARCHITECTURALDESIGN ISSUES

Ceiling Height The standard 9'6" ceiling height isrecommended for most labs. With thisheight, there is enough space for the useof indirect light fixtures. (Indirect lightinggrows in importance as computers areincreasingly used in the labenvironment.) Large labs may requiremore height and volume for betterproportions. Some labs may need to betwo stories high to accommodate largeequipment or specific research processes.There are some research setups over 10'high that can fit between the ductwork;where these will be used, the lab shouldbe designed with an exposed rather thana lay-in ceiling, to allow the researcher touse more of the volume of the space. Nolab should have a ceiling height below 8'.

Lab DoorsThe recommended minimum door widthfor a lab is 38", but a 42" door ispreferred. Large equipment, such as fumehoods, may have to be dismantled to bemoved in and out of the lab if thedoorway is less than 38" wide. Doubledoors or doors with active and passivepanels may be useful. Double doorseliminate equipment bottlenecks andenhance traffic flow but are moreexpensive than 42" wide single doors.Glazing in the doors should beconsidered for most labs. There shouldalways be two means of egress from alaboratory area where hazardouschemicals are present.

AislesAisles between workstations shouldmeasure at least 5' to permit a person to

pass behind another person who isworking. A 5' aisle also conforms to the guidelines of the Americans withDisabilities Act (ADA). Aisles wider than6' are not recommended for most labs,because users tend to clutter the spacewith carts and equipment. Workstationsshould be staggered back-to-back to allowpeople to work more easily.

Basic Furniture Considerations

Base cabinetsSelect 30" high units for seated work and36" high units for standing work. Flexiblecasework is an option that allows theheight to be varied, from 28–38", eithermanually or electronically.

Wall casesPlace the bottom of a wall case 4'6" fromthe floor, whether the case is to go with asitting- or standing-height cabinet. A4'6" height above the floor is usuallyacceptable to most people.

TablesWhen a high level of flexibility is desiredor cost is a major concern, tables may bepreferable to base cabinets. In the future,lab tables will be used more extensivelybecause of teams working in open labs,space allocated in equipment zones, andthe economical and practical need toaddress churn quickly.

Shell SpaceDuring initial construction, shell spaceincludes exterior walls and main buildingsystems such as the restrooms, mechanicalequipment, and elevators. The interiorfinishes for the walls are completed later,when funds are available.

Expansion can occur more easily whenshell space is provided in the initial

General Architectural Design Issues

105

construction. Following the master plan,the building is designed to accommodategrowth. Some new and remodeledfacilities are now incorporating some shellspace to accommodate affordable andquick expansion, as well as to have spaceavailable to draw new researchers to theircampuses. The construction cost of shellspace is initially similar to the cost ofoffice construction. The cost savings forthe construction of shell space are reallycreated in the time saved when expansionoccurs.

The shell space provides more space forlaboratories (either additional labs orexpansion of existing labs) and requiresno renovation. During the fit-out of theshell space, daily operations in thebuilding can be maintained. Manyinstitutions are building some shell spacethat is fitted out at the end ofconstruction. The researchers acquiregrant money that funds some or all of the fit-out of their labs. This approachusually allows for more laboratory spaceto be constructed initially.

THE LAB MODULE—BASIS FORLABORATORY DESIGNThe laboratory module is the key unit inany lab facility. When designed correctly,a lab module will fully coordinate all thearchitectural and engineering systems.(Coordination of engineering systems ispresented in detail in the next chapter.) Awell-designed modular plan will providethe following benefits:

• Flexibility. The lab module shouldencourage change within the building.Research is changing all the time, andbuildings must allow for reasonablechange. Many private researchcompanies make physical changes toan average of 25 percent of their labs

each year. Most academic institutionsannually change the layout of 5 to 10percent of their labs.

• Expansion. The use of lab planningmodules allows the building to adapt easily to needed expansions or contractions without sacrificing facility functionality.

Basic Lab ModuleA common laboratory module has awidth of approximately 10'6" but willvary in depth from 20' to 33'. Thedepth is based on the size necessary forthe lab and the cost-effectiveness of thestructural system. The 10'6" dimensionis based on two rows of casework andequipment (each row 2'6" deep) on eachwall, a 5' aisle, and 6" for the wallthickness that separates one lab fromanother. The 5' aisle width should beconsidered a minimum because of therequirements of the Americans withDisabilities Act (ADA) and to allow oneresearcher to pass another withoutinterference. The 6" wall thicknessshould also be maintained for all wallsbetween labs, whether the walls are builtduring initial construction or may beadded later during renovation.

If the lab module is not well thoughtout, two things can happen. If the labmodule is too wide, the building's net-to-gross ratio will not be as efficientor cost-effective as it could be, and thebuilding will be bigger and moreexpensive than it needs to be. If the labmodule is too narrow, then either theaisle will be too narrow, creating anunsafe research environment, or there will be room for casework on one wallonly. If the design of the laboratorybuilding is not based on a lab module,then the initial and long-term

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operational costs will be higher becauseof less efficient construction.

The different types of laboratory spaces,such as labs, lab support spaces, andoffices, are expressed as multiples of thebasic module. Should a new laboratorybuilding be designed using masonryunits, the module dimensions should beadjusted to 10'4" or 10'8" to incorporatethe brick module, which is typically basedon an 8" increment. The 10'4" moduleshould be fine for a building with labsthat comprise at least two lab modules.The 10'8" module should be consideredif there are several small labs that willrequire only one lab module.

Two-Directional ModuleAnother level of flexibility can beachieved by designing a lab module thatworks in both directions. Employing thecommon width of 10'6" and a depth ofeither 21' (2 modules at 10'6") or 31'6"(3 modules at 10' 6") allows the caseworkto be organized in either direction. Thisconcept is more user-friendly than thebasic lab module concept but may requiremore space.

The use of a two-directional grid isbeneficial to accommodate differentlengths of run for casework. Thecasework may have to be moved to createa different type or size of workstation.Many times it is helpful to have movablecasework, which lets researchers rearrangethe casework to accommodate theparticular research their team is doing.Utility drops, if necessary, should occur atthe intersection of the 10'6" modules.

Three-Dimensional Lab ModuleThe three-dimensional lab moduleplanning concept combines the basic labmodule or a two-directional lab module

The Lab Module

107

10'-6"

2'-6" 2'-6" 3" for possible wall3" 5'-0" min.

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ost

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: 28

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SECTION

PLAN

5'-0" dia.

ADA

� Plan and section ofa typical lab module.

� Typical lab module and itsinherent flexibility based ona brick masonry exterior.

� Two-directional grid.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

FLEXIBLE

1/2 MODULE

1/2 MODULE

1/3 MODULE

2/3 MODULE

1 MODULE 3 MODULES

10'-4" - 10'-

VA

RIE

S -

20'

-0"

TO 3

5'-0

"

COORDINATE VERTICALRISERS ON EACH FLOOR

FIRE STAIRS

BUILDING SUPPORT- Restrooms- Elevations- Mechanical Closets

SUPPLY & EXHAUST SHAFTS

THREECORRIDOR

TWOCORRIDOR

SINGLECORRIDOR

STAI

R

STAI

R

STAI

R

STAI

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STAI

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BUILDING

SUPPORT

� Three-dimensional lab module concept.

The Lab Module

109

with any lab corridor arrangement foreach floor of a building. This means that athree-dimensional lab module can have asingle-corridor arrangement on one floor,a two-corridor layout on another, and soon. To create a three-dimensional labmodule:

1. A basic or two-directional lab modulemust be defined.

2. All vertical risers must be fullycoordinated (vertical risers include firestairs, elevators, restrooms, and shaftsfor utilities).

3. The mechanical, electrical, andplumbing systems must be coordinatedin the ceiling to work with themultiple-corridor arrangements.

Focusing on a building three-dimen-sionally allows the designer to be moreresponsive to the program needs of theresearchers and faculty on each floor. Athree-dimensional design permits thecorridor arrangement on any floor to beeasily changed, facilitating renovations. Thisapproach is highly recommended for mostfacilities, but it requires much more thoughtand coordination in the initial design.

SITE PLANNINGSeveral issues must be considered inplanning the site for a new laboratorybuilding. The view of the building and itsentrance that a person has on arriving atthe site is important for wayfinding andsecurity. Visitor parking should be nearthe front door for convenience andsecurity. There may be need for a securitygate as a control point for access to thebuilding.

Parking for employees is always an issue.Surface parking requires more land thanstructured parking but costs approximatelyone-tenth the price. Parking under

laboratory buildings is not very common,because the typical lab module does noteasily correspond to the typical parkingmodule, and owners pay a premium forincorporating structured parking into alaboratory building.

Loading docks should be accessible fordelivery and service but remote frompedestrian and automobile circulation.Remote loading docks (and the trucksusing them) can be unsightly, requiringthoughtful location and screening.Mechanical equipment and dumpsters,usually located near loading docks, shouldbe screened with a fence, wall, orlandscaping.

Another key site-planning issue involvesthe location of the air supply grilles andexhaust stacks. A wind wake analysis willhelp designers understand how the exhaustwill be dispersed and whether it is likely tocreate any problems for nearby buildings.

All site-planning solutions must becompliant with the Americans withDisabilities Act (ADA). (ADA complianceissues are treated at greater length under“Safety, Security, and RegulatoryConsiderations,” pages 169–171.)

EXTERIOR IMAGESeveral issues influence the exterior imageof any building:

1. Site context

2. Architectural and cultural context

3. The client’s objectives

Additionally, there are two exteriordesign issues specific to most labbuildings:

1. The physical organization and designof offices, laboratories, and majormechanical spaces (the program)

2. The size, number, and architecturalexpression of exhaust stacks

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

General Exterior Image Issues

Site contextSite context issues differ depending onwhether a building is being constructedon an open greenfield site or is beingadded to an existing campus and mustrelate to the buildings surrounding it.

Architectural and cultural contextArchitectural style is a function of theclient’s desires, the architect’s tastes,prevailing contemporary styles, climate,program, and context. Two projectsdesigned by Venturi Scott BrownAssociates (VSBA) are shown on page114. Most of VSBA’s designs for exteriorsare characterized by facades, brickpatterns, and details that represent thepast in an abstract, contemporaryarchitecture.

Client’s ObjectivesThe client’s objectives have a significantimpact on the final image of a project.

Client objectives may include designingthe building within certain cost criteria,defining the overall image and messagethe company wants to convey,constructing spaces that encouragecommunication among teams, andproviding a research environment thatresults in higher-quality research.

Lab-Specific Exterior Image Issues

Physical organization and designThe proper physical organization andthree-dimensional massing of offices,laboratories, and supporting mechanicalspaces are critical to defining the image ofa laboratory building. Office constructionis simpler and less costly than labconstruction. When they are clustered ina sufficiently large area (usually at least25–50 percent of the building), officescan incorporate more sculptural detailsand massing. The office design does nothave to be based on the lab module.There can be more glass on the exterior;

� Spelman College’s newscience building relates to the college’s historicquadrangle. Atlanta,Georgia. Perkins & Will,architect.

Exterior Image

111

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

� The new NorthwesternUniversity biomedical facilityrelates to its Gothic settingwith deep window revealsand lacy window mullions.Chicago, Illinois. Perkins &Will, architect.

� The site of the SmithKline Beecham facility northof London was previouslyfarmland. There are no otherstructures near the largelyglass structure that houses 1 million sq ft of researchspace. Stevenage, UnitedKingdom. The Hillier Group,architect.

� The addition to the JoslinDiabetes Center, HarvardUniversity, was necessarilyvertical, because of land-userestrictions. The four-storyaddition was constructedwithout interruption ofresearch on the floors below.Cambridge, Massachusetts.Ellenzweig & Associates,architect.

Exterior Image

113

� Thomas Laboratories,Princeton University,Princeton, New Jersey.Venturi Scott Brown withPayette & Associates, Inc.,architect.

� Clinical Research Building,University of Pennsylvania,designed and constructedmore than 10 years afterThomas Laboratories atPrinceton. Venturi ScottBrown with Payette &Associates, Inc., architect.

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the walls can be of a variety of shapes andangles; and the mechanical systems canbe simpler and more cost-effective thanthose required for lab construction.

Most researchers prefer their offices tobe located along the exterior wall to allowfor natural light and views. The labsusually are organized in a rectangularmassing to permit the cost effectivenessand efficiency of designing with a labmodule. The more efficient lab buildingshave floor plans of at least 20,000 sq ft. Alaboratory building with 30,000 GSF perfloor is usually the most efficient, since itwill not require additional fire stairs,elevators, restrooms, or mechanical space.

Another key aspect of the visual imageof a laboratory building involves theamount of glass. Decisions on theincorporation of glazing are based on the amount of light desired for interiorspaces, the preferred exterior image, andthe cost of the glass. Most labs do notrequire much glass. Typically, casework is

located 3' high along the entire outsidewall or a significant portion of it. Therecommended ceiling height is usually9'6" to 10'. This allows for some indirectlighting (if desired), the appropriatevolume of air to circulate through the lab,and the appropriate volume of the labfrom a psychological point of view. Formost labs, exterior as well as interiorglazing should be located between 3' and9'6" above the finished floor, for threemain reasons:

• A glass wall can cost 50–100 percentmore than a masonry wall.

• Glass can have an impact on theheating and cooling bills each year.Code officials require an energyanalysis of every new building todetermine the quality and quantity ofthe glass and its effect on the energyefficiency of the entire building.

• Researchers need a certain amount of wall space for office furniture,casework, and equipment.

� For their mainheadquarters, GlaxoWellcome wanted a facilitythat would provide allamenities for theirresearchers and aid in therecruitment of new talent.Stevenage, United Kingdom.Kling Lindquist, architect.

Exterior Image

115

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

Mechanical equipment can be located inany of several different places:

At the roof. At the new chemistry andbiology building at the University ofCalifornia, Los Angeles, the curved roofand expression of the stacks are part ofthe overall sculptural massing and imageof the campus.

In the basement. The sloping site at theState University of West Georgia’sTechnology Enhanced Learning Centerallows mechanical equipment to belocated in the basement, reducing thescale of the building. The building will be more than 50 percent larger than anyother on campus, even with themechanical equipment located in thebasement. The university focused onkeeping the building massing as small aspossible, while providing easy access forthe facility engineers to the mechanicalequipment in the basement.

In a structure immediately adjacent,The Iowa Advanced Technology Labs

Building has a large mechanical roomlocated at the ground level, east of the lab block. The mechanical room isconstructed with a curved roof, and itswalls are clad in copper. The location ofthe mechanical equipment provides easyaccess to the equipment and labs. Thisoption is not much used because itrequires prime real estate at ground leveland the space above the mechanical roomis not developed.

Mechanical rooms on each floor. TheHutchinson Cancer Center in Seattle isdesigned with the air handlers located oneach floor to eliminate the need for abasement, penthouse, or interstitial space.Because of the high water table on thesite, a basement was not possible, and apenthouse or interstitial space would haveincreased the building heightsignificantly.

Interstitial space. Interstitial space is anoption that should be discussed at thebeginning of each project. In the early

� The Georgia PublicHealth Laboratory isdesigned so that lobby andresearch offices are visiblefrom street. The mechanicalequipment is located on the much less visible serviceside of the building. Atlanta,Georgia. Lord Aeck Sargent,Inc., architect.

At Yale, the Bass Centerhas the offices located along this exterior, with themechanical equipment in an attic-like penthouse. Theexhaust stacks are expressedas chimneys. New Haven,Connecticut. KallmannMcKinnell & Wood,architect.

� The Hutchison CancerResearch Center hasarticulated bay windowsthat, in effect, provide eachresearcher with a corneroffice. Seattle, Washington.Zimmer Gunsul FrascaPartnership, architect.

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117

�

� Exhaust stacks on theoutside. Molecular SciencesCenter, University ofCalifornia at Los Angeles.Anshen & Allen, architect.

� Mechanical equipmentlocated in basement.Technology EnhancedLearning Center, StateUniversity of West Georgia,Carrolton. Perkins & Will,architect.

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1960s, Jonas Salk worked with Louis I.Kahn and Earl Walls to develop the SalkInstitute. That building, which pioneeredthe use of interstitial space, hasexemplified the flexible laboratory facilityfor more than 30 years. Salk set out tocreate a research environment for open-minded people who could learn fromeach other. The building can be changedand modified within a basic framework,and change is the norm at the SalkInstitute. Many of Salk’s ideas remainvalid and important today, even thoughtechnology has changed.

Interstitial space is located above theceiling of each lab floor; it is basicallyanother floor containing all theengineering services for the floor below.Typical floor-to-floor height (includingthe interstitial space) can range from 17to 19 ft, creating a more massivestructure. The interstitial concept—generated to enable quick, cost-effectivemodifications of laboratories without anyinterruptions—does work well, but it isnot considered on many projects becauseof the additional initial constructioncosts. There may be some savings inconstruction time and cost, however, ifthe contractor is knowledgeable aboutthis concept.

Screen walls. Screen walls, which hidethe mechanical systems, are constructedon the roof, separate from the buildingenclosure. The walls can vary in heightand design, depending on aestheticintent. Screen walls provide an affordableoption if the short-term budget is morecritical than the long-term operationalcosts. They do, however, allowmechanical equipment to be exposed to the weather, which reduces its lifeexpectancy. In bad weather, it will bedifficult for the facility engineers to

maintain the equipment properly. AtNorth Carolina State’s CentennialCampus, the lab building is constructedwith screen walls that create four boxesalong the skyline. The use of screen wallscan have a major impact on the massing,image, and cost of the building.

The mechanical space generally takes up 6–14 percent of the total gross squarefootage of a lab building. (The high endof this range—as much as 14 percent—applies when mechanical equipment islocated in the building.) If the building is run off a central plant, then theactual building size can be reduced byapproximately 5 percent. Moreover, largerbuildings usually have higher designefficiencies.

Expression of exhaust stacksThe design of the exhaust stacks alsohelps create a lab building’s distinctiveimage. The top of the stacks should be atleast 10 ft above the highest point of anyother part of the roof to ensure that theexhausted air is pushed high enough andfar enough away from any air intake onthe building or nearby buildings. Theexhaust stacks can be expressed asindividual stacks or bundled.

Individual stacks. Several individualstacks can be provided, one for each fumehood in the building. At MassachusettsInstitute of Technology Building 68,individual stacks are randomly located,distinguishing the top of the building asit meets the sky. Dedicated fume hoodexhaust is also expressed on the exteriorof the Pickle Center at the University ofTexas in Austin. The stacks are colorfullypainted and visible from the highway.The stacks are tall enough that when theair is exhausted it is not pulled back intothe air supply system. Individual stacks

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may be required because of the researchbeing conducted and the fume hoodsbeing used. For example, perchloric andradioactive hoods should always haveseparate, dedicated exhaust stacks. Thisapproach is very safe because it eliminatesany chance of cross-contaminationbetween exhausts.

Bundled stacks. Duke University’sLevine Center has bundled individual

stacks that create a more massive andorganized statement compared to theindividual stacks at MIT Building 68. Amanifolded exhaust system is anothercommon option that is visuallyexpressed as a few large stacks.Vanderbilt University’s ChemistryBuilding has a manifolded exhaustsystem; the exhausts at the roof arewrapped in curved metal and detailed

� Engineering GraduateResearch Center, CentennialCampus, North CarolinaState University, Raleigh.Odell & Associates,architect.

� Individual stacks on the roof distinguish theelevation. MRDC II, GeorgiaInstitute of Technology,Atlanta. Perkins & Will,architect.

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� Dedicated stacks bundledtogether. School of Medicine,Northwestern University,Evanston, Illinois. Perkins & Will,architect.

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as a key exterior design feature. The stacks create a unique identity andlandmark for those who use or visit the campus.

A laboratory building’s exhaust stacksare often used as a design opportunity to articulate the massing and visuallyenhance the skyline of the campus. At theUniversity of Illinois Chemical and LifeSciences Building, the exhaust stacks helpdefine the entry to the campus.

Some lab buildings do not have fumehoods or the requirement for exhaust

stacks. For example, the Sam YangResearch Facility in Seoul, South Korea, is an electronics lab facility that does not require fume hood exhaust stacks. Some computer labfacilities also do not require exhauststacks. Yet, as for most lab buildings, the mechanical systems for thesefacilities are extensive, since spaces filled with computers and otherelectronic equipment have high heatloads and, therefore, substantial cooling requirements.

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� Manifold exhaust systemcreates a landmark.Stevenson Center ComplexChemistry building,Vanderbilt University,Nashville, Tennessee.Payette & Associates, Inc.,architect.

�� Exhaust stacks help todefine entry to campus.Chemical and Life SciencesBuilding, University ofIllinois, Urbana-Champaign.Perkins & Will, architect.

� Computer labs. SamYang Research Center,Seoul, South Korea. Perkins& Will, architect.

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Image at NightThe image a lab building projects afterdark can be very dramatic. Both interiorand exterior lighting can play a role increating the drama. Many researcherswork late into the evening, and they andthe interior finishes, equipment, andcasework can be seen in the labs if thelights are on. If the mechanical pipingis exposed in the ceilings, it can alsobe seen.

BUILDING MASSINGMost lab buildings are massive because offloor-to-floor height, mechanical space,and the exhaust stacks. Most clients try tominimize the massing of a building torelate to the scale of other, nonlaboratorybuildings on a campus and to reduce thecost of construction. As a general rule of

thumb, an additional foot of floor-to-floor height will increase the totalconstruction cost by approximately 1 percent.

The floor-to-floor height is determinedduring the schematic design phasebecause the volume of the building willhave cost implications. Most labs rangefrom 14 to 16 ft in floor-to-floor height(at least 2 ft more than a typical officebuilding). If a building has interstitialspaces, the floor-to-floor height can rangefrom 17 to 19 ft. To calculate the floor-to-floor height, the following factors mustbe estimated and designed:

Ceiling height 9–10 ft

Mechanical systems 3–4 ft

Structural system ±2 ft

Total 14–16 ft

� Image at night. GlaxoWellcome headquarters,Stevenage, United Kingdom.Kling Lindquist, architect.

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125

� Building massing.

It is important to leave some room between the ceiling and the structural beams for head clearanceduring construction as well as duringroutine maintenance or renovation.When the supply and exhaust ductwork is being designed, it isimportant to minimize or, ideally,eliminate the crossing of the supply and exhaust ducts. If the ducts cross one another, the floor-to-floor heightmay have to be increased or the ceilingheight lowered in the labs.

INTERIOR IMAGEThe key interior areas to focus on include the reception and lobby, loungesand break rooms, corridors, elevators and stairs, labs, offices, and office support spaces.

Reception and LobbyThe reception and lobby areas make a statement about the culture of anorganization and provide opportunities to welcome workers, visitors, and servicestaff into the building. The lobby may bea central atrium space that allows peopleto be seen at multiple floors and gives thebuilding a friendly and open feel. Thiscan become the heart of the building: notjust a place where people enter and exit,but a place for meeting and carrying onspontaneous conversations during theday. It may be somewhat informal, withtack boards, display areas, wood wainscot,and built-in window seats.

The photo on page 127 shows the two-story lobby/reception space at TuftUniversity’s Science and TechnologyCenter. This atrium is located in the

� This formal lobby sets atone and also serves as asecurity control point.Argon, Chicago, Illinois.

� The lobby can express theculture of an organization.Physics Building, Universityof Washington, Seattle.

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127

� Lobby design that exploitscolor and variety in materials.Science and TechnologyCenter, Tufts University,Medford, Massachusetts.Cannon (Boston,Massachusetts), architect.

� Two-story atrium ofthe Chemical and LifeSciences Building,University of Illinois,Urbana-Champaign.Perkins & Will, architect.

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center of the building; a bridge carriespeople moving from one side of thebuilding to the other through this space.The use of multiple materials and colorsadds visual interest to the space.

Corporate atrium spaces, such as that atthe 3M facility in Austin, Texas, shownon page 38, provide opportunities formany people to gather at special eventsand make an impressive statement aboutthe company. The conference rooms,offices, laboratories, and corridors areadjacent to the atrium. Individuals in theatrium are able to see people at multiplelevels of the facility.

An atrium can become the mainshowpiece for a facility—an invitingentry, a main circulation hub, and a greatspace for large gatherings. Data portsshould be provided to allow for the use of computers in this area.

Lounges and Break RoomsLounges and break rooms are alsoimportant common amenities. It must be decided early in the design of a newfacility whether to have a lounge or breakroom on each floor or a single suchamenity, in one central location, for theentire building. Either approach maywork, depending on the culture of theresearchers and how the entire building is designed.

In a large facility, it may be desirable toprovide small break rooms—suitable forlocal copying, office supplies, and coffee-makers—in the office areas themselves.The size of such rooms generally rangesfrom 80 to 100 net sq ft (NSF).

CorridorsCorridors are key elements in theorganization of a laboratory facility. In the ceilings of a corridor are the ducts,

piping, and wires for the mechanical,electrical, and plumbing systems. Theceiling should allow easy access, withouthaving to disturb laboratory activities, tothe facility staff who maintain andoperate the building.

A lay-in ceiling costs about the same asan exposed ceiling with painted piping.The choice between a lay-in ceiling or noceiling comes down to two issues: Whatis the desired look of the corridor? Willthe building be easier to maintainwithout the ceiling?

Corridors also offer opportunities forpeople to see one another and exchangeideas. Some corridors provide a “tourroute,” allowing guests to view the labssafely without interrupting the activitieswithin. The tour route generally is alongthe outside wall of the first floor, withviews to some interior labs and theexterior campus, or at one end of thebuilding on all floors. At the 3M facilityin Austin, there are display areas alongthe tour route showing the history of thecompany and the products it hasdeveloped. Boards and displays withinformation about the company, thecampus, or the type of research beingconducted are usually part of a tourroute. A variety of boards and graphicscan enhance communication andinteraction and add to the image of the facility.

Public corridors should be well lit toallow people to read the informationlocated along the walls. Different colorsand patterns can the used on the floorand walls. Marker boards and tack boardscan provide additional opportunities forpeople to share information and workwith one another. The doors from thelabs should be recessed to prevent theirswinging into the path of a passerby.

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129

� Tour route. 3M. Austin,Texas. HOK, architect.

� A variety of boards arelocated along the publiccorridors. Levine Center,Duke University, Durham,North Carolina. Payette &Associates, Inc., architect.

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Seating areas can be created adjacent toor at the end of a corridor to provideopportunities for people to talk with oneanother outside the lab area. Seatingalong the corridor is very important inmost academic buildings, as it provides aplace for students to wait between classes.

The office corridors also allow people towalk by, stop in, and talk. Studies haveshown that the probability of once-a-week communication between researchersdrops to less than 5 percent when theiroffices are located more than 100 ft apart.

Service corridors usually provide all theengineering services to the labs.Equipment and gas cylinders can also belocated in a service corridor. If the servicecorridor is at least 10 ft wide, both walls

can be used for storage of equipment andsupplies. Some institutions use this spaceas an “equipment corridor” to helpimprove the efficiency of their buildings,to keep noisy equipment out of the labs,and to take advantage of the wall space inthe corridor.

See the examples of lab corridorsopposite and above. The most successfullab corridors have interior glazing,provide places to sit, are well lit, includeinformation boards, and are finished witha variety of colors and materials.

The corridors, stairs, and elevators,which together make up the publiccirculation system in a building, shouldall be easy to find and should allow forconvenient, pleasant, circulation.

� Public corridors withviews to the exterior and aplace to sit. StevensonCenter Complex ChemistryBuilding, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee. PayetteAssociates, Inc., architect.

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� Office corridor withmultiple colors and materialsis visually appealing. LewisThomas Laboratories,Princeton University,Princeton, New Jersey.Venturi Scott Brown withPayette & Associates, Inc.,architect.

Service corridor withdirect access to utilities.Manufacturing RelatedDisciplines Complex, PhaseII, Georgia Institute ofTechnology, Atlanta. Perkins& Will, architect.

� Interior glazing allowsviews through to the outside.Technology EnhancedLearning Center, StateUniversity of West Georgia,Carrolton. Perkins & Will,architect.

�

� Stairs next to the elevatorencourage more people touse them. 3M, Austin, Texas.HOK, architect.

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Elevators and StairsThe elevators should be located in highlyvisible areas and along the main corridorsfor easy wayfinding. Some buildings mayhave one elevator that is used to carry bothmaterials and people. Most laboratorybuildings, however, need at least one

passenger elevator and one freight elevator.The passenger elevator should be locatednear the main entrance and reception area.It is a good idea to have an architecturalstair near the elevator in case the elevator is broken, and to encourage people to usethe stair. The freight elevator is typicallylocated adjacent to the other elevator(s) forcost and efficiency, or separately, near theloading dock. Keeping the freight elevatorseparate can help ensure that a building issecure and safe. The freight elevator can becontrolled by a security access card andused only for transporting materials,supplies, or equipment. A separate freightelevator is usually located in an area awayfrom the main pedestrian traffic in thebuilding.

Stairs offer another great opportunityfor people to meet one anotherserendipitously. Wide stairways make iteasy to get from one floor to another.There should be a communicating stairthat leads a person from the main lobbyto the upper floors of the building. Thesestairs are usually detailed and wellfinished to enhance the entire lobbyspace. Stairs also allow people to seeothers on different floors.

Fire stairs must be located within acertain distance from each other, usuallyless than 300 ft if the building is fullyequipped with sprinklers. The stairsshould be highly visible, for wayfindingand for security, and should be locatedalong the outside wall to allow forexterior glazing. The glass will allowpeople to see one another, which shouldmake for a safer building and campus,especially at night. Fire stairs should bewider than the minimum standardsrequired by the building codes, allowingtwo people to walk up and down thestairs at the same time.

� Fire shutter to cover theglass is required by firecodes. Boyer Center forMolecular Medicine, YaleUniversity, New Haven,Connecticut. Cesar Pelli & Associates, architect.

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The design team for Yale University’sBoyer Center made a utilitarian fire staira design feature of the building—withwood, metal, and tile finishes; a windowseat; natural daylight; and views to theexterior. With interior glazing, the firestair is also visible and inviting from the main corridor. A fire shutterautomatically drops from the ceiling tocover the glass in case of a fire. Althoughthe shutters cost about $5,000 per floor,their use allowed the fire stair to becomeone of the building’s most successfuldesign elements.

LabsThe image and quality of the lab areamong the most important issues to theend users. The use of materials, type ofcasework, color scheme, natural lighting,interior glazing, light fixtures, space forequipment, and efficiency are the keyissues to study.

Beyond accommodating the specificneeds of the current research team,casework should be flexible for futureresearchers. How much casework to buyinitially is an important question. Theratio of fixed to mobile casework must be evaluated. Some casework should becapable of being adjusted vertically. The researchers should be given anopportunity to review the layout andspecific design of each type of caseworkto ensure that money is being well spent.As discussed in chapter 1, mobilecasework is becoming very popular formany types of labs today, reducing theneed for fixed casework.

Lab layouts can be organized withmodular casework. Color— in floor tilepatterns and along the wall—is a veryaffordable design element that can have adramatic impact on the visual image of

each lab and of the entire building. Thecolor and finish of the casework is also animportant part of the visual imagery.Casework and countertop colors shouldcomplement those of the walls, floor, and ceiling.

� Casework that can beadjusted vertically. Chemistryaddition, University ofVirginia, Charlottesville.Ellenzweig & Associates,architects.

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135

� Tables move easily.Engineering GraduateResearch Center, NorthCarolina State University,Raleigh. Odell & Associates,architect.

� Three ft modular workswell, especially with kneespaces.

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� Casework and knee spacecan easily change.

� Different materials in a lab. Courtesy FisherHamilton.

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Regarding materials used in the lab, the most important issue is the choice ofmaterial for the casework (metal, wood,plastic, or a combination of wood andmetal). Chemical-resistant tops andstainless-steel counters can present verystrong images.

Whenever possible, allowing naturaldaylight into the labs will improve theimage and quality of each space. Wherethere are panoramic views to the exterior,designers should take full advantage ofthem by locating appropriate labs andoffices along the outside walls. Interiorglazing allows people to see other people.And light will be filtered through thebuilding, making a more pleasantresearch environment. The design andlocation of light fixtures can add to theoverall quality of the space so long asglare is controlled and there are clearbrightness-contrast ratios and accuratecolor rendition.

Space for equipment must becoordinated with the design of the entirelab and the location of the case-work.Some equipment is tall and will blockviews. When the equipment is locatedalong one wall or in separate rooms, thelabs can be left more open and visible. Itis extremely important to create efficientbench space, casework, and places forstorage throughout each lab. Efficiency isthe basic idea behind the concept of thelab module; modules are meant to createas much space for research as needed andan appropriate amount of space for cir-culation. Today and in the future, labs willbe designed and used to take advantage ofthe volume of space. Storage is critical inmost labs. Shelving and cabinets above thebenches must be fully coordinated to usethe volume of the space as efficiently aspossible. In locating storage high abovethe benches, the requirement for sprin-klers must be taken into account. Usingthe wall space efficiently is anotheroption. Many researchers would ratherhave wall space for storage or the placementof equipment, instead of glazing, to betteruse the full volume of space in their labs.

� This lab has an excellentview of its environs. StormEye Institute. MedicalUniversity of South Carolina,Charleston. LS3P Associates,Ltd., architect.

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� Equipment space.Manufacturing RelatedDisciplines Complex, Phase II, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta.Perkins & Will, architect.

� The size and image of an office is very important.Biochemistry Building,University of Wisconsin,Madison. Flad & Associates,Inc., architect. Photo byChristopher Barrett, Hedrich Blessing.

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� Location of light fixturesin relation to casework.Manufacturing RelatedDisciplines Complex, PhaseII, Georgia Institute ofTechnology, Atlanta. Perkins& Will, architect.

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� Office prototypes.

OfficesResearchers spend approximately half oftheir time in the lab and the other half intheir offices. Offices can get cluttered very quickly, and designing a visuallysuccessful office therefore not onlyinvolves the quality and quantity offurniture and the amount of glazing, butalso space-related issues such as the abilityto work on a computer and to meet withother people comfortably, and theamount of shelving and other storage.

Several organizations publish office sizestandards. Most offices fall in the range of100–200 NSF. In the future, offices mayhave to be larger to allow space forcomputers and support equipment. Butthere is also a trend toward smalleroffices. A USA Today article of December7, 1998, reported, “The InternationalFacility Management Association reportsthat the average office space middlemanagers got was 151 sq ft in 1994.Today, they have 142 sq ft. Seniorprofessionals today get 114 sq ft, aboutthe size of a walk-in closet.”

Space Allocations for OfficeSupportFor conference and seminar rooms, allow150 NSF for 6 or fewer people, 20 NSFper person for capacities of 6–20, and 18NSF per person for capacities of 20–30.Room sizes may have to be increased ifrooms are used for extensive audiovisualpresentations.

For a mail room allow 100 NSF permail room supervisor. Increase the spaceif the mail-room will house the centralcopier and duplicating equipment.

ADJACENCIESThe relationship of the labs, offices, andcorridor will have a significant impact on

the image and operations of the building.The first question must be: Do the endusers want a view from their labs to theexterior, or will the labs be located on theinterior, with wall space used for caseworkand equipment? Some researchers do notwant or cannot have natural light in theirresearch spaces. Special instruments andequipment, such as nuclear magneticresonance (NMR) apparatus, electronmicroscopes, and lasers (to name a few),cannot function properly in natural light.Natural daylight is not desired in vivariumfacilities or in some support spaces, sothese are located in the interior of thebuilding.

CorridorsThere are three basic ways to organizeadjacencies with corridors:

• Single corridor

• Two-corridor arrangement

• Three-corridor arrangement

Each has advantages and disadvantages,and there are a number of options toexplore with each. Note that there aremany possible variations on the optionsgiven on the following pages.

Single corridorsMost single corridors are located in themiddle of the building, with little or nodaylight coming into the space.Whenever possible, interior walls shouldbe glazed or lounges created along theoutside wall to allow natural light intothe corridor. It is usually preferable tohave a view open to the exterior from the corridor—either at the end orsomewhere along it—where an open,shared space is created. A view helps to orient people as they walk along acorridor.

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AdvantagesWith a single corridor, the building net-to-gross ratio is usually 60 percent or greater. One corridor provides betteropportunities for communication bycreating a “main street.”

DisadvantagesA single-corridor approach may not meet program needs for the labs andoffices or building operations. Usually, asingle corridor limits the width of thebuilding, in turn limiting floor-plandesign. Some labs may need to be interior, without any natural light, which may be difficult to achieve with the single-corridor design.

OptionsLabs and offices adjacent to each other.The researcher has access from his or her office directly into the lab. The officeis also directly off the corridor to alloweasy exiting in case of emergency. Theoffices will not have direct views to theexterior unless the walls between the laband office have glazing. To get into themain lab, it will be necessary to enterthrough the office or lab support area(Option 1A, opposite).

Labs on one wing with offices at the endor in the middle. The office-clusterarrangement creates a sense ofneighborhood, encouraging researchers to talk with one another on a daily basis.The offices are located within a short

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� Daylight is not desirablefor some support spaces.Chemistry Building,Stevenson Center Complex,Vanderbilt University. Payette& Associates, Inc., architect.

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LABS

OFFICE & LAB

CORRIDOR

OFFICE& LAB SUPP-ORT

LABSOFFICE& LABSUPP-ORT

CORRIDOR

LABSOFFICE& LABSUPP-ORT

� Option 1B.

� Option 1C.

� Option 1A.

LABS

OFFICE & LAB

CORRIDOR

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walk of the generic labs, which haveinternal doors connecting each toadjacent labs. The easy accessibility fromone lab to another provides anotheropportunity for researchers to talk andwork together. This is a typical single-corridor scheme (Option 1B).

Office clusters access main labs directly.Teams of researchers are organized inoffice clusters that can open directly intolabs and exit corridors. Interior glazingallows researchers to oversee their labspaces from their offices. Locating officesdirectly next to and immediately accessibleto the labs is preferred by most researchersbut is more costly than locating theoffices in a central area (Option 1C).

Two-corridor arrangementsTwo-corridor (“racetrack”) arrangementsare usually developed to create larger,wider floor plans than are possible withthe single-corridor approach. More labbuildings are constructed with a two-corridor layout than with either a single-or three-corridor arrangement.

AdvantagesThe building has a wider floor plan. Twocorridors allow for labs to be designedback-to-back. There are many layoutoptions. Labs can be located on theinterior or exterior. The building can alsoallow for “ghost corridors,” which permita person to walk from one lab to anotherwithout having to go out into a separatecorridor. (The ghost corridor is walkwayarea through each lab that connects witha door allowing movement from one labto another. Ghost corridors, which areused as a second means of egress, aremore common in large open labs or inlabs where security is not so much of a

concern because the researchers know oneanother. Ghost corridors improve a building’s efficiency and cost-effectiveness, and a ghost corridor usuallymeans that a second, separate publiccorridor will not be necessary.)

DisadvantagesThe two-corridor plan separates peopleby creating a building with “two sides.”This concept is approximately 5 percentless efficient (more costly) than a single-corridor arrangement.

Some open labs have a ghost corridordesign that allows a person to walkthrough the lab to get to another part ofthe building. This can be a very efficientand cost-effective concept if the end userscan work with others coming throughtheir lab spaces. Security may, however,be a concern to some researchers.

OptionsOffices on the outside and labs at theinterior. Researchers can be located inoffice clusters across from their labs andhave views to the exterior. The labs areinternal, with wall space that can be usedfor storage or interior glazing. Thecorridor along the outside wall providesviews and natural light for everyone.With this concept, the main labs andsupport labs can easily be reconfigured asone large lab area (Option 2A, page 146).

Labs and offices on the outside, labsupport on the interior. The main labs andoffices have views to the exterior, but theoffices are separated somewhat from themain labs by the centrally located supportlabs. The lab support area will work wellfor research that cannot have natural lightcoming into the space (Option 2B).

Office clusters adjacent to main labs along

the outside walls, with the lab supportlocated on the interior. This concept isvery functional and is desired by manyresearchers, but cost may be a problem.The operations of most research teamsshould work well with this design. Theentire building will have to be designedfor laboratory construction, which is themost costly approach (Option 2C).

Office clusters along one outside wall, mainlabs along the other outside wall, and somemain labs with lab support located in theinterior. This approach is similar to Option2B, except that the building is wider toallow for the typical main labs to be in thecenter and to locate the offices in clusters.A wider building is more efficient becausethere is more net usable space with thesame corridor arrangement. This option ismore cost-effective than 2C, because allthe offices are located on one side of the

building. The mechanical systems can bedesigned for lab and office construction,which is more cost-effective (Option 2D).

Offices at one end of the building, withlabs located in a “lab wing.” Thisarrangement is similar to Option 2D. Inboth cases, the separation of office and labspace allows the office space to beconstructed as office construction, savingmoney on the project. Despite its cost-effectiveness, however, this approach hastwo disadvantages: (1) some researchersmay not be satisfied if labs and offices arenot adjacent, and (2) the office space willbe expensive to renovate as wet lab spaceif desired in the future (Option 2E).

Three-corridor arrangementsThe three-corridor concept provides apublic racetrack corridor around theoutside and a central service corridor.

� An example of a ghostcorridor design. LewisThomas Laboratories,Princeton University,Princeton, New Jersey.Venturi Scott Brown withPayette & Associates Inc.,architect.

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� Option 2B.

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LABS

OFFICE & LAB

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

CORRIDOR

LABS

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

� Option 2A.

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

LABS OFFICE & LAB SUPPORT

LABS

� Option 2C.

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AdvantagesThe three-corridor plan includes a centralservice area that can be accessible only tomaintenance people or can allow researchersto have access to most of the engineeringservices. The central service corridor canbe used as a shared “equipment corridor.” The three-corridor plan can be used tocreate a “clean and dirty” arrangement.

DisadvantagesThis is the least efficient and mostexpensive corridor arrangement. Thethree-corridor layout is approximately

10 percent less efficient than a single-corridor design and 5 percent lessefficient than the two-corridor scheme.

OptionsOffices on the outside walls, the peoplecorridor on both sides of the building, and aservice corridor in the middle. Offices at theend can be used for shared administrativepurposes. Clustered offices for the researchteams are adjacent to their labs. All labsare internal; the main labs and lab supportspaces are interchangeable and have directaccess to the service corridor (Option 3A).

LABS

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

� Option 2D.

LABS

CORRIDOR

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

LABS

OFFICE& LAB SUPP-ORT

� Option 2E.

� Option 3A.

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LABS

CORRIDOR

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

OFFICE& LAB SUPP-ORT

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

LABS

CORRIDOR

CORRIDOR

OFFICE& LAB SUPP-ORT

CORRIDOR

OFFICE & LAB

LABS

� Option 3B.

People corridor located on both sides of thebuilding, labs and offices on the interior,with the service corridor in the middlebetween labs. The service corridor can beaccessed from two-thirds of the labs. Thisscheme provides a choice by locating athird of the labs with direct views to theexterior (Option 3B).

Open versus Closed PlansFor laboratory space planning there aretwo basic options: the open plan and the closed plan. The open plan reducesconstruction costs because it requires

fewer walls and doors, improves square-footage efficiency, and accommodatesmore casework and equipment in the lab.The open lab and its usefulness for team-based research are discussed in moredetail in chapter 1.

The closed plan allows for tightersecurity; allows for private, individualresearch; and addresses containmentissues better than an open lab.

The image of the lab building differssignificantly depending on whether anopen or closed lab plan is used. The openlab is more visible, and the size of the room

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is much larger. The individual closed plancan be similar to an open lab plan if muchof the interior wall space incorporatesinterior glazing, but in many cases this isnot possible because the walls are neededfor casework, shelving, and equipment.(Interior glazing also adds to constructioncosts.) When closed labs have solid walls,then the spaces are smaller and it is moredifficult for people to see one another and,possibly, harder for them to meet forinformal exchanges of information.

Write-up AreasIn addition to researchers’ offices, mostfacilities have write-up areas within orimmediately adjacent to the lab. Thedecision regarding where to locate write-upareas is based on four key design issues:

1. Should the write-up area be in the lab?

2. Should the write-up area be on theoutside wall to allow people to enjoythe views to the exterior?

3. Should the most dangerous elements(fume hoods) be located on theoutside wall and the least dangerouselements (write-up areas) be locatednear the entry to the lab?

4. Should the write-up area be adjacentto the lab for safety reasons, withdirect access to the labs?

For safety reasons, always avoid placinga write-up station behind or near a fumehood.Options for the location of write-upareas include the following:

Along the outside wall. Desks are locatedperpendicular to the exterior wall, are nearwindows, and are directly adjacent to thelaboratory bench. Researchers sit back-to-back in a low-traffic area, have directaccess to natural light and a view, andclaim the adjacent fixed laboratory bench

as their own. Fume hoods should belocated in alcoves along the corridor wall.

At the end of the bench. Desks arelocated at the far end of a peninsula labbench, away from the exterior wall withwindows. If write-up areas are at the endof the bench, fume hoods should belocated in a separate room or in an alcovealong the corridor wall. The peninsulawill create dead ends and will not allowpeople to circulate around the casework.

Interior remote clustered desks. Desks canbe clustered in an area exterior to the

WRITE-UP AREA

CASEWORK

FUME HOOD

WRITE-UP AREA

CASEWORK

FUME HOOD

� Write-up area separatefrom casework alongoutside wall.

� Write-up area at end ofcasework along outside wall.

WRITE-UP AREA

CASEWORK

FUME HOOD

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

� Separate write-up spacesalong interior wall.

WRITE-UP AREA

CASEWORK

FUME HOOD

� Separate write-up areaalong outside wall andadjacent to lab.

WRITE-UP AREA

CASEWORK

FUME HOOD

� Write-up area alongcorridor wall.

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laboratory. This scheme can provide themaximum degree of safety, because thedesks are not located within the labora-tory. Fume hoods are located along theoutside wall, as far as possible from thewrite-up areas.

Perimeter remote clustered desks. Thisoption provides alternating laboratory andoffice zones along the perimeter of thebuilding. Researchers are afforded naturallight and a view to the exterior. This is avery safe arrangement because the desks are not located within the laboratory.

Along the corridor. Locating the write-uparea near the entry alcove and along thecorridor wall is a common approach inlaboratory design. The greatest hazards arefarthest from the door (fume hoods), andthe safest areas (write-up spaces) are closestto the door. Above the desk can be a solidwall with shelving or interior glazing toallow people to see into the lab.

INTERIOR FINISHES

FloorsThere are a variety of floor finishes for labs.To find the most appropriate floor finish,various finishes should be compared fordurability, chemical resistance, cost, andaesthetics.

Exposed concreteExposed concrete is a very durable,inexpensive floor finish and reasonably easyto clean. Its disadvantages include poorchemical resistance and the fact that it isuncomfortable to walk on and not veryattractive.

Resilient tile (vinyl composite tile)Vinyl composite tile (VCT) is cost-effective, durable, reasonably easy to clean,easy to replace, pleasing to look at, andsomewhat comfortable to walk on. Its

disadvantages include the fact that itschemical resistance is only fair, and a VCT floor has many joints where bacteria can collect.

Resilient sheet vinylThis flooring is durable, easy to clean,comfortable to walk on, and aestheticallypleasing. Chemical resistance is good, and there are fewer joints than with tileflooring. Its chief disadvantages are its highcost (160–180 percent more than resilienttile) and the fact that it is difficult to repair.

Troweled epoxyTroweled epoxy provides excellentresistance against chemicals, is durable, and is easy to clean. Disadvantages includecost (more than 4 times the cost of resilienttile and 2.5 times more than sheet vinyl),limited color options, and difficulty ofrepair.

CarpetCarpeting is an excellent floor finish foroffices, large lecture halls, and commonareas, but it is inappropriate for wet labo-ratories because of chemical spills andbecause bacteria may grow in the carpet.

WallsLab walls are typically constructed of gypsumwallboard and usually painted with an epoxyfinish. Corners may need wood or metalcorner guards to protect them from scrapeswhen carts and equipment are being moved.A wall along a corridor may also require achair rail or bumper guard.

CeilingsCeilings either have lay-in ceiling tile or are open to the structure and mechanicalsystems. If the mechanical systems areexposed, acoustical liners should be used

to minimize the noise from the airflowing through the ductwork, and the pipes should be painted. With a sufficient number of air changes flowing through the room, little or no dust is likely to collect on the pipes.

ACOUSTICAL ISSUESAcoustical issues are fairly common in most labs. Noise problems typicallyoccur because the mechanical supply and exhaust ducts are too loud, theequipment generates a significant amount of noise, or the room surfaces are very hard and bounce the noisearound the space. Noise problems with ductwork are usually the result of too much air being moved through the ducts or the lack of sound attenuators in the ductwork. When the equipment is too loud, the noise can be minimized by locating theequipment in a separate room.

Finishes for the lab floor and walls are typically hard surfaces for ease of maintenance, and there really is not anything that can be done with these surfaces to mitigate noise.Insulation can be provided in the walls and above the ceiling to reduce the amount of noise transmitted fromone room to another. There are a fewacoustical design options for ceilings. A ceiling can be constructed of acoustical tile. If there is no lay-in ceiling and the piping and structure are exposed, acoustical baffles can be placed up in the space. However, there are two problems with acousticalbaffles: additional cost and a surface that can be easily contaminated.

The following are the recommendednoise criteria (NC) for laboratory spaces:

Space NC LevelAuditorium 20–25Conference room 25–30Classroom 30–35Open plan offices 35–45Office 40Lobby 40Research laboratories 40–45Corridors 45

CASEWORKThe casework plays a large role increating a lab’s image. A lab that has justbeen completed—before researchersmove in—has a completely differentimage than a lab that is in full use.

Types of CaseworkThere are four basic types of casework:

• Fixed casework

• Hung casework

• Cantilevered casework

• Mobile casework

Fixed caseworkFixed casework is a conventionalarrangement in which base cabinetssupport countertops and the base cabinetsare mounted on the wall. Base cabinets aretypically 22 in. deep, countertops 30 in.deep. The countertop has a 1 in. overhangalong the front and a 7 in. space along the back to run all the utility services.

AdvantagesThis is the most affordable caseworkbased on initial costs, because the systemis the easiest to build and has the fewestparts.

DisadvantagesThe system is not very flexible, becausethe casework is attached to the wall,

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

Casework

153

� New, unoccupied lab withample space. Hollins CancerCenter, Medical University ofSouth Carolina, Charleston.

� The same space as aworking lab, with every inchof space used. Hollins CancerCenter, Medical University ofSouth Carolina, Charleston.

utilities, and countertop. To renovate such acasework system, the lab must be shut down.Renovation costs include lost research time aswell as contractors’ costs.

Hung caseworkIn a hung casework system the cabinets andcountertops are hung from a rail that is attachedto the wall. Because the countertop is supportedby the rail instead of the base cabinets,individual cabinets can be relocated withoutaffecting the rest of the casework system.

AdvantagesThis system is flexible, because the counter-tops and cabinets are independent of theutilities and can be easily detached from thestructural rail system. Base cabinets on wheelsor with leveling feet can be easily moved.

DisadvantagesHung casework can cost 5–10 percent morethan fixed casework. Because this type ofsystem is mounted on a wall, there may besome concern if it holds instruments sensitiveto vibration.

Cantilevered caseworkCantilevered casework is designed as a self-supporting system separate from the wallsystem and utilities.

AdvantagesThe casework can easily be moved, and insome cases researchers can relocate it bythemselves. With the use of this type ofcasework, floors are easier to maintain andbacteria is not likely to collect under thecasework.

DisadvantagesThis casework can cost up to 20 percentmore than fixed casework and may have 20percent less storage capacity.

� Fixed casework.Glaxo WellcomeHeadquarters,Stevenage, UnitedKingdom. KlingLindquist, architect.

� Hung casework.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

Mobile caseworkMobile casework includes tables, carts,and casework on wheels. The mobilecasework should conform to the samemodule (usually 3 ft to coordinate withknee space) as the fixed casework.

AdvantagesThis type of casework provides someflexibility for the end users to create andchange their own lab spaces. Theinventory of mobile casework can easilybe moved from one place to another.Many tables, carts, and casework itemscan be adjusted vertically to be moreergonomically correct. Long-termoperational costs can be reduced.

DisadvantagesThe initial cost of mobile casework ishigher than fixed casework. Mobilecasework may create some managementproblems, especially if it is placed in frontof doors or aisles, jeopardizing safety.

Many labs combine fixed casework withmovable casework such as carts, write-upstations, tables, and storage cabinets. Thisapproach allows the researcher someflexibility with more affordable casework.Such a combined system allows a lab tobe designed to meet researchers’ exactneeds and even reconfigured in the futurewith very little cost or effort. Flexiblefurniture systems work well alone; theycan also be paired with fixed base cabinetsto increase lab capacity.

Casework Material SelectionWood is the most popular caseworkmaterial for academic environments,primarily because of its appearance.Wood performs well with moderatechemical usage and is easy to repair.Wood construction is available with flushor standard pulls and a wide array of

� Cantilevered casework.

� Tables that can easily bemoved and shelves that canbe adjusted. TechnologyEnhanced Learning Center,State University of WestGeorgia, Carrolton. Perkins& Will, architect.

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155

finishes to provide just the right look for aunique laboratory setting. Wood is quieterthan metal cabinetry and is usually easy torepair. There are some drawbacks to woodcasework: it is flammable and may warp

because of water or chemical absorption. Highly resistant to chemicals and abuse,

steel casework has long been the materialof choice in laboratory environmentswhere spills, corrosive agents, and heavyuse are common. One concern with metalis that it will corrode. Metal casework iseasy to dent, noisier in use than othermaterials, and usually more difficult torepair than wood.

The costs of metal and wood cabinetsare quite similar and vary slightlydepending on the manufacturer and thedemand.

Plastic laminate should not be used inmost labs because water and chemicalscan easily damage it. The short-term costof plastic laminate is a little less than thatof metal or wood, but because it will haveto be replaced much sooner, it willeventually cost more. In specifyingcasework, it is important to make surethat the base cabinets have removableback panels to allow access to the utilityservices. Security panels betweendrawers—which prevent someone fromgaining access by removing the drawerabove—may be advisable.

The selection of sink material depends

on the work surface selected. Forexample, epoxy resin sinks can be usedonly with epoxy resin work surfaces andstainless-steel drop-in style sinks can beused only with plastic laminate orChemsurf work surfaces. Drain and trapmaterials must also be chosen carefully;they must be suitable to the applicationand comply with the applicable codes.One-piece cast epoxy resin sinks arehighly resistant to acids, solvents, andsalts. Single- and double-compartmentstainless-steel sinks feature polished,sound-deadened interiors and include anintegral back ledge to accommodate deck-mounted fixtures. One-piece polyolefinsinks, molded from specifically selectedresins, offer physical strength (makingthem long-lasting) and resiliency(reducing glassware breakage). Thecasework should include, at the sinks, apaper towel dispenser and a pegboard thatallows glassware to dry.

ERGONOMICSTo ensure workers’ comfort it isimportant to keep in mind that peopleare of different shapes and sizes, vary inage, and are likely to have a range ofphysical requirements. Ergonomic designstake these facts into consideration,allowing employees to be comfortablewhile using equipment, tools, andmaterials. When offices and laboratoriesare more comfortable, they are usuallymore productive.

The work zone is defined as the worksurface area available when the user'sforearms are resting on the countertop. Alarge, effective work zone allows the userto access and manipulate more laboratorymaterial in the cabinet. The ability to restforearms minimizes reaching and reducesstrain on the arms, shoulders, and neck.

� Fixed and mobilecasework. TechnologyEnhanced Learning Center,State University of WestGeorgia,.Carrolton. Perkins& Will, architect.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

Cool white fluorescent lighting reducesglare in the work zone, creating less eyefatigue during long work periods.

A fixed work-surface height of 30 in.can reasonably accommodate a personwho is less than 6 ft 2 in. in height,sitting in a laboratory chair at a biologicalsafety cabinet.

An ergonomically designed laboratorychair should have a star-based platform,five casters that lock when the chair isoccupied, an adjustable back support,and an adjustable lumbar support; and itshould be adjustable to move to differentheight requirements. A built-in adjustablefootrest is also recommended. A properlydesigned chair should minimize muscleactivity to maintain posture and reducepressure on the spine, which could leadto disc injuries. Chairs must allow forchanges in body position. The usershould be able to adjust the chair’s heightto varying work surfaces.

Classroom chairs, too, should beergonomically designed and possess thefollowing attributes:

• Adjustable height (preferablypneumatic). Ease of adjustmentensures that students can assume andretain proper posture.

• Back tilt. This useful feature enablesstudents to adjust eye-to-monitordistance.

• A broad seat and back design,providing adequate comfort withminimal sculpting. This design meetsthe needs of a large number of users.Although lumbar support andforward-tilt functions may be anecessity in the office, in theclassroom it is more important tomake users comfortable for theduration of the class.

Electrically adjustable workstations offerpushbutton up-down height adjustment,enabling researchers to sit or standcomfortably while working, as well aswheelchair accessibility and support forheavy monitors and large digitizing pads.

FUME HOODSA fume hood, the prime protectiondevice in a laboratory, should be usedwhen a researcher is:

• Working with chemicals known orsuspected to be hazardous

• Working with unknown substances

• Pouring, mixing, weighing, ordispensing chemicals

On the simplest level, a fume hood can be understood as a box and a blower.Fumes generated in the box are pulled awayby the blower and safely dispersed into theatmosphere, thus protecting the worker.

� Air flow through fume hood. Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

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157

To minimize risk in the event of anexplosion, hoods should be located onoutside walls whenever possible. Standardsizes are 4 ft, 5 ft, 6 ft, and 8 ft for hoodsthat are 2 ft 6 in. deep. If fume hoods arelocated on an outside wall, the write-upstations should be along the insidecorridor wall, preferably with interiorglazing. If it is preferred to have write-upstations along the outside walls, for viewsto the campus, then the fume hoodsshould be located along the interior wallin alcoves. If the labs are locatedinternally rather than along the outsidewall, then the fume hoods should besituated in a remote location farthestfrom the door. The write-up stationsshould be adjacent to the entry, along thecorridor wall, preferably with interiorglazing.

Special Types of Hoods

Perchloric acid hoodsA perchloric hood is similar to astandard fume hood but is designedspecifically for perchloric acid, with astainless steel interior. The acid can beexplosive if it is combined with organicchemicals and condenses in the exhaustsystem. To prevent such problems, thehood is designed with a wash-downmechanism for the exhaust system,which should be employed after eachuse. A shutoff valve and trough allowfor the wash-down. The hood shouldbe prominently labeled with a signthat states, “Perchloric Acid WorkOnly.” The exhaust will require adedicated duct and fan constructedof stainless steel. The duct should haveno horizontal runs and should go fromthe hood directly to the fan andexhaust stack at the roof. The duct

sections should be heliarc weldedto prevent leakage of the perchloricacid. The hood should be built withan integral liner of a single pieceof stainless steel, such as 316stainless. The liner should havecoved corners (continuous, withoutjoints) and as few joints as possible.Lights inside the hood must beexplosion-proof.

Radioisotope hoodsRadioisotope fume hoods are designedto minimize risk to the researcher. Theliner is a single piece of stainless steel,which must be seamless for purgingradioisotopes. There are a variety ofexhaust filters to choose from. Whenthere are very high levels of radioactivematerials being used at a hood, a HEPAfilter may be necessary. The filter shouldbe located at the portal of the hood,and a device to monitor the air velocitythrough the face of the hood shouldbe installed. Because it must supportlead shielding, the base cabinet of aradioisotope fume hood may have tobe stronger than is typical for otherhoods.

Glove boxesGlove boxes are airtight, sealed onall sides, and operated through gloves.A glove box is not a chemical fumehood.

Biological safety cabinetsBiological safety cabinets are intended to protect the researcher from harmfulagents inside the cabinet, to protect theresearch, and to protect the environmentfrom contaminants. All biological safetycabinets have a HEPA filter to remove

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

Type Face Airflow Pattern Radionuclides/Toxic BiosafetyVelocity Chemicals

(ft per min)Class I 75 In at front; rear and top No 2, 3

through HEPA filterClass II 75 70% recirculated through No 2, 3Type A HEPA filter, exhaust

through HEPA filterClass II 100 30% recirculated through Yes (low 2, 3

HEPA; exhaust via HEPA levels/volatility)and hard ducted

Class II 100 No recirculation; total exhaust Yes 2, 3Type B1 via HEPA and hard ductedClass II 100 Same as IIA, but plenum Yes 2, 3Type B2 under negative pressure to

room and exhaust air is ductedClass III N/A Supply air inlets and exhaust 3, 4Type B3 through two filters, HEPA

particles and aerosols from the air. Thereare three levels of cabinets:

1. Class I cabinets are primarily for low or moderate risk, protecting the researcher but not the researchfrom dirty room air.

2. Class II cabinets protect theresearcher, the environment, and the research. This class of cabinet is often used in laboratories whereparticle-free work is necessary.Within Class II are cabinets of Type A, Type B, and Type B2designs. A Type A cabinet recir-culates 65 percent of the air, and 35 percent is exhausted through aduct or exhausted back into the lab through a HEPA filter. With TypeB, 35 percent of the air is recirculatedand 65 percent exhausted. Type B2cabinets require bag-in and bag-outfilter housing. Type B2 cabinetsexhaust 100 percent of the air, withnone recirculated.

3. Class III cabinets are 100 percentexhausted; no air is recirculated. Class III cabinets are sealed enclosures and are used for thehighest-risk biological agents.

Canopy hoods

Canopy hoods are placed over work areas or equipment to capture heat orsteam. The recommended design flowrate is 75 cubic ft per minute (CFM) per linear foot of open perimeter.

SnorkelsSnorkels (also called “elephant trunks”)are small capturing cones attached to anadjustable exhaust arm, suspended fromthe wall or ceiling, to capture heat orfumes from equipment or processes.Typical flow rates are 100 to 200 CFM.Both canopy hoods and snorkels can befastened directly to equipment ifnecessary.

For engineering-related issues in fumehood design, see chapter 4.

Fume Hoods

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BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINETS

� Locate safety devices at the entry alcove to each lab. Joslin DiabetesCenter, Harvard University,Cambridge, Massachusetts.Ellenzweig & Associates,Inc., architect.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

SAFETY, SECURITY, ANDREGULATORY CONSIDERATIONSProtecting human health and life isparamount, and safety must always be the first concern in laboratory building design. Security—protecting

a facility from unauthorized access—is also of critical importance. Today,research-facility designers work within a dense regulatory environment. This section addresses all these related concerns.

Safety

General safety principlesFor safety and ease of maintenance, it usually makes sense to locate a safety shower, fire extinguisher, andshutoff valves at the entry alcove of each lab. Interior glazing permits easysurveillance of the laboratory. Warningsigns with the appropriate symbolsshould be posted at laboratory entrances.There should be two means of egressfrom each main lab (labs measuring 900 sq ft or more). Doors should swingout of main labs for safe egress in case of emergency.

In most cases, labs should be organized with the highest hazards (e.g, fume hoods) farthest from the entry door and the least hazardouselements (e.g., write-up stations) closestto the door. Write-up desks and benchesshould be accessible without having tocross in front of fume hoods. All lab users should be trained in emergencyprocedures.

Appropriate casework should beprovided. Islands are preferable topeninsulas, since islands allow people to walk around benches. A 1 in. highPlexiglas lip along shelves prevents

� Fume hoods located in remote corners.

Safety, Security, and Regulatory Considerations

161

containers from falling off. Whereoverhead shelving is located above islandbenches and containers might fall off theback of the shelf, the protective 1 in. lipshould be placed there. Personal itemsand clothing should be kept in lockersoutside the lab area. Food and drinks areprohibited in labs.

All mechanical systems should beelectronically monitored, and all safetyequipment should be tested on a regularbasis. Fume hoods should be equippedwith airflow alarms. Most labs arerequired to be under negative air pressurerelative to the corridor.

Floor penetrations should be avoided, ifpossible, to prevent chemicals releasedduring a spill or flood from traveling to thefloor below. Wet vacuuming should be usedinstead of floor drains to contain chemicalspills. (This can also help in identifyingwhat has been spilled on an individual.)

Designers should consider placing anemergency center in a central location oneach floor, to provide easy access foreveryone. An emergency centerconsolidates reagent neutralizers, hand-held sprays, first aid, and fire controlequipment in one common area. Thecenter should contain a fire extinguisherwith hanger, two 1 gal (3.8 l) plasticbottles, a first aid kit, a fire blanket, and a galvanized sand pail.

Safety showers and eyewashesAccording to American NationalStandards Institute (ANSI) standards,safety showers should never be fartherthan 100 ft away from any researcher,along a clear and unobstructed path.Locating safety showers within 75 ft isthe recommended and safer approach.Safety showers are usually placed in thecorridor, highly visible from the lab exits.All safety showers should meet Americanswith Disabilities Act (ADA) criteria(described later in this section) andshould include an eyewash. Putting afloor drain under the shower is notrecommended. A floor drain may createcontamination problems in the drainpiping or leak down to the floor below. It

� Protective plastic lip atshelves. Salk Institute, LaJolla, California, Louis I.Kahn, architect.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

is better to allow the chemicals at theshower to be mopped up in order toidentify what was on the individual.

Deluge showers should flow at a rate of30 gal of water per minute. All safetyshowers should provide low-velocitywater at 70–90° F. Manual close valvesare recommended for all safety showers.A safety shower should be designed withan automatic cutoff, but should deliver atleast 50 gal before the automatic cutoff isactivated. Safety showers should not belocated near any sources of electricity,especially electric panel boxes.

In each lab, there should be an eyewashand a body wash at at least one sink(preferably an ADA-compliant sink).Eyewash units should supply amultistream cross flow of potable water at65–75° F. Contaminated eyes should beflushed for 15 minutes. Eyewashes shouldflow at a rate of 3–7 gal of water perminute. Eyewashes are not required bymost codes but are highly recommendedfor safe laboratory practice.

Fume hood heightAnother important issue is the height ofthe fume hood for people who are lessthan 5'9" tall. The typical fume hood testby the American Society of Heating,Refrigerating, and Air-ConditioningEngineers (ASHRAE) is based on a 5'9"male. When the person is shorter and thesash is lower, then it is more difficult forthe hood to operate properly because lessair will go through the sash. If the fumehood is left higher to allow for moreairflow through the hood, then a personshorter than 5'9" may be at risk, becausethe person’s mouth and nose may becloser to the chemicals being used in thehood. Hoods that can be placed atdifferent heights should be specified.

Chemical storageBuilding codes classify a project’s

“occupancy type” based to a great extenton the quantities of flammable chemicalsexpected to be kept on hand.Construction costs are directly related tothis classification. If the occupancy typecan be shifted by reducing storage needs,significant cost reductions can be realized.

A hazardous chemical is defined as achemical for which there is statisticallysignificant evidence that exposure mayproduce acute or chronic health effects.Storage options include the following:

1. Supplier warehousing. Vendors can hold the chemicals for the lab,supplying them on an as-needed or just-in-time basis.

2. On-site external storage. An appropriateexternal storage facility can be any one of a range of prefabricated, self-contained, environmentally controlledhazardous storage containers. Theenvironment must be controllablebecause many chemicals are sensitive to heat, humidity, and light. Placementand proper management can be just as important as container type.

� Emergency centerlocated in a central location.Confidential building.

Safety, Security, and Regulatory Considerations

163

3. Internal, centralized storage.Centralized internal facilities usuallyconsist of a designated room forchemical storage, shared by allresearchers on that floor or in thatbuilding.

4. Internal, decentralized storage. In-labstorage may be combined withcentralized or external storage.Chemicals are often stored in aspecial, labeled cabinet in each lab.Some are 7 ft, freestanding cabinets,and others are located beneath fumehoods. All chemical storage cabinetsshould be exhausted.

In any lab where shelving is used tostore chemicals, the shelves should be nohigher than eye level. The shelving shouldbe made of a chemically resistantmaterial.

Storage strategies must be compliantwith all National Fire ProtectionAssociation (NFPA) and OccupationalSafety and Health Administration(OSHA) regulations. Flammables must be stored separately in anNFPA/OSHA-approved flammablescabinet, usually beneath a fume hood.Flammables cabinets should be sealed,requiring no exhaust ducting. Ifflammables storage cabinets are nottightly sealed, volatile fumes canaccumulate. Exhaust vents are usuallynot recommended, because the volatilevapors can escape into the building and some ductwork may not withstand a fire.

Chemical storage rooms should be ventilated by at least 15 air changes per hour and should havededicated exhaust systems. Chemicalsshould be stored in plastic or metalcontainers whenever possible, not inbreakable glass. All chemicals should be properly labeled, and should bearranged on the shelf in chemicallycompatible families, not alphabetically.Chemicals should never be stored in afume hood or on the floor.

� Gas cylinder storage inthe lab entry alcove. JoslinDiabetes Center, HarvardUniversity, Cambridge,Massachusetts. Ellenzweig & Associates, architect.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

Chemical wastesIt is not permitted to pour chemicals intoa drain that flows directly into the publicwater system. Chemicals must be handledlocally in the lab or with dilution tanks in or near the building. Local handling isthe most affordable approach: Theresearcher pours the chemical into aspecific container that is later picked upby a waste-management staffperson or bya vendor. If chemicals are allowed to bepoured down the drain, then all thedrains must be constructed withchemical-resistant piping, which can bevery expensive. The holding tanks willtake up a few hundred feet, at aminimum, at the basement level.

Security SystemsThere are several options to consider forthe design of a security system. The leastcostly, initially, is the lock-and-keysystem. But there are problems: keys caneasily be copied, are difficult to manage,and are costly to replace when lost orstolen.

Access-card systems use identificationcards with a magnetic strip, which worksas an electronic key. Cards and card-readers are programmed to allow onlyauthorized people into particular areas.When an unauthorized person tries toenter the area, an alarm occurs and thecontrol panel immediately transmits asignal to the host. So-called “smart card”(or “one card”) systems can be used for a variety of administrative purposesbeyond security—for example, studentregistration, cafeteria debiting, and so on.Using an access-control system with anintegrated database, student andemployee status can be updatedimmediately, without the expense andadministrative time necessary to mail new

cards. Other security options to considerare computerized alarm systems,electronic locks, and video surveillance.

The Regulatory Environment

Building and life-safety codesThe following codes and standards mayaffect the architectural design of labfacilities, depending on jurisdiction:

• Association for Assessment andAccreditation of Laboratory AnimalCare (AAALAC) standards

• American with Disabilities Act (ADA)regulations

• American National StandardsInstitute (ANSI) standards

• Providing Accessibility and Usabilityfor Physically Handicapped People

• ANSI Z358.1—Emergency Eyewashand Shower Equipment

• ANSI/AIHA—American NationalStandard Z9.5 for LaboratoryVentilation

• Building Officials and CodeAdministrators International (BOCA)National Building Code

• Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA) standards

• OSHA Standard 29—OccupationalExposures to Hazardous Chemicals inLaboratories

• National Fire Protection Association(NFPA), National Fire Codes

• NFPA 101—Life Safety Code.’97

• NFPA 30—Flammable andCombustible Liquids Code

• NFPA 45—Fire Protection forLaboratories using Chemicals

• National Institutes of Health (NIH)81-2385—Guidelines for theLaboratory Use of ChemicalCarcinogens

Safety, Security, and Regulatory Considerations

165

Storage Closed Systemmsbb Open Systemssb

MaterialSolids (lb) cd Liquid

(gal or lb)cdGases(cu ft)

Solids (lb)c Liquid(gal or lb)c

Gases (cu ft) Solids (lb)c

Corrosive 5,000 500 810cd 5,000 500 810cd 1,000 100Highly Toxic 1 (1) 20e 1 (1) 20e 1/4 (1/4)

Irritant 5,000 500 810cd 5,000 500 810cd 1,000 100Radioactive 25 rem, unsealed 100 rem, sealed sources 25 rem, sealedd

Sensitize 5,000 500 810cd 5,000 500 810cd 1,000 100Toxic 500 (500) 810cd 500 (500) 810cd 125 (125)Other HealthHazards 5,000 500 810cd 5,000 500 810cd 1,000 100

a Quantities in parenntheses correspond to the units in parentheses at the heads of the columns.b The total quantity iin use and in stoorage may not exceeed the amount allowed for storrage.c The maximum allowwed amounts caan be increased byy 100% in buildinngs equipped thrroughout with ann approved autoomatic sprinkler system. NNote d also applies and the two alloowances are cumulative.

d The maximum allowed amounts caan be increased byy 100% in buildinng equipped throoughout with an approved autommatic sprinkler system. NNote c also appllies and the two alloowances are cummulative.e Permitted only wheen stored in approved exhausted gas cabinets, exhausted enclosuures, or fume hoods.f 1 lb of black sportinng powder and 220 lb of smokeless ppowder are permmitted in sprinkleer or unsprinklered buildings.

source

Liquid(gal or lb)c

• Standard Building Code

• Southern Building Code CongressInternational (SBCCI)

• Standard Fire Prevention Code,SBCCI

• Standard Gas Code, SBCCI

• Standard Plumbing Code, SBCCI '94

• Standard Mechanical Code, SBCCIThe codes and standards are minimum

requirements. Architects, engineers, andconsultants should consider exceeding theapplicable requirements whenever possible.

Several key building and life-safety codeissues must be addressed early in thedesign process:

1. What is the building classification?

2. What types of hazardous chemicalswill be used?

3. What quantity of each chemical willbe stored in the building?

4. What is the height of the building?

5. How will chemicals and otherhazardous wastes be removed fromthe lab?

Laboratory construction is typicallyclassified as belonging to one of four types.Types 1 and 2 require noncombustiblematerials; Type 3 may include somecombustible materials; and Type 4 requiresexterior walls to be of noncombustiblematerials. Important considerations indetermining the type of construction fora laboratory building are the types andamounts of chemicals stored in thebuilding. The three tables below andopposite list the various types of materials,the class, and use group for constructionbased on the amount of chemicals stored.Type 4 construction is the least expensiveto build, Type 1 the most expensive. Inmost cases, it is advisable to minimize theamount of chemicals in a building and toorder what is needed on a daily or weeklybasis from a local vendor.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

EXEMPT AMOUNTS OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS PRESENTING A HEALTH HAZARD (MAXIMUM QUANTITIES PER CONTROL AREA)

Type off ConstrructionNoncommbustibble Noncombustible//combustibleType 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4Protectted Protectted Unprotected Protected Unprotected (Heavy Timber)

Structural Element1A 1B 2A 2B 2C 3A 3B 4

Exterior walls Load bearing

4 3 2 1 0 2 2 2

Also must comply with Section 705.2 Nonload bearing Must comply wwith Section 705.2Fire and party walls 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2

Also must comply with Section 707.1Fire separation assemblies Exit enclosures 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Shafts (other than exits) and elevator

hoistways 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2Fire partitions, exit access corridors 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Complyy with Seection 10011.4; fire retardannt-treated wood permitted for types 1 aand 2 iffire resiistance rating 1 houur or less is required.

Interior bearing walls, bearing partitions, columns, girders, trusses (other than roof trusses), and framing Supporting more than one floor 4 3 2 1 0 1 0 Section 605 governs Supporting one floor or roof only 3 2 1.5 1 0 1 0 Section 605 governs

Structural members supporting wall 3 2 1.5 1 0 1 0 1

Must noot be lesss than ssupported wall; alsoo exceptions in seleected casesFloor construction, including beams 3 2 1.5 1 0 1 0 Section 605 governsRoof construction, including beams 2 1.5 1 1 0 1 0 Section 605 governs trusses and framing, arches and roof deck

(15' or less in height to lowest member)

Safety, Security, and Regulatory Considerations

167

Type of ConstructionBusiness Educational Hazard, H-2 Hazard, H-3

Noncombustible

1A (protected) Not limited Not limited 16,800 33,6005 stories, 65 ft 7 stories, 85 ft

2B (protected) Not limited Not limited 14,400 28,0003 stories, 40 ft 7 stories, 85 ft

2A (protected) 34,200 34,200 11,400 22,8007 stories, 85 ft 5 stories, 65 ft 3 stories, 40 ft 6 stories, 75 ft

2B (protected) 22,500 22,500 7,500 15,0005 stories, 65 ft 3 stories, 40 ft 2 stories, 30 ft 4 stories, 50 ft

2C (unprotected) 14,400 14,400 4,800 9,6003 stories, 40 ft 2 stories, 30 ft 1 story, 20 ft 2 stories, 30 ft

3A (protected) 19,800 19,800 6,600 13,2004 stories, 50 ft 3 stories, 40 ft 2 stories, 30 ft 3 stories, 40 ft

3B (unprotected) 14,400 14,400 4,800 9,6003 stories, 40 ft 2 stories, 30 ft 1 story, 20 ft 2 stories, 30 ft

4 (heavy timber) 21,600 21,600 7,200 14,4005 stories, 65 ft 3 stories, 40 ft 2 stories, 30 ft 4 stories, 50 ft

Noncombustible / Combustible

FIRE RESISTANCE RATINGS OF SELECTED STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN HOURS*

* Abbreviated version of Table 602, BOCA Building Code. This table is included only to illustrate certain possibleexceptions, exemptions, or variations permitted depending on other factors.

HEIGHTS AND AREA LIMITS USE CLASS

signs, exit lights, emergency power, andrest-room requirements.

Storage of combustible and flammable liquidsThe following information is based onNFPA 30, which concerns flammable andcombustible liquids. Combustible liquidshave a flash point at or above 100°F(37.8°C) and are classified as follows:

• Class II: Liquids with a flash point ator above 100°F (37.8°C) and below140°F (60°C)

• Class III A: Liquids with a flash pointat or above 140°F (60°C) and below200°F (93°C)

• Class III B: Liquids with a flash pointat or above 200°F (93°C)

Flammable liquids have a flash pointbelow 100°F (37.8°C) and a vaporpressure not greater than 40 lbs per sq in.(absolute) (2,068 mm Hg) at 100°F(37.8°C). Flammable liquids are classifiedas follows:

• Class I A: Liquids with flash pointbelow 73°F (22.8°C) and a boilingpoint below 100°F (37.8°C).

• Class I B: Liquids with flash pointbelow 73°F (22.8°C) and a boilingpoint at or above 100°F (37.8°C).

• Class I C: Liquids with flash points at or above 73°F (22.8°C) and below100°F (37.8°C).

No more than 120 gal (454 l) of ClassI, Class II, and Class III liquid may bestored in a storage cabinet. Of this total,no more than 60 gal (227 l) may be ofClass I and Class II liquids, and no morethan three such cabinets may be locatedin a single fire area, except in anindustrial occupancy, where additionalcabinets may be located in the same fire

area if the additional cabinets (not morethan a group of three) are separated fromother cabinets or group of cabinets by atleast 100 ft (30 m).

In addition to following the standardsabove, it will be necessary during thedesign phase of the project to workclosely with the client representatives.The project team may have toincorporate additional requirements aslaboratory and support spaces are moredefinitively outlined.

Fire suppression systemMost lab buildings are designed with awater sprinkler system for code andinsurance reasons. In many cases it maybe less costly to provide a water sprinklersystem than not to do so. Othersuppression systems may be necessary,depending on the chemicals being usedand the type of research being conducted.

Seismic designSeismic design is mandated in some areasof the country. Seismic designconsiderations include the following:

• 3 in. shelf edges for reagent shelving

• 12-gauge metal blocking in walls forwall cabinet attachments

• Earthquake catches for all doors anddrawers

• Bolted cylinder straps

• All loose tabletop equipment guy-wired to the tabletops

• All mechanical, electrical, andplumbing equipment double-harnessed to a main structure

ADA Issues

The Americans with Disabilities Act(ADA) is enforced through the U.S.Justice Department and court system, not

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169

These three tables can be used forreview. It is recommended that life andsafety professionals be involved early inreviewing the design to make sure itmeets health and safety requirements.The design team can build theappropriate building, but the campushealth and safety staff will have to overseethe researchers to ensure that theguidelines are met. It is also recom-mended that local code officials beinvolved in the review of the design andapproach to the construction as itpertains to life-safety issues.

Laboratory classificationsThe amount and type of chemicals willdetermine the building classification. The following are the four laboratoryclasses, with the special practicesassociated with each:

1. Low risk. There are no specialpractices associated with a low-risklaboratory.

2. Moderate risk

• Work with materials with safetyand health ratings of 3 or greaterin any category must be performedin a fume hood.

• Work with substantial amounts ofmaterials with hazard ratings of 1or 2 must be performed in a hoodor in an assembly designed to besafe in the event of a failure.

• Appropriate personal protectiveequipment, such as goggles, mustbe worn in the work area.

3. Substantial risk

• Specific policies, depending on thenature of the hazard, must bemade part of the laboratoryindustrial and hygiene plan as wellas the safety plan.

• All work that can be completedseparately from the laboratoryoperations should be completed ina separate area of the lab or in aroom adjacent to the lab. Allpaperwork should be performedoutside the lab.

• No safety feature should be altered in any way without written approval.

• Personal safety equipment must be worn.

• A laboratory safety committeeshould review each new experimentplanned to determine whether itcan be carried out safely.

4. High risk

• Specific policies, depending on thenature of the hazard, must bemade part of the OSHA-mandatedlaboratory safety plan.

• All work that can be completedseparately from the laboratoryoperations should be completed ina separate area of the lab or in aroom adjacent to the lab. Allpaperwork should be performedoutside the lab.

• No safety feature should be alteredin any way without writtenapproval.

• Personal safety equipment must beworn.

• A laboratory safety committeeshould review each new experimentplanned to determine whether itcan be carried out safely.

Other typical code issues will have to bestudied and resolved. These include exitcapacity, travel distance, number and sizeof fire stairs, door and wall ratings, exit

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

by building code officials. Merelyobtaining a building permit does not inany way imply compliance with ADAcodes and regulations. Any new labproject must consider ADA compliance,

and renovations should takenoncompliant elements into account.The following are considerations foraccessible design:

• Provide some adaptable furnituresystems and adjustable-height worksurfaces to accommodate people inwheelchairs.

• Provide one ADA fume hood in eachlab. An ADA hood is designed with asash that opens vertically andhorizontally.

• Provide one ADA height (34 in.) sinkfor each lab. (The Accessibility Boardof the Justice Department inWashington, D.C., has stated that amobile, self-contained ADA sink oneach floor is not acceptable as a meansto provide access to sinks for studentsor for any other public use.)

• Provide one ADA workstation/write-up area in each lab.

• Choose emergency shower handles thatcan be pushed up to stop the flow.

• Install pullout shelves in basecabinets.

• Install a lightweight fire extinguisherwithin reach of a handicappedworkstation.

ADA recommended dimensions andclearances are as follows:

Work-surface height 34 in. max.Knee clearance 32 in. max.Work-surface depth 24 in.Maximum sink depth 6.5 in.Shoulder-to-hand reach 35–45 in.Elbow-to-hand reach 22–26 in.Side reach 24 in.Reach height 46 in.Control height 48 in. max,

15 in. min.

� ADA fume hood.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

OPEN

1'-6"2'-8"

6"

1"

4"

31"

10"6"

12"

Safety, Security, and Regulatory Considerations

171

� ADA safety shower. Engineering GraduateResearch Center, North Carolina State University,Raleigh. Odell & Associates, architect.

� Emergency shower maximum reach.

� Laboratory workstation for wheelchair access.

Door clearance 32 in.(requires 36 in. door)Aisle width 48 in. min.Clearance required to 60 in.turn wheelchairClearance from floor to 27 in.underside of work surfaceEmergency shower 54 in. highhandle height max.

Controls for technology devices inclassrooms cannot be higher than 54 in.above the floor and must accommodate a parallel approach by a person in awheelchair. Private industry mayconstruct labs that can be modified to be accessible for persons in wheelchairs.

WAYFINDING, SIGNAGE, AND GRAPHICSWayfinding comprises “the strategiespeople use to find their way in familiar ornew settings, based on their perceptualand cognitive abilities and habits” (Arthurand Passini 1984). These strategiesanswer three questions:

• Where am I now?

• Where is my destination?

• How do I get there from here?Wayfinding is facilitated by a

communication system consisting ofthree essential types of information: siteand architectural, graphic, and verbal.Each type must reinforce the others in a unified system of environmentalinformation.

Site and architectural information iscommunicated by the forms, adjacencies,and opportunities for movement in the environment itself. It includesarchitectural elements, interior designfeatures, corridors, vistas, and othernavigational cues.

Graphic information is communicatedprimarily through the use of signageelements, which provide generalinformation such as directions,regulations, and the identification ofdestinations. Graphic information mayalso be presented in the form ofdirectories, kiosks, and bulletin boards.

Verbal information includes printedmaterials such as maps and brochures aswell as spoken instructions by staff andusers of a facility.

This information will be even moreclearly communicated if supported withthe following organizational wayfindingsystem elements:

• Naming conventions. Nomenclaturemust be simplified and controlled tohave distinct, straightforward, andeasily recognizable names that willappear in a consistent hierarchy on allsign types.

• Color coding. A color-coding system isused to reinforce wayfinding and aidin orientation.

• Orientation maps. A representationalmap of the building is often essentialto orient users to their destinationsand to illustrate circulationthroughout the building.

• Room numbering. It is important todesign a room-numbering system thatclearly communicates location andallows for flexibility, for freedom indepartment relocation and expansion,and for additional numbers.

SignageThe wayfinding/signage system should becarefully orchestrated to support the majorcirculation routes within a facility,providing the exact information requiredfor the user at the correct point at which it

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

is needed. Instead of all information beingavailable at all locations, a hierarchy ofinformation with specific signage and/orvisual cues is developed within the envi-ronment to call out these areas in anappropriate manner. A typical hierarchy ofsigns encountered by a visitor trying to finda specific room is shown below.

A well-designed signage systemincorporates all the information requiredfor each specific sign type into a coherent,distinct, recognizable system thatintegrates color, graphics, materials, scale,form, and detailing.

Typical lab environment signageconsists of informational, directional,identification, regulatory, and code signs:

• Informational signage providesinformation about the facility,including room names and numbers,departments, whether a conferenceroom is in use, and the hours afacility is open.

• Directional signage provides directionsto users of the facility and includes

ceiling-mounted, wall-mounted, orfreestanding signs; building/department directories; andwayfinding instructions.

• Identification signage indicates thename of the building, department, orroom. Special identification signs,such as donor- and lab-identity signs,support the unique characteristics ofthe facility.

• Regulatory signage includes signagewith regulatory information, such as“No Smoking,” “HazardousMaterials,” or “No Access” signs.

• Code signage is required by city codesand includes stair/level identificationsigns, rest-room signs, evacuationmaps, and occupancy signs.

Modularity within the signage systemallows for easy replacement andinterchangeability of sign components.Changeable message signs allow for theflexibility of a laser-printed paper insertto provide information that changes

Wayfinding, Signage, and Graphics

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Narrative Signs Encountered Features/Type of Information

Visitor approaches building Building ID Campus and buildingidentification/address

Visitor enters building Reception area ID Campus and buildingidentification.

Visitor enters main Elevator flag sign Elevator symbolcirculation corridor identifies location of elevators.Visitor approaches elevator and Building directory Lists departments by name,identifies destination location (floor), and department

number/color.Visitor exits elevator Directional sign Directs to departments/at proper level features on that level.Visitor heads toward Department ID Identifies department bydepartments floor number/color.Visitor approaches door Department ID Identifies department by name

changeable insert by tactile/braille andfloor number/color.

Visitor approaches room Room ID Identifies room by tactile/braillenumber. Room function room number/color.identified on changeablepaper insert

SIGN HIERARCHY

frequently. For code compliance, Brailleand tactile letters/numbers must bedetailed and integrated into signs.

Integration of the signage system withthe interior architecture by carefulformatting, placement, and selection ofmaterials can create a system that notonly supports but also truly enhances thelab environment.

GraphicsThe essence of any laboratory is theinformation that continually flowsthrough it in the form of research,teaching, and regulation, all in pursuit of science and learning. The entire labcommunity should maintain a certainlevel of awareness of the proper protocolsand of the many threats to health andsafety that labs contain.

Complete lab planning includesprofessionally designed signs, manuals,labels, and other graphic materials for the purpose of maintaining propercommunication. It is very important thatthe presentation of graphic informationbe as carefully designed and managed as

the lab itself.The efforts of a facility’s environmental

health and safety (EH&S) office arecritical to the safe functioning of the labenvironment. A graphic safety master plancan provide EH&S departments with aframework for creating and updating theinformation program while keeping to anattractive and functional standard. It isimportant to maintain unity andconsistency between the manuals and allother formats. Elements to standardizeinclude language, layout, logos, icons,color coding, typography, software,printing methods, and paper size andweight. It is important that EH&Sdepartments have the means to easilyadapt new information to the format.Their active involvement is, of course,crucial in developing the standards.

Lab safety manualsPlanning a graphic safety program maybegin with the design of safety manuals.Safety manuals present the official policyof the offices of EH&S and labmanagement. A manual may consist of asingle bound document or a may includea series of documents covering varioustopics, such as radiation, biosafety,chemical spills, hazardous waste disposal,laser safety, and personal injury. Themanuals cover both mandatory safetyprecautions and emergency responses. Allinformation displayed on signs and labelsshould relate directly to the contents andstyle of a facility’s manual, to create asense of unity and consistency. Largeinstitutions commonly maintain theirmanuals on-line so that they areaccessible throughout the campus andcan be updated at the source withouthaving to be redistributed.

� Typical lab door signage.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

LabelsLabels are critically important in labswhere chemicals are used. An unlabeledor improperly labeled container cancreate an extremely dangerous situation.Hazardous chemical waste must beproperly labeled to avoid mixingincompatible chemicals. There arenumerous off-the-shelf labels available,but ideally a label would be visually andfunctionally compatible with the designand format of the facility's manual andsignage.

Material safety data sheetsThe law requires that material safety datasheets (MSDSs) be present and availableanywhere chemicals are used. Theirexistence is based on the “right to know”law set forth in OSHA’s Process SafetyManagement (PSM) and Programs (29CFR 1910.119). This law was designedto help local communities protect publichealth and safety and the environmentfrom chemical hazards. MSDSs arewritten by attorneys of the chemicalsuppliers for the purpose of compliancewith the law and to avoid litigation.MSDSs are now widely available to thelab community as on-line databases,which are something of an improvementover the paper sheets. The trouble withon-line databases, however, is that theinformation is “elsewhere”—notnecessarily immediately available at thepoint of contact with the chemicals.

Another format is MSD sign cards.These are individual 4 x 6 in. cards,printed on synthetic card stock, each withhighly useful information on severalhundred of the most hazardous chemicalsused in laboratories. Unlike MSDSs,these cards use concise language andattractive, readable graphics to make the

message most accessible. The point of thecards is to have them available in closeproximity to the chemicals and their usersat the point of interaction, which is noteasy with MSDSs, even if they areavailable on-line. The MSD sign cards areintended for use especially by academicand professional laboratories, where thereis a much higher level of training than ina typical industrial setting.

Lab hazard signsMany local regulations require a certainamount of information to be postedoutside lab doors to indicate the typesand levels of hazard inside. To mountand be able to update such informationeasily can be a challenge. The lab hazardsign frame is a device for mounting

� MSD sign cards.

Wayfinding, Signage, and Graphics

175

single 81⁄2 x 11 in. sheets, which slipbehind the acrylic window. It is a simpleyet elegant solution with a neutral, cleanappearance suitable for most labcorridors.

The window grid display system is a modular design that allows greaterfreedom for lab managers to determinethe format and quantity of signs theyneed to display. As information changes,lab managers are able to update eachwindow’s content, independent of theothers. The appearance of the corridorsis greatly improved. Regulators andemergency personnel will have greaterconfidence in what to expect in terms ofhazards. The health and safety messagewill be conveyed with greater authority.

Life and safety sign bookThe life and safety sign book presentsthe essential messages of safety manualsin an accessible, user-friendly formatwith as many as ten two-page spreads.The sign book mounts to the wall withadhesive Velcro strips, and the pages areheld open with small Velcro tabs. Ifnecessary, the sign book can be removedand taken to the site of an emergency.The sign book, which makes use ofgraphic icons and simplified language, is much more easily understood in astressful situation than is a typical safetymanual. Its unique design attractsattention and makes the officialprotocols more of a presence in thelaboratory community. The contents of the sign books are completely underthe control of lab managers and EH&Sofficers and can therefore refer users to further information in a manual.Through digital printing, high-qualitycolor graphics can be produced in anyquantity.

� Lab hazard sign frame.

� Window grid.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

SPECIALIZED LAB AREAS

Biosafety Level Labs

Biosafety Level 2 (BL-2)BL-2 labs (formerly referred to as P-2labs) have the following requirements:

• 100 percent outside air

• Exposed surfaces that are smooth andeasily maintainable

• Caulking at all furniture-to-wallseams for ease in cleaning up spills

• Autoclaves (“clean” for sterilization of instruments and “dirty” fordecontamination)

• Cages decontaminated by autoclavingbefore they are cleaned

• Protective coats or gowns to be wornat all times and removed beforeleaving the suite

If a researcher is not sure whether a labshould be BL-2 or a BL-3 (discussed

below), the lab should be designed forBL-3 standards. It is very difficult andexpensive to convert a BL-2 lab into aBL-3 lab, but a BL-3 lab can be used foreither BL-2 or BL-3 research.

Biosafety Level 3 (BL-3)BL-3 labs are designed to contain theagents used within them. Design issuesinclude the following:

• BL-3 spaces must be accessible onlythrough a controlled entrance. Forobvious safety reasons, the generalpublic and nonessential lab personnelmust not be allowed to enter.

• BL-3 spaces should be under negativepressure with respect to adjacentareas. If the pressure is compromised,an automatic alarm should sound.

• Liquid-resistant finishes arerecommended for walls, floors, andceilings.

� Life and safety sign book.

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177

• Any windows in the BL-3 area must be sealed shut.

• Each BL-3 module should have near the exit a hand-washing sink that operates automatically, by foot, or by elbow.

• Because of the possibility ofcontamination, lab furniture must be easily cleanable.

• Spaces between furniture andequipment must be easily reached for cleaning.

• Work surfaces must be impervious to water and resistant to organicsolvents, acids, bases, and heat.Stainless-steel surfaces arerecommended.

Biosafety Level 4 (BL-4)

There are fewer than ten true BL-4 labsin the country. BL-4 labs are requiredwhen agents pose a high individual risk ofaerosol-transmitted laboratory infectionand life-threatening disease. This type ofcontainment laboratory must be designedand constructed to specific containmentrequirements to minimize the potentialfor personnel exposure and to preventdissemination of BL-4 organisms to theenvironment. Personnel enter and leaveonly through the clothing change andshower rooms. To do any work withanimals, a worker must wear a one-piecepositive-pressure suit ventilated with alife-support system. Personnel mustshower before they leave the facility.

Complete laboratory clothing isprovided for all personnel who enter the BL-4 suite.

Supplies are submitted through adouble-door vestibule. After the outsidedoors are secure, personnel inside thefacility obtain the supplies. A double-door

autoclave is provided for decontaminatingmaterials that leave the facility. Theremust be a separate individual supply andexhaust system. The exhaust is filteredwith HEPA filters before beingdischarged. Laboratory animals arehoused in a Class III biological safetycabinet or in a contained caging system.

Note that once systems are in place andthe facility is running, it is very difficultand expensive to renovate, as this requiresthe lab to be shut down. The lab must bedesigned right the first time, taking intoaccount any future needs. According toknowledgeable researchers and end users,the following are the key points toconsider in designing BL-4 labs:

• Handling of liquid wastes

Where will liquid wastes go?

How big is the cooker?

How long should the wastes be cooked?

Is there a need for stainless-steel piping and drains?

Is there a need for easy access tostorage tanks to test spour strips?

Redundancy of mechanical systems

Duplicate HEPA filters

100 percent redundancy of airhandlers—no downtime

• Safety

Chemical showers at both means ofegress, allowing for equipment to bedecontaminated as well

Alarms and controls located in the BL-4 lab as well as in adjacent spacesto allow for maintenance of the spaceeither within or outside of the lab

Bag-in and bag-out HEPA filters

Air pressure and airflow

Containment

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

Room within a contained room(building within a building)

Minimal penetrations in the wall

Stainless-steel ductwork and cabinetry

• Comfort

Large shower area to accommodatethe entire research team, not just oneor two individuals

Rest-rooms for both sexes

Place to get water to drink during theday—difficult to work in space suitwithout water

Column-free spaces for maximumflexibility

Communication to the suits by peopleinside the BL-4 lab and by observersoutside the lab

Enough space for storage of space suitsat the end of the day

• OperationsFull-time person needed to maintainautoclaves, boxes, suits, andmechanical equipmentTraining for people to operate a BL-4 lab

The tables below and on the followingpage give recommended biosafety levelsfor activities in which experimentally ornaturally infected vertebrate animals are used and for infectious agents. Thesource is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Clean RoomsClean rooms are usually associated withthe manufacture of miniaturizedcomponents. A clean room is an enclosedarea that requires a lower level of airborneparticulate contamination than normal

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BiosafetyLevel

Agents Practices Safety Equipment (Primary Barriers)

Facilities (Secondary Barriers)

1 Not known to cause disease in healthy adults

Standard animal care andmanagement practices, including appropriate medical surveillance programs

As required for normal care ofeach species

Standard animal facility;nonrecirculation of exhaustair; directional airflowrecommended

2 ABSL-1 practice plus: limited access; biohazard warning signssharps precautions; biosafety manual; decontamination of allinfectious wastes and of animal cages prior to washing

ABSL-1 facility plus: autoclaveavailable; hand-washing sinkavailable in the animal room

3 ABSL-2 practices plus: controlled access; decontamination ofclothing before laundering; cages decontaminated before bedding removed; disinfectant foot bathas needed

ABSL-2 facility plus: physicalseparation from access corridors;self-closing, double-door access;sealed penetrations; sealedwindows; autoclave availablein facility

4 ABSL-3 practices plus: entrance through change room where personal clothing is removed andlaboratory clothing is put on; shower on exiting; all waste aredecontaminated before removal from the facility

ABSL-3 equipment plus: maximum containment equipment (i.e., Class III BSC or partial containmentequipment in combination with full body, air-supplied positive-pressurepersonnel suite) used for all procedures and activities

ABSL-3 equipment plus:separate building or isolatedzone; dedicated supply/exhaustvacuum and decontamination systems; other requirementsoutlined in the text

Dangerous/exotic agentsthat pose high risk of life-threatening disease, aerosol transmission, or related agents with unknown risk of transmission

Indigenous or exoticagents with potential for aerosol transmission; disease may have serious health effects

Associated with human diseaseHazard: percutaneous exposure,ingestion, mucous membrane exposure

ABSL-1 equipment plus primary barriers: containment equipment appropriate for animal species; PPES: laboratory coats, gloves, face and respiratory protection as needed

ABSL-2 equipment plus: containment equipment for housing animals and cagedumping activities; class I or II BSCs available for manipulative procedures (inoculation, necropsy) that may create infectious aerosols PPEs: appropriate

RECOMMENDED BIOSAFETY LEVELS FOR LAB USE OF EXPERIMENTALLY OR NATURALLY INFECTED VERTEBRATE ANIMALS

and generally incorporates temperatureand humidity control. Theserequirements are achieved by purging theroom with air that has passed through afiltration and conditioning system. Theroom should be under positive airpressure to avoid ingress ofcontamination.

Static pressure regulators should be usedto maintain the desired room pressure.Entry design should incorporate air locksor vestibules kept at a slightly reducedpressure. To control temperaturefluctuations, small clean-room chambersare recommended over one large clean-room space. The applicable codes andstandards for clean rooms are as follows:

• Uniform Building Code (referring toH occupancies)

• Uniform Fire Code (referring to Hoccupancies)

• Federal Standard 209D (1988)

• American Association forContamination Control (19970),standard CS-6T

• Institute for Environmental Sciences(1984), Standard IES-CC-RP-006

Clean-room work surfaces should besmooth, easily cleanable, nonabrasive,and chip-resistant. Perforated, high-pressure phenolic laminate on steel oraluminum panels is recommended forreturn-air flooring. Coating grating withplastic or epoxy is also recommended. Ifthe room contains hydrogen, measuresmust be taken against the possibility ofexplosions. Blast-out panels may benecessary.

DarkroomsSome facilities are using computerimaging, which is replacing the need for darkrooms. Biomedical labs, however, are still likely to needdarkrooms.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

BiosafetyLevel

Agents Practices Safety Equipment (Primary Barriers)

Facilities (SecondaryBarriers)

1 Standard microbiological practices None required Open bench top sink requiredBasic

2 BSL-1 practice plus: limited access; biohazard warning signs;"sharps" precautions; biosafety manual defining any needed waste decontamination ormedical surveillance policies

BSL-1 plus: autoclave availableBasic

3 BSL-2 practice plus: controlled access; decontamination of allwaste; decontamination of labclothing before laundering;daseline serum

4 BSL-3 practices plus: clothing change before entering;shower on exit; all material decontaminated on exit from facility

Associated with human diseaseHazard: auto-inoculation, ingestion, mucous membrane exposure

Not known to cause disease in healthy adults.

Indigenous or exotic agents with potential for aerosol transmission; disease may have serious or lethal consequences

Dangerous/exotic agents which pose high risk of life-threatening disease, aerosol-transmitted lab infections, or related agents with unknown risk of transmission

Primary barriers: Class I or IIBSCs or other physical containment devices used for all manipulations of agents that cause splashes or aerosols of infectious materials;PPEs: laboratory coats;gloves; face protection as needed

Primary barriers: Class I or II BSCs or other physical containment devices used forall manipulations of agents PPEs: protective lab clothing; gloves; respiratory protectionas needed

Primary barriers: all procedures conducted in Class III BSCs or Class I or II BSCs in combination with full-body, air-supplied, positive pressure personnel suit

BSL-3 plus: separate building or isolated zone; dedicated supply/exhaust, vacuum, and decon system; other requirements outlined in the textMaximum containment

BSL-2 plus: physical separation from access corridors; self-closing, double door access; exhausted air not recirculated; negative airflow into laboratory containment

RECOMMENDED BIOSAFETY LEVELS FOR INFECTIOUS AGENTS

A red warning light outside the door ofa darkroom should automatically activatewhen the room is in use. A double-compartment sink with ample drainboard and bench space is required.Stainless steel is recommended for sinksand work surfaces. Cabinets for chemicalsand paper storage are necessary. A lightfilter should be used when developing X-ray film. The switch for the incandescentlight should be covered and located 60 in.or more from the floor to preventaccidental operation. A silver recoveryunit mounted under the sink may berequired to prevent wastewatercontamination.

Darkroom design is changing. Thetraditional system uses a gel to separateradioactive molecules; the gel is exposedto the X-ray film, usually for several daysor a week. Next, the X-ray film isrealigned with the gel. The density of thespots is determined with the use of a lighttransmission device, and the image isscanned into the computer.

A new product, called a Multifluordetector, detects radioactivity,fluorescence, and chemiluminescence. It is used for gel imaging and otherexperimental protocols. The Multifluordetector combines several steps using ascreen technology so that the image isdetected, scanned into the computer,

quantified, and categorized. Theadvantage is that researchers can usefluorescence in place of radioactivity.There is a desire to eliminate the use of nuclides and, thus, the care needed in their handling. The Multifluortechnology is more sensitive than thetraditional X-ray film and exposes the gels for hours in a day, rather than days in a week. Researchers can alsoanalyze X-ray film using the Multifluorsystem, thus being able to use bothoptions.

It is not necessary to have theMultifluor detector device in a darkroom.A dark area is required, however, forhandling the screens. The Multifluordetector device requires no specialplumbing or toxic chemicals, as areneeded for X-ray development.

Environmental Rooms (Cold andWarm Rooms)Cold rooms are usually kept at 39°F,which allows people to work in the spacefor a limited time without becoming toocold. (There are also super-cold rooms at24°F.) A vestibule may be necessary tominimize temperature loss from the coldroom. Warm rooms are commonlydesigned at 98°F. The key design issues to address in environmental rooms are as follows:

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181

RECOMMENDED AIR CHANGE RATES AND AIR VELOCITIES

Room Classification Air-Change Rate Air Velocity

Class 100,000 18–30 air changes per hour —Class 10,000 40–60 air changes per hour 10 FPMClass 1,000 150–300 air changes per hour 30–50 FPMClass 100 400–540 air changes per hour 75–90 FPMClass 10 400–540 air changes per hour 75–90 FPMClass 1 540–600 air changes per hour 90-100 FPM

• Prefabricated environmental roomsusually offer superior performance and greater flexibility than built-inrooms.

• Flammable liquids and gases must notbe used inside environmental rooms,as they are not fire-rated.

• Several small chambers arerecommended over one large room.

• A separate power system withemergency backup should be providedfor each chamber.

• Observation windows should beheated triple-pane windows, with the option of a rubber flap.

• All fixtures should be vapor-proof.

• Each chamber must be equipped with a thermometer and a light.

• Freeze-proof, self-closing doors withmagnetic gaskets are required.

• To control temperature and humidityfluctuations, each chamber shouldhave only one door unless thechamber is more than 400 sq ft.

Tissue Culture SuitesTo control the growth of bacteria, severalsmall chambers are recommended overone large tissue culture area. Thechamber should be under positivepressure with respect to adjacent spaces.Flooring should be seamless and easy to clean. A lay-in acoustic tile ceiling isstandard. Each biological safety cabinetshould have dedicated 115V, 20 ampcircuits. All equipment drain pans andincubators must be kept clean and freefrom mold. An in-swinging, self-closingdoor with a panic bar on the outside foreasy opening is recommended. Laminarflow hoods and glove boxes to containthe tissue culture may be desirable, sincespecial rooms are not needed when theresearch can be conducted in the specialtyequipment.

SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT AND EQUIPMENT SPACESSensitive electronic equipment can beaffected by magnetic fields. As equipmentbecomes more sophisticated, tolerances

� Entry into a modular cold room.

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ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

for interference decline. Large currentsmust be kept away from sensitiveequipment such as electron microscopes.Magnetic shielding must be providedwhen necessary. Sensitive equipmentshould be kept away from steel columns,magnetized doors, and other metalequipment.

Nuclear Magnetic ResonanceApparatusNuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)apparatus should be located on the lowestfloor level and the floor slab and structureshould be very rigid to minimizevibration. The NMR should be locatedas far away as possible from elevators or

mechanical equipment.Safety zones should be marked around

the NMR, and warning signs placed.Steel objects such as chairs, desks, and

tools should be kept outside the safetyzone. Utility requirements usually include208 V, 60 Hz, three-phase, 20 ampelectrical power that is grounded;compressed air; and nitrogen and heliumgases. Room temperature should bemaintained at 74°F (plus or minus 2°F).The humidity should range from 45 to55 percent relative humidity. Thereshould be at least six air changes perhour.

Electron Microscope SuiteThe size of the room will depend on the size and number of electronmicroscopes. The room must be able to be blacked out. It must have chilledwater for cooling the power supply. Thesuite usually includes imaging, adarkroom, a print darkroom, and a preparea. The room should be stable to

Specialized Equipment and Equipment Spaces

183

� NMRs should belocated on lowest floor level to minimize vibration.Biochemistry Building,University of Wisconsin,Madison. Flad & Associates,Inc., architect.

minimize vibration. Vibration damping may be required at theequipment. Air distribution in the room is very important to theperformance of the microscopes. Thereshould be 10–12 air changes per hour.

Relative humidity should be no greaterthan 50 percent. There will need to be low-impedance clean ground powersupply and room for cylinder gases and for high-voltage electrical services. A dedicated electrical circuit to eachelectron microscope can help tominimize noise from other equipment.Dimmer room light switches arenecessary.

Magnetic Resonance ImagersMagnetic resonance imagers (MRIs) arecomputers linked to super-conductivecylindrical magnets into whose magneticfields the objects to be examined areinserted. The magnetic field should belocated so that there is no interferencefrom metal objects. As with an NMR,the radius of the MRI’s magnetic fieldextends around the equipment in alldirections. The magnetic field caninterfere with heart pacemakers andelectronic equipment. There should beat least ten ft of clearance to allow forthe refilling of the liquid helium andnitrogen that cools the magnet.Electrical filters are required on allelectrical conductors. The MRI unitswill require clean electrical power andrestrictive security.

LasersRooms with lasers must be able to beblacked out. Most researchers prefer laserlabs with no glazing. Other issues toconsider include these:

• Is a chemical fume hood necessary?

• What are the laser’s vibration criteria?

• Is high-voltage electrical powernecessary?

• Will the room contain any cylindergases?

184

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

� Electron microscopes.Manufacturing RelatedDisciplines Complex, PhaseII, Georgia Institute ofTechnology, Georgia. Perkins & Will, architect.

Mass SpectrometryMass spectrometry (MS) suites must beisolated to address vibration concerns.Exhausts may be necessary directly overthe equipment. Computers will belocated in the same room as the MSequipment. A sample prep room isusually necessary for gas cylinder storage.The equipment can be noisy, and noise-control measures must be included in thedesign of the lab.

Vacuum SystemsVacuum-pump systems should havewater-resistant filters on the suction side.The exhausts should be separate fromthe mechanical system and shouldbe ducted directly to the outside ofthe building. The housing for thefilters should be easily accessible formaintenance. Some buildings will requirea central vacuum system with local filtersat the source to service the instruments.Many facilities are locating the vacuumsystem at the source, forgoing abuilding-wide system, if this is moreaffordable.

Equipment SizesMost labs are “equipment intensive.” It is important to understand the size andservice requirements. The tables on pages186–188 give the sizes of common typesof laboratory equipment, as well as sometechnical requirements.

Lab equipment can be purchased and installed in various ways. The client can purchase and install it after thebuilding is constructed. Or the client canpurchase the equipment, and thecontractor can install it duringconstruction. A third choice is to havethe contractor purchase and install theequipment under the base contract.

VIVARIUM FACILITIESVivarium facilities can be very expensiveand complex spaces to design. A dual-corridor, clean-and-dirty system shouldcontrol contamination well in an animalfacility. The dual-corridor arrangementeliminates the possibility of mixing cleancages and supplies with soiled cages andrefuse, reducing the risk for cross-contamination. The great disadvantage ofa dual-corridor arrangement is theadditional space and cost required. Itshould be understood at the beginning of the design process that the greatersafety of the dual-corridor systemnecessitates the additional space and cost.Any human error during operations canrender the system invalid. Carefulmanagement of the vivarium facility is extremely important for successfulresearch and for the safety of the animalsand the people involved.

The design of the circulation spaceshould focus on the movement of cagesand animals through the facility. In manyinstances the animals are delivered to thebuilding, transported to the upper floorvia a dedicated elevator, then put in aquarantine room. Animal facilities aretypically located in the basement or onthe top floor of a building for security,confidentiality, and safety. If there is achoice between a basement and a topfloor, the top floor is preferred because ofthe close proximity to exhaust fans andother mechanical equipment.

After the animals are checked and nolonger need to be quarantined, they aretaken down the “clean” corridor into aholding room or cubicle. When the racksor cages need to be cleaned, they aretaken through the “dirty” corridor to thecage washer. If possible, a pull-throughcage washer is preferred to separate the

Vivarium Facilities

185

MOVEABLE EQUIPMENT

ElectricalEquipment Item Typical Size Requirement (volts) Comments

Alpha, beta, and 40 x 25 x 21" 110gamma counter

Balance table 24 x 35 x 41"

Centrifuge 63 x 36 x 51" 208 Sizes can vary, but most can beaccommodated in a space 4' wide x 3'deep. Ultracentrifuges may need coldwater and a floor drain. They are usuallyrun under continuous vacuum.

Computers and printers varies

Fermenters (benchtop) 19 x 19 x 21" 120 Electric service with gas, as required.

FreezerUpright 26 x 36 x 84" 208 An upright type freezer occupies the same

space as a refrigerator. Freezers will need6–8" of clearance to minimize overheating.The intake air filters need to be cleanedregularly. A freezer should be on coastersfor ease of movement and access to filters.

Chest 6' wide

Gas chromatograph 60 x 30" 110 Nitrogen and air hookups necessary.(benchtop) Chromatography is a standard method of

protein purification. The work is completedin a cold room or chromatography cabinet(refrigerator).

Gas cylindersHPLC setup (benchtop) 60 x 30"High-pressure liquid

Hydraulic press varies 208 Possibly requires special structural system.

Incubator 40 x 30 x 86" 110 Incubators may be bench mounted or floor standing, each about 2' square. Carbondioxide or possibly oxygen may also berequired.

Infrared spectrometer varies 110 Exhaust.

Lyophilizer 48 x 30 x 48" 110 or 208

Optical table 3–5 x 4–8' Typical services include air and vibration-sensitive pads.

Oven 20 x 20 x 27" 110 Drying ovens are typically mounted above a sink. Vacuum is necessary.

Refrigerator, 34 x 36 x 84" 110standard upright

Scintillation counter 36 x 34 x 26" 110 A scintillation counter may be benchmounted or floor standing.

Shaker (small) varies 110

Ultraviolet spectrometer varies 110 Exhaust.

Vacuum pump 10 x 18 x 20” 110

186

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

FIXED EQUIPMENT

ElectricalEquipment Item Typical Size Requirement (volts) Comments

AutoclaveSmall chamber 20 x 20 x 38" An autoclave is usually located in the wash Medium chamber 24 x 36 x 35" area, where specimens can be heated to a Large chamber 48 x 84 x 48" very high temperature to kill all organisms.

Electric service, steam, and a floor drain are necessary.

Biosafety cabinet, 48, 60 or 72 floor standing x 30–34 x 80–90"

Bottle washer 71 x 39 x 80" 208 Electric service, hot water, steam, floor drain, and exhaust are typically necessary.

Dishwasher 30 x 30 x 36" A lab dishwasher is similar to a residential dishwasher, but permits higher temperatureand deionized water to be used for labsupplies.

Electron microscope 10 x 14' Size and services vary. Usually has its own transformer, which should be locatedoutside the electron microscope room.Cooling water may be required. Cold water,floor drain, exhaust, relative humiditycontrol, and magnetic and mechanicalisolation are factors that must beaddressed.

UHV spectrometer 10 x 8' 110 or 208 Exhaust and magnetic sensitivity must be considered.

Fume hood 48, 72 or 96 x 32" x varies

Fermenter (14 liter) 30 x 24 x 32"

Flammable liquids 35, 47, or 60 storage cabinet x 18 x 44 or 60"

Flow cytometer 84 x 60" 110 or 208 Usually located in a separate lab, in a biological safety cabinet if the cells to be separated are possibly pathogen infected.

Glass washer 42 x 40 x 90" 460 Usually located in a central wash-up room. A purified water supply, compressed airsupply, and floor drain will be necessary.

Glassware dryer 37 x 32 x 96" 460

Ice machine 39 x 32 Floor mounted; water supply connection and floor drain required.

Mass spectrometer 15 x 15' 208 Electric service, cold water, exhaust, and humidity and temperature control aretypically required.

MRI (magnetic varies 110 or 208 Electric service, cold water, exhaust,resonance imaging) humidity and temperature control are

typically services needed.

Vivarium Facilities

187

clean and dirty sides. To reduce chancesof cross-contamination, multiple barrierscan be provided, such as vestibules at theentry, anterooms before entries to specificrooms, cubicles or ventilated racks in theanimal rooms, and, at the cage level,micro-isolation racks that may beindividually ventilated. The air pressureshould be positive on the clean corridorand negative along the dirty corridor.

Facilities in which live animals arehoused range from rooms for smallspecies (mice, rats, hamsters) to centralquarters for small and large animals,including cats, dogs, primates, sheep, and

cows. A central animal facility, such asthat needed for a medical school, mayinclude the following:

• Receiving and examination areas for animals, food, and supplies

• Quarantine area

• Housing for animals, with provisionfor separation of species and isolationfor individual projects

• Facilities for washing, sterilizing, and storing cages and equipment

• Storage rooms for food, supplies, and bedding

188

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

CLEAN CORRIDOR

ANIMAL

SOILED CORRIDOR

CLEAN

CLEAN CAGEWASH

SOILED CAGEWASH

66' 30' 6646

'

CAGEWASH FLOW DIAGRAM

FIXED EQUIPMENT (cont.)

ElectricalEquipment Item Typical Size Requirement (volts) Comments

NMR (nuclear magnetic varies 110 or 208 Electric service, nitrogen, air, humidity, andresonance) temperature control, and magnetic

isolation are required.

Rack washer 84 x 82 x 99" 460 Electric service, hot water, steam, floor drain and a pit will be necessary.

Spectrometer 4 x 9' 110 or 208 Electric service, nitrogen, air nitrogen, and exhaust are typically required.

Shakers (large) 42 x 30 x 52" 208 or 440

Tunnel washer 40 x 288 x 73" 440 Electric service, hot water, steam, and floordrain are required.

� Clean/dirty corridorconcept for a vivariumfacility.

• Laboratories for surgery, radiology,necropsy, and other procedures

• Administrative offices

• Showers, lockers, toilets, andlunchroom for personnel

Planning IssuesThe receiving area should not be easilyvisible from areas visited by the public ornonprofessional staff. Proper separationsmust be provided between clean andcontaminated areas and betweenpersonnel areas and spaces housinganimals. Because of the danger ofinterspecies infection, animal speciesmust be separately housed.

Ensuring the lowest per diem costs foranimals while providing improvedresearcher access to animals is a criticalissue in the development of future animalfacilities.

Special controls are necessary forexperiments involving hazardous agents.Safety measures specified by regulatoryagencies provide for different levels ofcontainment. Positive/negative airpressures, high-efficiency particulate airfilters, air locks, decontamination areas,closed and ventilated cage systems,double-door autoclaves, and othermeasures may be required to maintainthe necessary containment. Facilities foraseptic surgery are planned with separateareas for preparation, surgery, radiology,recovery, and support, including storage,washing/sterilizing, and lockers. Thefacilities must comply with all codes,including those applying to safetymeasures for the use of anesthetic gases.

AirThe supply air equipment for the systemshould be designed to provide a sufficient

volume of 100 percent outside air foradequate ventilation and temperature andhumidity control of the animal rooms. Itis not acceptable to use recirculated air toor from animal facilities. To maintain apathogen-free environment, 12–15 airchanges per hour are required. Airflowshould be controlled with dampers toprevent reversal or back flow. Airflowmonitoring and control devices should beprovided in the supply and exhaust ductsto maintain the proper supply andexhaust air quantities. Balancing dampers,flow measuring devices, and controldevices should be installed on all airsupply and exhaust ducts to monitor thestatus of the duct airflow and pressure.There should be access panels in theceiling to allow for reasonablemaintenance. Controls are best locatedabove the corridors and away from theanimal rooms. Animal room exhaustsshould be of the sidewall type, mountednear the floor in the corners of the room.Filters must be installed in the exhaustducts to capture animal hair, dander, andother airborne solids and prevent themfrom being exhausted to the exterior. Airshould flow in a downward direction toprotect personnel from aerosolizedparticles.

Mechanical SystemsThe average cost of the heating andventilating systems for an animal facilityis three to six times the initial operatingcost for a generic wet lab. All systemsmust be designed for 24-hour operation.Redundant air supply and exhaustsystems with filter banks must beprovided to ensure continuous serviceand operation in the animal facility. If theanimal facility is part of the researchlaboratory complex, a separate emergency

Vivarium Facilities

189

power system is required to maintainsystem operations during powerinterruptions or failures.

Temperature and humidity will dependon the animal species to be housed ineach animal room. Separateenvironmental controls arerecommended for each animal room.Sensors to monitor temperature,humidity, and room pressure should beincluded; sensors and alarms should beconnected to a control panel centrallylocated in the animal facility, to bemonitored by the staff on continuousduty and by the institution’s mainsecurity office. Knockout panels(minimum of two per animal room)should be provided at the ceiling forflexible duct connections toaccommodate ventilated animal cages;

the area required varies with the speciesand the size of the cage racks.

PlumbingA standard hose bib with threaded hose connection should be providednear the holding rooms. There should be enough hose bids to allow hoses tohave access throughout the animalfacility. A 6 in. diameter (minimum)floor drain with strainer, solids trap,disposal unit, and threaded cover, and a 6 in. diameter (minimum) drain pipe, sloped floor to drain should beprovided for the holding rooms. A trap should be installed to prevent back flow into the room. Floor drains are not required for rodent rooms (which can be wet vacuumed or mopped).

190

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

� Trench drain in remotecorner. Animal Facility,Clemson University,Clemson, South Carolina.GMK, architect.

LightingLighting fixtures should be waterproof,surface or pendant type. (Recessedfixtures may be difficult to seal againstinfiltration of insects and vermin.)Controls should be provided for a diurnallighting cycle. Illumination levels forsmall animals range between 60 and 80footcandles, depending on the species.Automatic lighting control isrecommended in cage rooms to provideadequate periods of darkness and light.Day/night automatic lighting controlsshould have manual override, timers, andalarm systems.

Acoustical ConsiderationsThe noise level should be controlled at 65to 75 dB maximum where animals arelocated. Animals should be isolated fromnoisy activities, and soundproof doorsshould be used in the cage room. Loud,sharp noises can be extremely damagingto animals, both psychologically andphysiologically. However, the necessity ofusing hot water to clean spaces and ofproviding materials resistant to a widevariety of chemicals and surfaces thatwithstand abusive treatment requires thatinterior finishes be hard, rigid, smooth,and chemically resistant. Thisenvironment makes it impossible tocontrol sound reverberation completely.

Almost all available acoustical materialsare soft and porous. Such materialsabsorb moisture and water, and thus losetheir acoustical properties. The materialswith the better acoustical ratings are idealenvironments for the growth of bacteria,fungi, and other organisms. There aretwo solutions. The first is to pour sandinto the concrete block walls. This iseasier to do, from a structural point ofview, on the ground floor. The additional

weight of the sand will be a significantincrease to this structural system of anyelevated floor. The second solution is touse acoustical baffles such as those usedin dog kennels. These can be hung fromthe ceiling; they are cost-effective andabsorb some sound.

General FinishesWall, floor, and ceiling finishes in theanimal areas should be smooth, hard,impervious, seamless, and capable ofwithstanding frequent hot water or steamwash-downs.

Floors should be concrete, trowel orbrush finished, with specified sealers andhardeners in animal rooms and in cagewashing and feed storage areas. Seamlessvinyl (with chemical or thermal weldedseams) is satisfactory for other areas,including laboratory, service, and supportspaces. Floor slabs in multistory animalfacilities should be constructed with awaterproof membrane underlayment.Floor loading should be 125–150 lb/sq ftminimum.

Masonry partitions should be providedin animal holding rooms, cage washingareas, shipping and receiving, feedprocessing and storage, surgery,preparation, and recovery, with a sealedtroweled epoxy finish to withstand hotwater wash-down. Masonry (concrete)blocks are perhaps the most durable andeffective material for partitions in animalrooms and cage washing and feed storageareas. Blocks should be solid or filled toprevent infiltration of insects or vermin.The block face should be sealed andsmooth epoxy finish applied. The baseshould be integral with the floor andwall, forming an impervious, jointlessfinish. Reinforced wall-mounted cagerack bumpers should be provided to

Vivarium Facilities

191

protect wall finishes and reduceequipment noise. Work surfaces inanimal support rooms should benonmagnetic stainless steel.

Ceilings should be constructed fromhard and impervious materials—generally waterproofed gypsum boardwith sealed joints and an epoxy finish,

though hard plaster or Kenne’s cementmay also be used. Exposed concrete(underside of a structural slab) is alsosatisfactory if the finish is smooth.Exposed pipes and fixtures are notacceptable, because they provide a surfacefor dust accumulation and may causeother problems.

All floor, wall, and ceiling penetrations,including outlet boxes and light switchboxes, must be sealed to prevent insectand vermin infestation and air leakage.The ceiling height should be 9 ftminimum for most animal care spaces.Corridor ceiling heights should be 7 ftclear minimum.

Waste ManagementWaste solutions from cage-washing areasmust not drain directly into the sanitarysewer system. All fluid wastes from theanimal spaces must be directed to holdingtanks for processing. Bedding and animalwaste may have to be autoclaved prior todisposal. If the animals are used inresearch involving radioactive materials,the waste may have to be held until half-life decay is within safe limits. Manyinstitutions contract with licensed waste-management firms to manage anddispose of hazardous waste materials.

Animal Housing SystemsCage racks for small animals vary in sizefrom 24" deep x 36" wide x 60" high to32" deep x 60" wide x 72" high. Wheellocks should be provided to prevent theracks from rolling.

Ventilated cages are being used morefrequently. Because they are, in essence,individual environments, they may allowmore than one species to be housed inthe same animal room. They maycontribute to energy savings by reducing

� Small Animal holdingrooms. Animal Facility,Clemson University,Clemson, South Carolina.GMK, architect.

192

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

the number of air changes required inanimal rooms. They may also provide a higher-quality environment for theanimals because of the immediateremoval of ammonia fumes from thecages.

There are many reasons not to transportanimals to other areas of a researchfacility (e.g., cross-contamination, traumato the animals, difficulty in containingodors, etc.). Therefore, the use ofventilated cage rack systems is increasing,and research laboratory work space isincluded as part of the animal facility.The basic laboratory module can then beapplied as the basic building block for theanimal facilities. This standardization anduse of modules of the same dimensionspermits efficient and economicalintegration of animal facilities within theframework of the total research facility.The ventilated cage rack, or micro-isolator cage, provides HEPA-filtered airto the cages and includes a self-wateringfeature. With micro-isolator cages, thedouble-corridor, clean-and-dirty conceptis no longer necessary.

Ventilated cages have an airflow rate of30–60 changes per hour, and the cagescan maintain the microenvironment at a very stable rate. A ventilated cageshould last four to five years longer than traditional static cages because of its stronger construction and because itdoes not have to go through the cagewasher as frequently. The use ofventilated cages should reduce directpersonnel labor costs by approximately50 percent.

Transgenic Facility SystemsRecent developments using animals ascarriers of human genes have producedexperimental techniques to model various

human characteristics for medicalpurposes. The animals used have becomeaccurate models for a wide range of generesearch. Human genes are injected intothe animals to produce the desired effects.These animals transmit the genecharacteristics to their offspring,producing a unique transgenic line ofanimals. The animals are, however,subject to cross-contamination and theusual maladies that may infect any breed.Special micro-isolator cage systems havebeen developed to house these animals.The cage systems provide a high level ofprotection and permit the animal to betransported to other laboratory areas forresearch and experimentation.

The micro-isolator cage provides a barrier at the cage level, protecting the animal from contamination. Thespent air may be emitted into the cageroom and exhausted or connected to aduct for exhaust directly to the exterior. The bedding may be changed every two to three weeks to reduce theammonia buildup from animal waste.The animal is transferred to anothersterilized micro-isolator cage in a cleanroom or to a biosafety cabinetenvironment. The animal may beexposed in a biosafety cabinet or worked on in a class 100 specialprocedures room.

Specific Rooms

Procedure roomsAnimal procedure rooms are adjacent to a group of animal holding rooms. A procedure room may have a fume hood or biosafety cabinet, stainless-steelcabinetry, sink, table, and exam lights,usually hung from the ceiling. Surgery for small animals can be done in aprocedure room.

Vivarium Facilities

193

Surgical suitesA surgical suite should be isolated frompotential sources of contamination. Itconsists of a prep area, scrub room,operating room, and recovery room.Lockers should be adjacent to the surgicalsuite to allow personnel to change beforeand after surgery. The prep room is aholding and prep area for the animals.There should be a vacuum at the table todispose of shaved hair. The prep roomshould have interior glazing to allowviewing into the operating room.

NecropsyThe necropsy area is for the examinationof deceased animals. There should be adowndraft table, stainless-steel caseworkand sink, and a freezer for carcass storage.The necropsy room is potentially one of the most hazardous rooms in thevivarium suite. It should be physicallyseparated from the animal holding areasand the main circulation paths.

Receiving roomA receiving room should be located near the elevator to receive new animalsbefore they are put in quarantine. Thereshould be an exam table and light in this space.

Quarantine roomMost animals will be quarantined beforethey are placed in an animal holdingroom. Cubicles are suggested if there will be frequent shipments of animalsinto the facility.

Small animal holding roomsSmall animal holding rooms typicallyhouse mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs, or rabbits. Each species must be held in a separate holding room.

194

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

SIN

12'

12'-6

"

PROCEDUREBENCH

ANIMALPROCEDURESTATIONREF.

CABINET

CABINET

gas

air

vac.

110

v

CABINET

CANOPYHOOD

9' m

in.

ELEVATION A

ELEVATION B

PLAN

� Procedure room.

Vivarium Facilities

195

21'

13'-5

"

EQUIPMENT

SURGERYTABLE

FLUORESCENTLIGHTS

SURGICALGAS

ORTRACK

TO PREP

TO SURGERYSUITE CORRIDOR

TO SUPPLIES

19'

13'

FOODCONTAINERS

HOSE

SINK

ANIMALPROCEDUREWORKSTATION

CUBICLE

ANIMALCAGERACK

� Surgical suite.

� Cubicles, rather thanholding rooms, are anoption.

Large animal holding roomsLarge animal holding rooms may housecats, dogs, pigs, or primates. Largeanimals can be noisy and should beisolated from the small animal holdingrooms. Each cage should have anautomatic watering system. Self-cleaningdrains may be preferred. Dogs will requireruns for daily exercise.

CubiclesThe basic concept of animal cubicles is to divide large rooms into smalleranimal housing units (animal cubicles)that share circulation and service space in order to maximize the number ofsmall, isolated housing spaces that can fit within a given area.

A cubicle typically houses one cage rack.Some cubicles should be designed toaccommodate larger cages for rabbits andcats. If there is enough space, the cubiclesshould be sized to hold both smaller andlarger cages. Cubicles can be used asholding rooms, and they are better thanholding rooms if the objective is toprovide the maximum number of isolatedhousing spaces. Another benefit of thecubicle is that it provides anothercontainment barrier.

Feed and bedding storageFeed and clean bedding materials shouldbe stored on racks off the floor. All cracksand openings must be sealed to preventpenetration of insects and vermin. Doorsshould be provided with seals. Airchanges should be between 12 and 15 perhour.

Cage washersThere are three common types of cagewashers used for the sanitation of cagesand racks:

196

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

CONTROL

DOWNDRAFTTABLE

SINK

LIGHT

LIGHT

COLD

CABINETS

CABINETS

CANOPYHOOD

A

B

ELEVATION A

ELEVATION B

CABINETS

DISPOSER

HOSEREEL

SURGERYLIGHTS

PLAN

SURGERYLIGHT

20'

12'

9' m

in.

� Necropsy room.

Vivarium Facilities

197

ANIMAL CUBICLE

ANIMALROOM

HOSEBIBB

SINK

MOPRACK

CUBICLE

ELEVATION A

PLAN

EXHAUSTGRILL

15'-6

"

15'-6"

9' m

in.� Quarantine room.

� Small animal holding room.

• A rack washer can hold one or morecage racks. Rack washers are eitherfront-loaded or pass-through. Thepass-through machine works well for a “clean and dirty” facility.

• A cabinet washer is smaller than a rackwasher and can accommodate onlycages. The racks must be cleaned bysome other method.

• A tunnel washer allows small cages orequipment to be put on a conveyorbelt. It is usually more efficient than a cabinet washer.

Cage washers can be run on steam orelectricity. It is important to understandthe amount of labor necessary to run acage washer. A larger, more expensive unitmay take less time or fewer people tooperate. The cost of manpower should begreater than the cost of the equipment.

The appendix contains a list of Websites to consult for further information on vivarium facilities.

� Cage-wash area withexhaust ducts above soffit.This arrangement pullssteam up and off the glasswasher, so that steam doesnot fill the room. AnimalFacility, Clemson University,Clemson, South Carolina.GMK, architect.

198

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ISSUES

The coordination of engineering systemsdesign ensures a successfully operatinglaboratory facility. The design of theengineering systems should be based onthe lab module. This chapter will coverengineering design issues, options, andhow to coordinate all engineering andarchitectural issues throughout a building.Specific engineering issues are discussed inthe following order:

• Structure

• Mechanical systems—general designissues

• Fume hoods—mechanical systemdesign issues

• Electrical systems

• Lighting design

• Telephone/data system

• Information technology

• Closets

• Audiovisual engineering forpresentation rooms

• Plumbing systems

• Commissioning

• Renovation/restoration/adaptive reuse

• Facility management issues

STRUCTURAL SYSTEMSAfter the basic lab module is determined,the structural grid and location of beamsshould be evaluated. In most cases, thestructural grid equals two basic labmodules. With a typical lab module of10'6" x 30', the structural grid would be21' x 30'. A good rule of thumb for labbuildings is to add the two dimensions of a structural grid; if the sum equals a

number in the low 50s (e.g., 21' + 30' =51'), then the structural grid should beefficient and cost-effective.

Longer spans can also work successfullybut may make it more difficult to controlvibration in the building, may cost moremoney, and may require a greater floor-to-floor height. A few buildings have beenbuilt with large trusses that span the entirelength of the lab, creating column-freespaces. The Salk Institute is an example.The openings in the truss allow themechanical ductwork to go through in the interstitial space. This arrangement isconsidered ideal in some cases, but it ismore costly and usually not necessary. Along-span Vierendeel truss can increase thecost of the structural system by at least 10percent, adding 2–3 percent to the overallbuilding construction cost. Concretecolumn sizes are typically 18–24 in. square,and steel columns 10–15 in. square. Theestimated sizes and depths of framing givenin this chapter are intended to beguidelines only; such dimensions must bestudied in detail for each specific project.

Key design issues to consider inevaluating a structural system include thefollowing:

• Framing depth and effect on floor-to-floor height

• Ability to coordinate framing with labmodules

• Ability to create penetrations forpiping in the initial design, as well as over the life of the building

• Potential for vertical or horizontalexpansion

• Vibration criteria

• Cost

CHAPTER 4

ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

199

When deciding on a structural system,the local construction market, theavailability of labor, and the expertise ofthe contractors should be evaluated. Twoquestions must be resolved:

• Should the building be constructed of steel or concrete?

• What are the contractors andsubcontractors most familiar with?

The answer to the first will partlydepend on where in the country the labfacility is being built. For example, in theNortheast, steel construction is generallypreferred; concrete construction ispreferred in the Southeast. The choicebetween steel and concrete is usuallydecided on the basis of competitive pricesfrom contractors in the area, and localpreference may override one or more ofthe preceding key design issues. If thesystem chosen is one with which thecontractor has direct experience, thenchoosing that system will likely result incost and scheduling benefits. Reviewingthe structural system with the localcontractors should occur in the schematic

design phase, because the overall massing,design, and cost will be affected by theselection. Common options for structuralsystems are discussed below.

SteelIn most parts of the country, laboratoriesare commonly constructed with structuralsteel wide-flange beams and columns.Although metal deck slabs, which spanbetween steel beams, can, with anadequate thickness of concrete topping,achieve fire separations between floors, itis important to understand how to fire-rate the steel framing while allowing forspace and sequencing of the other trades.

Here are a number of other issuesrelated to steel construction that must be considered:

• In high seismic zones, steelconstruction may be preferable toconcrete because of its superiorductile behavior.

• For greatest economy, steel framingsystems may require diagonal bracingin a vertical plane, which must becoordinated with architectural layouts.

• Steel systems that span more than 30ft may require special attention indesign to meet vibration criteria. Steeljoists are typically not recommendedat floors because the joist stiffnessmay not be adequate to control floorvibration.

• Steel beams will have to be fireprotected, which means that lay-inceilings will be necessary.

Steel construction requiresapproximately the same depth as concreteconstruction. The height and mass of thebuilding are basically the same for steeland concrete construction.

200

ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

� Structural module.

LABMODULE

LAB

MO

DU

LE

LABMODULE

Cast-in-Place ConcreteSeveral cast-in-place concrete systems areavailable. One-way beam systems andjoist and slab systems are common, andtheir economy depends largely onformwork requirements and repetition.Spans for these systems can easily reach40 ft, with beam depths approximatelyequal to the length of the span divided by20; slab depths are typically determinedby fire-rating requirements. A longer spanmeans an increase in the size of the beam(width, depth, or both).

Two-way cast-in-place systems (such asflat plates and flat slabs) are alsocommon, with span limits of about 30 ftin each direction. The slab thickness isabout the length of the span divided by 30 but is thicker at drop panels atcolumns.

Structural depths and concretequantities can be reduced if a concretesystem utilizes posttensioning, whichprecompresses the concrete and helps inresisting applied loads. Beam or joistdepth can be reduced to about spanlength divided by 30, and two-way slabdepths can be about span length dividedby 40. Posttensioned slabs are difficult tocore through after they are constructed,because of the potential of cutting thepost-tensioning tendons. It is verydifficult to renovate a posttensioned slabby cutting holes in it for ductwork orplumbing pipes. Posttensioning istherefore not commonly used forlaboratory construction.

Pan-joist systemThe pan-joist system consists ofsecondary beams every 3–6 ft betweenprimary beams, which frame thecolumns. This is a common structuralsystem for laboratories because the

inherent stiffness and mass of theconcrete addresses concerns aboutvibration. A problem with this system isthe difficulty in coring holes for roof andfloor drains, because as much as 25percent of the floor area has beams orjoists below it. The cores should occurbetween beams, not at a beam. Anotherproblem is that the subcontractor has tosupply pan forms based on the labmodule to coordinate with the rest of thebuilding. Many subcontractors havestandard pans that are not based on thelab module. The design team should talkwith the local subcontractors in the

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DUCTWORK UNDER PRIMARY BEAMS REQUIRES TALLER STRUCTURESECTIONALPERSPECTIVE

PLAN

15'-1

6'±

� Pan-joist system.

design phase to coordinate the pan sizeand spacing with the lab module andengineering systems. A typical floor-to-floor height for a building with a pan-joist system is 15–16 ft.

Flat-plate or flat-slab systemThe flat-plate or flat-slab system can beappropriate if the contractor andsubcontractor are used to this method ofconstruction and the lab modules arecompatible with span limits. Flat slabshave a drop panel below the slab andaround the columns, whereas flat platesdo not. There may be an edge beam

around the perimeter of the lab building. The edge beam aids in lateralload resistance and cladding attachment. This system works wellbecause there is typically no need forinterior beams and the floor-to-floorheight needs to be only 14–15 ft. Theslab is also easy to penetrate for drains or vertical risers. For the structure towork most efficiently, the building grid should basically be a rectangle and bays should be as nearly square as possible.

The flat-plate or flat-slab structuralsystem can reduce floor-to-floor heightfrom 1' to 1'6", which should result insignificant cost savings on the project.Not only may this structural system costless than other options, but also there isless exterior skin and fewer vertical risers.This reduction of materials can produce a reduction of 1 percent or more in theconstruction cost. The flat-plate or flat-slab design should work well for mostresearch laboratory structures becauseboth require a rectangular floor plan to be efficient.

Post-and-beam blank systemThe post-and-beam blank system is beingused in south Florida today. The concretebeams are precast, then set on the site.The beams can be cut on site to whateverlength they need to be. After the firstfloor of columns and beams has been set,plywood forming is constructed to allowfor the pouring of the floor slab. Thepoured slab helps to create a singlecomposite structural system. Theadvantages are that the members can beprecast, the beams can be cut, and it iseasy to make penetrations through thefloor slab. The typical floor-to-floorheight is 15–16 ft.

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� Flat-plate system.

DUCTWORK UNDER FLOOR SLAB REDUCES FLOOR TO FLOOR HEIGHT

14'-1

5'±

SECTIONALPERSPECTIVE

PLAN

ColumnsStaggered columnsStaggered columns with angled beamsallow vertical risers to occur at each labmodule without any interference from acolumn or beam. The typical floor-to-floor height is 15–16 ft.

Columns at corridorsColumns can be located in the lab, in thecorridor, or in the center of a partition. Ifthe columns are located in the lab, thenthe corridor can have a clean, column-free appearance and the design of thecorridor can be more flexible. Locatingthe columns in the lab usually requiressome custom detailing of the casework,and columns may create problems inteaching labs. If columns are located inthe corridor, then repetition may bedesired from an aesthetic point of view.The location of columns outside the labwill make it easier to lay out caseworkand to make changes in the lab. Thedisadvantage of locating the columns inthe corridor is that the clear area forequipment and people to pass throughmay have to be increased, resulting in aless efficient building design.

Some labs are designed with thecolumns located on the centerline of thewall. The theory behind this approach isthat the wall may not be necessary and, ifit is not, then casework can be lined upback to back. If the wall is necessary, thenit is simply located between the caseworkcomponents.

Vibration ControlVibrations caused by footfalls requireboth structural and architecturalsolutions. Footfall-induced vibrations,important for above-grade floors, can bereduced by placing sensitive equipment

near columns, keeping as much distanceas possible between heavily traveled areasand sensitive equipment, and minimizingthe length of spans.

Control of structure-borne vibrationcan be enhanced by locating highlysensitive equipment on a grade slab andisolating the portion of the slab directlybelow the equipment from the rest of thestructure.

Vibration is alleviated by increasing thestiffness of the floor slab. The stiffnesscan be increased by providing acombination of mass and/or depth forabove-grade slabs. Cast-in-place concrete

� Staggered columns.

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VERTICAL RISERS FOR PLUMBING AND EXHAUST ARE LOCATED ON LAB MODULE WITHOUT INTERFERENCE FROM ANY BEAMS OR COLUMNS.

SECTIONALPERSPECTIVE

PLAN

15'-1

6'±

has characteristics and mass advantagesthat assist in vibration reduction. To theextent possible, mechanical and electricalequipment should be isolated from thestructure by placing such equipment inseparate structures or by using slab jointsand vibration isolation supports for theequipment (i.e., spring/damper systems).Special tables or pads can also be used to isolate sensitive equipment from thesupporting floor.

Air-handling ductwork must bedesigned to minimize vibration. Supplyand exhaust air fans, compressors, pumps,and other noise and vibration producingequipment should be located inmechanical rooms with protective wallconstruction.

Special local vibration control devicesmay be utilized for any highly sensitiveequipment, such as optical benches andanalytical instruments. Instruments thatare extremely sensitive to vibration shouldideally be located on slab-on-gradeconstruction to minimize transientstructure-borne vibration.

Vibration criteria for areas intended toaccommodate sensitive equipment arebased on the product of two factors: the

natural frequency of the system betweencolumn supports, “f,” and static stiffness at the center of the bay, “k.”

Laboratories should be designed for 125 lbs per sq ft live load throughout the laboratory areas for vibrationconsiderations.

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS—GENERAL DESIGN ISSUES

Shafts and DuctworkAfter the structural system is determined,the location of the main vertical supplyand exhaust shafts must be studied, asmust the location of the horizontalexhaust and supply ductwork. Tominimize the floor-to-floor height, it isimportant to minimize the number oftimes that exhaust and supply ductsoverlap.

Access to all mechanical systems is veryimportant. First, there must be space toallow for servicing the parts and adjustingof dampers. Second, there must be accessto the control valves and electricalbreakers. Third, there must be space andaccess to allow changes and additions toutility services. If the design of thebuilding addresses these issues in theinitial construction, then much time andcost can be saved when maintenance andrenovations occur over the life of thebuilding.

There are several options for locatingthe main shafts. Key issues to take intoconsideration are these:

• Efficiency of engineering systemdesign

• Initial costs

• Long-term operating costs

• Building height and massing

• Design image

� Columns at corridor.

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ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

CORRIDOR

The various options are as follows.

Shafts at the end of the buildingVertical distribution is through the shafts,and horizontal distribution is in the ceiling.

AdvantagesThe labs are unobstructed, with the shaftsat the end. The concept is reasonable incost, and this concept works well with amanifolded exhaust system.

DisadvantagesAccess through the ceiling tile or via anopen ceiling in the lab may conflict withresearch activities. The roof equipmentand ductwork may have to be spreadacross the entire roof to provide access to the shafts at the end. The mainexhaust and supply trunk lines may belarger than required in other options.

Shafts in the middle of the buildingThis option is similar to the first, exceptthat the main shafts are located in themiddle of the building.

AdvantagesThe shafts will have short, efficient runsto distribute and exhaust the air. Theconcept is very cost-effective. Themechanical equipment (air handlers andexhaust fans) can be centrally located onthe roof, minimizing the massing of thepenthouse. In addition, this conceptworks well for a manifolded exhaustsystem.

DisadvantagesAccess through the ceiling tile or in anopen ceiling in the lab may conflict withresearch activities. Locating the shafts inthe middle divides the lab into two areas,limiting flexibility in the future.

Shafts at the end and supply in the middle

AdvantagesThe shafts will have short, efficient runsto distribute and exhaust the air. Theconcept is reasonable in cost, ascompared with the other options. Theexhaust and supply ducts generally do notoverlap, minimizing the floor-to-floorheight. This concept also works well for a manifolded exhaust system.

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EXHAUST

SUPPLY

EXHAUST

SHAFTS

EXHAUST

SUPPLY

SHAFTS

EXHAUST

� Shafts at the end of the building.

� Shafts in the middle.

DisadvantagesAccess through the ceiling tile or in anopen ceiling in the lab may conflict withresearch activities. The central supplyshaft may limit floor-plan layouts bycreating a “large mechanical column.”

Multiple internal shaftsSeveral shafts, usually one for each labmodule, distribute much of the utilitiesvertically.

AdvantagesThe shafts will have short, efficient runsto distribute and exhaust the air. Thefloor-to-floor height is lower because the

size of the horizontal ductwork is muchless than in the other options. Inaddition, the horizontal ductwork shouldbe able to run between the beams. Thefloor-to-floor height can be reduced atleast 2 ft or more. Renovations can easilybe made outside the lab, in the peoplecorridors. The shafts can also be designedto accommodate process piping and therisers and stacks for floor and roof drains.This concept works very well if severaldedicated exhaust shafts are required. It also works well for older buildings that were not originally constructed aslaboratory facilities and that have floor-to-floor heights of less than 15 ft.

� Exhaust shafts at the endand supply in the middle.

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ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

SUPPLY SHAFTS

EXHAUST SHAFTS

SUPPLY SHAFTS

EXHAUST SHAFTS

� Multiple internal shafts.

EXHAUST

SUPPLY

EXHAUST

SHAFT SHAFT

DisadvantagesMore floor area is required for all theshafts. The floor plans will not be asefficient, requiring more gross area toservice the net usable spaces. The shaftsbecome obstructions, like columns,limiting the changes that can occurthroughout the life of the building. There will be fewer opportunities forinterior glazing.

Shafts on the exteriorShafts are located on the exterior, freeingthe entire interior space for laboratories.

AdvantagesThe horizontal runs required to serve thebuilding are shorter. There is maximumflexibility in the laboratory zone insidethe shafts. A minimal floor-to-floorheight is required. This concept maywork well for the renovation of olderstructures if such buildings are notconsidered historically significant.

DisadvantagesIt is difficult to access the shafts. Access is usually at the interior common wall

between the lab and the shaft.Consequently, any renovations wouldinterrupt the research being conducted inthe lab. The shafts on the exterior willlimit the views and amount of glazing.The exterior shafts will make a strongaesthetic statement. (This may bepreferred or undesirable.) More floor areais required for all the shafts. The floorplans will not be as efficient, requiringmore gross area to service the net usablespaces. The shafts will have to beinsulated.

Service corridorsThe laboratory spaces adjoin a centrallylocated corridor, where all utility servicesare located.

AdvantagesFacility engineers are afforded constantaccess without their having to enter thelab. Shutoff valves and electric panelboxes are easily accessible. Materialhandling is separated from peoplecorridors. If the service corridor is 10'6"wide or greater, it can be used as anequipment corridor.

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SHAFTS

� Shafts on the exterior.

DisadvantagesThe gross area is greater, and planningefficiency can be 5 percent less than inthe options already discussed. The lowerthe building efficiency, the higher the costper net sq ft (NSF). Building flexibility islimited. The building is split in half,which does not encourage communica-tion among all researchers. There isminimal natural light into the lab spaces,because a people corridor is requiredaround all labs to allow the researchersinto their labs.

Interstitial spaceAn interstitial space is a separate floorlocated above each lab floor. The servicesdrop down into the laboratory. Interstitialspace is used very selectively because of itshigher initial cost.

AdvantagesThe use of interstitial space allows thebuilding to accommodate change veryeasily and gives it a longer useful life. Thelabs are unobstructed by shafts and can berenovated quickly, cheaply, and with verylittle (if any) interruption. The system iscost-effective over the life of the building

if the labs will have to be renovated atleast every five to ten years. Constructiontime can be reduced, because themechanical, electrical, and plumbingservices can be installed in the interstitialspace at the same time the lab is beingfinished. There should be much lessconflict among the trades duringconstruction. Higher initial costs can be reduced by allowing work on themechanical and electrical systems to beundertaken concurrently with thelaboratory buildout, and the constructionprocess can be easily fast-tracked. Thefull, walk-on interstitial floor saves timeand money by enabling subcontractors to work without scaffolding.

DisadvantagesThe volume of the building increases, andthe initial cost is higher than that of theother options (up to 5 percent of theconstruction cost). This option affordsthe lowest net-to-gross efficiency and thehighest cost per NSF. Additionalsprinklers are required for the interstitialspaces.

These disadvantages, however, may beoffset in both the short and long term.

� Service corridor.

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ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

SHAFTS

Guy Ott, vice president of facilityoperations at the Fred HutchinsonCancer Research Center (FHCRC) inSeattle, stated that the construction ofinterstitial space added 2.6 percent to theinitial construction costs of that facilitybut realized a 2.3 percent savings due toshortened construction time. FHCRCexpects renovation costs to be half ofwhat they would be if there were nointerstitial space. The interstitial spacegives FHCRC the flexibility toincorporate new scientific techniques andequipment as they become available.

Partial interstitial—two rows ofcolumns along the corridorIn many cases, spacing columns every30–35 ft across the depth of a buildingwill not fully coordinate with thecorridor and lab module. Should therebe a row of columns on both sides of thecorridor? An additional row of columnsalong the corridor would allow for

column-free laboratories but mayincrease the cost of the structural systemand limit future modifications to thebuilding. One design option is to have arow of columns along both walls of thecorridor, with no beams across thecorridor. This concept allows for much

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209

� Partial interstitial space.NIH Building 40, Bethesda,Maryland. HLM, architect.Courtesy NIH.

� Interstitial space.

of the engineering system to runhorizontally in the corridor ceiling.Because there is no beam in the corridor, there is more space to maintain the control boxes, shutoffvalves, and so on. This concept iscommonly referred to as a "partialinterstitial," because the area over the corridor is used for servicing the engineering systems.

Architectural and EngineeringCoordination Case StudyAll vertical risers must be coordinatedwith the architectural design and labmodule. The illustrations at left and rightdemonstrate one way to fully coordinatethe architectural and engineering systemsin a laboratory building.

Mechanical EquipmentMechanical systems belong to two generalcategories:

• Primary—centralized equipment togenerate utility sources such as steamand chilled water

• Secondary—largely ventilation andexhaust systems

Primary systemsPrimary mechanical equipment systemsinclude the boilers, chillers, cooling towers,and air compressors. A key design issue iswhether the primary equipment should bein a central plant or within the building asa stand-alone facility. The advantages of acentral plant include operational costs thatare more economical in the long term(diversity provides an opportunity forhigher efficiency at centralized equipment).There is no rule of thumb for the amountof savings produced by a centralized plantbecause savings depend on the degree ofcentralization. There are two key elementsinvolved in operating cost efficiency:energy and labor. Energy economies can beachieved by larger equipment, betterbalancing of loads with equipmentcapacity, and single-point metering. Laboreconomies can be achieved by reducing thetotal number of staff necessary to maintainand operate the plant. Reduction in laboris usually the more significantconsideration.

210

ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

�� Architectural andengineering coordination.Design of the structuralsystem should be the firststep.

� Locate mechanicalductwork next.

There is also a potentially lower firstcost (economy of scale versus distributioncost). A central plant is more reliable,easier to maintain, and incorporatesredundancy with minimal additionalcapital costs. Emissions are at onelocation, and extra capacity is availablethroughout the facility.

The main disadvantage of a centralplant is the higher cost for initialconstruction resulting from highdistribution costs. In a large developmentthat is constructed at one time, a centralplant is usually less costly to build thanregional plants or stand-alone buildings.Most research campuses, however, aredeveloped in phases. If a central plant isbuilt in the first phase, the initial cost ofthe first phase is higher, because thecentral plant must be large enough toaccommodate all further development. Ifthe first phase is one-third to one-half ofthe total development and thedistribution distances are reasonable, thefirst phase premium can be as low as 25percent. If there are existing stand-alonebuildings, then the new services will haveto be fed from the central plant to theexisting structures. The existing buildingservices are tied into the central plant,usually at the end of the life of theoriginal systems or if new ownershiptakes over.

Several factors come into play indetermining the location of the primaryequipment, including proximity tosupport utilities such as gas, electricity,water, and sewers.

The distance of distribution systems(ductwork for heating and cooling) from the central plant to the laboratory structure, as well as their size, will also determine the location of the central plant. There usually is

the need to isolate the equipment from the structural system to controlvibration and noise. Most equipmentshould be located where space is availablefor expansion. Effluent cross-contamination and prevailing winds will impact the location of the exhaustand supply air intakes. Convenientvehicular access for service andmaintenance should not be forgotten.

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211

�� The third step is to locateprocess piping.

� Fourth, locate cable trays and lights.

When sizing the equipment thefollowing design considerations should be addressed:

Safety factorA safety factor of 1.0 (that is, 1.0 timesthe calculated load) is usually sufficientfor mechanical, electrical, and plumbing(MEP) design, although in some researchfacilities each component and systemshould be evaluated individually. Forexample, heating and cooling loadcalculations are performed at “designconditions,” which are regularly exceededin a given year. In a research laboratory,with 100 percent outside air, anyvariation in outdoor air temperature orhumidity is immediately sensed by theheating and cooling equipment.Therefore, consideration should be givento safety factors for these systems.

Redundancy and standby capabilityRedundancy and standby capability canbe addressed either at the component levelor at the system level, depending on thecriticality of the loads served. Although nouniversal standards exist, some rules ofthumb may apply. For office areas,redundancy and standby capability areusually not needed, except for heatingsystems in freezing climates (so that thebuilding does not freeze). For ordinarylaboratory facilities, systems should haveeither n + 1 system redundancy (i.e., theability to meet the design load if onecomponent fails) or multiple components,so that if one component is lost the loadcan still be served, at least in part. Forcritical functions, like clean rooms, animalholding facilities, manufacturing facilities,and so on, consideration should be givento n + 1 component redundancy where100 percent “extra” capacity is not

available in a separate piece of equipmentfor each major component.

DiversityDiversity is the actual anticipated peakdivided by the calculated peak. Forexample, diversity = number of hoods inuse/total number of hoods. The diversityrange may be anywhere from 70 to 90percent, reflecting the fact that less than100 percent of the hoods will be used atthe same time.

Optimum efficiency In determining optimum efficiency, thedesigner must recognize that laboratoriesexperience a wide range of actualoperating conditions throughout thecourse of a year. For example, in theheating season, electrical loads aresubstantially lower during unoccupiedhours than at design conditions. Similarsituations exist with other systems.Therefore, it is not enough to simplychoose equipment to meet the peak load;the designer must be careful to selectequipment that performs efficiently underall operating conditions. This often meansusing multiple components, so that notall need to be in operation to runefficiently at lower loads.

Future loads During the design process, the desiredfuture capacity for the building should bedetermined, then the primary equipmentand ductwork should be designed toaccommodate the future needs. This is akey issue in the design of most laboratorybuildings. As we tour structures built10–20 years ago, the main complaints wehear are about insufficient electrical poweror the need for additional hoods. If theprimary equipment had been designed

212

ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

with greater capacity in anticipation offuture requirements, the labs would meetthe research needs of today.

Secondary systemsDesign issues related to the secondarymechanical equipment systems includethe following:

• System selection criteria

• Building system options

• Local laboratory control systemoptions

• Fume hood control options

• Individual versus central exhaustsystems

• Fume exhaust ductwork options

• Energy recovery

• Environmental criteria

• Location of equipment

In many cases, the secondarymechanical systems offer the bestopportunities for energy conservation.

Location of Air-Supply GrillesThe location of the air intake is alsoanother important design issue. The air-supply louvers will require a large area onthe exterior facade. Most louvers areapproximately 50 percent open. If abuilding requires 100 sq ft of open area,then the total louver area will have to beapproximately 200 sq ft. The size andlocation of the air supply louvers willhave an impact on the aesthetic image of any wet laboratory facility. There arebasically two choices, as discussed in thefollowing paragraphs.

At ground levelAdvantagesAir handlers located low in the building(at ground level) are easier to maintain.

DisadvantagesThe louvers should be at least 4 ft off theground to minimize the chance of pullingin bad air from grass clippings duringmowing, exhaust fumes from automobilesor from trucks at the loading dock, orodors from trash bins. Locating louverslow also may create a noise problem forpedestrians. The louvers will take up asubstantial amount of area, diminishingthe pedestrians’ aesthetic experience asthey walk around the building.

At the roof penthouseAdvantagesThe ground floor can be used forprogram space. A recent NationalInstitutes of Health (NIH) computer-modeling study indicated that often thebest place to locate the air intake isdirectly below the exhaust stacks. Theexhaust stacks usually push the air up andaway from the building.

DisadvantagesExtra roof structure is required to supportthe air handlers. When they are placed onthe top of the building, air handlers are,in a sense, taking up prime real estatebetter suited for offices and labs. Thebuilding will appear more massive. Thesupply grilles may conflict with theexhaust stacks. Wind-wake studies shouldbe modeled to minimize the risk ofconflict between the air supply andexhaust.

Secondary ContainmentSecondary containment is created whenthe laboratory space is under negativepressure relative to corridors andsurrounding nonlaboratory spaces.Because the negative pressure must bemaintained in the laboratory, the lab

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213

cannot have operable windows or doorsto the exterior. Interior doors tolaboratories must remain closed as muchas possible, should be equipped withclosers, and should not be held open. Ifthe direction of airflow is deemed critical,monitoring devices are used to signal oralarm an improper pressure relationshipbetween adjacent spaces.

The laboratory spaces are continuouslyventilated 24 hours per day, seven days aweek. Supply air must be effectivelydistributed to all parts of the laboratoryspace from the ceiling, without creatingdrafts at exhaust hoods. The maximumsupply air velocity in the vicinity of fumehoods and biological safety cabinetsshould be 50 cu ft per minute (cfm) at 6ft above the floor.

Air from wet laboratories and otherspaces that might contain hazardousmaterials must be exhausted out of thebuilding and not recirculated. Air fromoffices and other “clean,” nonhazardousareas may be recirculated or directedtoward negative-pressure laboratories.

Ventilation ConsiderationsProper ventilation is a must for every labbecause of the chemical and biologicalcontaminant sources generated in labactivities. Improper ventilation cancontaminate not only the lab but theentire facility. Air from wet labs shouldnot be recirculated into other rooms inthe building. Most wet labs should beunder negative air pressure when in use.To accomplish this, exhaust air volumemust exceed supply air volume. Fumehoods are recommended for activities thatgenerate unacceptable levels of exposure totoxic or objectionable airborne materials.

In many wet labs, 10–12 air changes perhour are recommended, with 10 air

changes as the minimum threshold. Thelab must be designed for the number ofair changes necessary. Too many airchanges will require more from themechanical systems, and add more cost tothe budget. Too few air changes will resultin a problem with odors in the lab and inthe building.

Location of Controls for DuctworkThe laboratory HVAC system should beproperly controlled to be compliant withregulations, ensure operational safety,satisfy process constraints, and enhanceoccupants’ comfort. A well-controlledsystem will provide flexibility andminimize the operating cost of thebuilding.

A typical control system should providethe following minimal safetyrequirements in response to abnormalsituations:

• Announce equipment failure to amonitoring center and turn on theexisting standby equipment.

• Maintain relative levels ofpressurization in the laboratories.

• Stop the air supply to the laboratory,resulting in an increased negativepressurization level, in case of fire orsmoke detection in the laboratory.Exit doors must open easily undersuch situations.

The long-term maintenance andoperation of a research laboratory must beunderstood in the initial design of theproject. Will the facility engineers haveaccess to the lab for maintenance? Whatis the additional cost for locating allcontrols in the corridor?

These questions must be answeredbefore the ductwork can actually bedesigned. Ideally, if the controls can be

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ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

located in the corridor, then maintenancecan occur with minimal or no loss oftime to the research team. The problemwith locating all controls in the corridoris that additional building height may benecessary to accommodate the crossing ofexhaust and supply ducts; more ductworkmay be necessary to service the building;or the corridor ceiling may have to belower.

Controls for the mechanical systemsinclude the following:

• The lab exhaust box, which balancesthe fume hood exhaust and generalexhaust air and modulates the supplyair terminal

• The fume hood exhaust controls,which control exhaust air to maintaina constant face velocity at the hood

• A thermostat that controls the roomtemperature

Fume hood exhaust controls and thethermostat are usually located in the labat a wall near the entry door.

The location of controls for mechanical equipment is always a design consideration, usually driven bybalancing the cost of additional spacewith accessibility and reduced long-termoperational costs. In many researchfacilities, both private and academic, thescientists secure their laboratories in amanner that makes it difficult for servicetechnicians to access control components.In these settings, the control componentsshould be external to the labs. When thecontrols are located outside the labs inthe corridor, there is usually a need foradditional ductwork and sometimes more area in the building. Controlscannot be located outside the labs inbuildings with low floor-to-floor heightsor with narrow corridors. The tradeoffs

must be studied and evaluated at thebeginning of the project.

Noise ControlNoise control requires specific attentionto design and construction details. Severalfactors should be addressed in the designof the mechanical and electrical systemsto minimize noise problems. Fan noise,for example, may be transmitted to spacesthrough the duct system or through thebuilding structure. This noise ischaracterized by a low-frequency rumbleand often includes annoying pure tones.Labs with exposed ceilings are oftennoisy—a result of noise generated fromthe ductwork and/or the equipment inthe room. In such situations it is verydifficult to minimize the noise generatedby equipment because the floor, walls,and ceiling services are constructed ofmaterials with hard surfaces.

Noise generated by the excitation ofduct wall resonance produced by fannoise, by pressure fluctuations caused byfan instability, and by high turbulencecaused by discontinuance in the ductsystem can be a concern. Noise of mid-to high-frequency can also be generatedby air flowing past dampers, turningvanes, and terminal device louvers.Additionally, noise and vibration can becaused by out-of-balance forces generatedby the operation of fans, pumps,compressors, and so on. All thesesituations require special acoustical or,possibly, structural solutions.

Elevator equipment noise from motorgenerators, hoist gear, and counterweightmovement or from hydraulic pumpsystems must be isolated.

Conduits should not directly link noise-sensitive spaces, nor should theymechanically bridge vibration-isolated

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215

building elements using a rigidconnection. Flexible conduit must beused for connections to isolated floorslabs, walls, and vibration-isolatedmechanical/electrical devices. Ductsilencers should be considered when ductdistance is not sufficient to provideadequate acoustical separation.

The ASHRAE Handbook recommendsthe following as acceptable sound levelsfor laboratory spaces:

Space Usage Room CriteriaNoise Level

Testing/research,minimal speech communication 45–55Research, extensive telephone use, and speaking 40–50Group teaching 35–45

FUME HOODS—MECHANICALSYSTEM DESIGN ISSUESLabs that contain fume hoods havespecial mechanical system requirements,related to

• Face velocity and static pressure

• Fume hood exhaust

• Fume hood sash options

• Fume hood risers

Face Velocity and Static PressureThere must be an adequate “pull” of air(known as face velocity) to move fumesfrom the hood through the ductwork.Face velocity of approximately 100 ft perminute (fpm) is generally recommended.To maintain consistent face velocity, acertain quantity of air, or exhaust volume,is required. Exhaust volume is measuredin cfm. Both face velocity and exhaustvolume are affected by the type of hood

selected, its location in the lab, and theroom’s heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system (HVAC).

Sash position also affects face velocity.The sash is a transparent glass panel set inthe fume hood face that provides access tothe hood interior while protecting theuser from contact with dangerouschemicals and fumes.

The air foil influences the patterns of airflow into the hood. Located justbeneath the sash, the air foil decreases the turbulence of air entering the hood,resulting in improved efficiency andbetter fume containment. (Some fumehoods feature air foils on the left andright sides of the sash, as well.)

Static pressure is the resistance created as air moves through a fume hood.Sometimes referred to as static pressureloss, it is measured in inches of water.Fume hoods operate more efficiently andwith less noise at lower static pressurevalues.

Obviously, the amount of air passingthrough a hood (exhaust volume) and thespeed at which it enters (face velocity)will affect static pressure values. There area few other hood design characteristicsthat also affect static pressure:

• Larger baffle slots make it easier forair to move through the hood.

• A larger exhaust outlet enables moreair to pass through at lower velocity.

• A tapered exhaust collar reducesturbulence.

• Together, the exhaust collar and thebaffle configuration affect the system’sstatic pressure.

The static pressure rating of a hood,which is very important in determiningthe correct sizing of the blower system,

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ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

should be provided to the HVACengineer to ensure a properly sizedexhaust fan. A low static pressure ratingindicates that the hood is offeringminimal resistance to airflow, resulting inreduced noise and requiring a smallerexhaust fan.

Fume Hood Exhaust SystemsThere are two types of fume hoodexhaust systems:

• Constant volume (CV)

• Variable air volume (VAV)

Either system can be used withindividual or manifold duct and blowerconfigurations. A lab’s fume hood exhaustsystem must be compatible with theroom’s HVAC system.

Constant volume exhaust systemsCV fume hoods maintain consistentexhaust volume regardless of sashposition. Face velocity must therefore beregulated by some other means. A CVsystem does not allow much flexibility toaccommodate different requirements. Ifthere are few hoods in the lab facility,then a CV system may be more cost-effective than a VAV system. Anotheradvantage is that the CV system is easierto run and maintain because it hassimpler controls. Three types of hood can provide constant volume function:bypass, auxiliary air, and restricted bypass.

Bypass fume hoods with CV exhaustsystemsIncorporating a bypass (an additionalsource of exhaust air when the sash islowered) is one way to keep face velocitieswithin an acceptable range, whilemaintaining balance between the roomventilating system and the hood’s exhaust

volume. CV hoods are equipped withbypass louvers located above the sash,which open as the sash is lowered,allowing additional air to enter the hood.

Auxiliary air fume hoods with CVexhaust systemsWhen there is insufficient room air tosupply a fume hood with its exhaustvolume requirements, an auxiliary airhood may be recommended. Air isbrought in from the outside, heated toroom temperature in winter or cooled

� Bypass fume hoodw/constant volume exhaustsystems. Courtesy FisherHamilton.

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� Auxiliary air fume hoodwith constant volumeexhaust systems. CourtesyFisher Hamilton.

to ± 20° F of the room temperature insummer, then supplied to the fume hood.When the sash is raised, auxiliary air isdirected to the fume hood face. When the sash is lowered, auxiliary air enters the hood from above.

Operating with 50–70 percent auxiliarysupply air, these hoods use significantlyless room air, which can result in energysavings. Supply air temperature andmoisture content must, however, becarefully controlled to preventcontainment problems or adverse effectson work performed in the hood.

Undesirable turbulence at the hood facecan be prevented by careful balancing ofthe hood with the room’s ventilationsystem.

Restricted bypass fume hoods with CVexhaust systemsConstant volume operation can beachieved when restricted bypass hoods areequipped with “face opening reducingdevices” and postless sashes. Thesemodified sash designs can reduce exhaustvolumes by as much as 30–60 percent.This reduced exhaust volume enables thebypass to be reduced, achieving constantvolume operation without excessiveincrease in face velocity.

Variable air volume exhaust systemsVAV systems maintain constant facevelocities by varying the exhaust volumein response to changes in sash position. A maximum amount of air is exhaustedwhen the sash is fully open; a minimumamount of air is exhausted when the sashis completely closed. A minimum flow of20 percent total exhaust volume shouldbe maintained to achieve optimumcontainment and satisfactory dilutionwith the sash closed.

VAV technology has become morerefined over the past decade or so.Although VAV is more sophisticated and requires more hardware than a CVsystem, results can be beneficial in certaincircumstances. Today, an increasingnumber of facility engineers have theability to maintain and operate VAVsystems.

Restricted bypass fume hoods with VAVexhaust systemsAll VAV systems should be used with arestricted bypass fume hood to maximize

� Restricted bypass fumehood with constant volumeexhaust systems. CourtesyFisher Hamilton.

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� Restricted bypass fumehood with VAV exhaustsystems. Courtesy FisherHamilton.

energy savings and safety. Because onlythe amount of air needed to maintain thespecified face velocity is pulled from theroom, significant energy savings can berealized with the sash in a closed position.Either vertical or horizontal sashconfigurations can be used effectively inVAV applications.

Sash OptionsThere are three types of sashes: vertical,horizontal, and combination.

Vertical sashesVertically rising sashes present severaldesign issues to consider.

AdvantagesVertical rising sashes are less expensivethan other types of sashes. They allowresearchers unrestricted access to theinterior of the fume hood.

DisadvantagesFace velocity of 100 fpm may be requiredover the entire open area of the sash,resulting in 1,200 cfm exhaust for astandard 6 ft general chemical fumehood. The amount of exhaust air usedrequires more energy to move, increasingthe costs by requiring larger, moreexpensive supply and exhaust air systems.

Horizontal sashesThe horizontal sliding sash is anotheroption.

AdvantagesOnly a portion of the face area can beopen at any time for a four-panel hood,reducing exhaust air and associatedenergy requirements. The horizontalsliding panels can serve as face and bodyshields.

DisadvantagesA horizontal sash is more expensive thana vertical sash. It is more restrictive forresearchers, because it provides less accessto the hood area unless the panel isremoved. In some cases, users removepanels for setup purposes withoutreplacing them, resulting in hoodvelocities that are low and unsafe.

Combination sashesThe combination sash, or dual sash, is a relatively new design that is beinginstalled in many labs today.

AdvantagesWith the use of a combination sash, ascompared with a vertical sash, exhaust airis reduced as much as 40 percent—up to500 cfm for a 6 ft hood—with aresulting reduction of energyrequirements. The horizontal slidingpanels can serve as face and body shields.The vertical sash can be raised duringsetup to provide full access to the hoodinterior at reduced face velocity.

DisadvantagesThe initial cost of the combination sash is higher than that of either thevertical or horizontal sash (but combi-nation sashes are more cost-effective over the long run).

Fume Hood RisersThere are basically two approaches toexhausting fume hoods: the dedicated(individual) exhaust system and themanifolded system. The choice must be evaluated early in the project, becausethe decision will have an impact on thefloor-to-floor height, long-term operatingand maintenance costs, and the exteriorimage of the building.

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Individual exhaust systemThe risers for the fume hood exhaustducts will have to be close to the hood if adedicated exhaust system is required. Theshaft has to separate the different exhaustducts, as stated in the building codes.When each dedicated exhaust duct reachesthe roof, it is tied into an individualexhaust fan or manifolded to a centrallocation that is on the roof and outsidethe building. The use of individual stacks

and fans can require more maintenancebecause of all the additional parts.

AdvantagesThere is more ability for control ortreatment. There is no mixing of fumesfrom different hoods or labs. Exhaustducts are vertically exhausted directly to the atmosphere. This system is lessexpensive if there is a small number ofhoods (ten or fewer).

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LAB OFFICESLABOFFICES

� Individual dedicatedexhaust system.

LABOFFICES OFFICESLAB

� Manifold exhaust system.

DisadvantagesThis system requires a considerablygreater number of individual fans, more ductwork wiring, and more roof penetrations, which togethertypically increase first costs andmaintenance costs. The system is much more difficult to balance, andreduction of exhaust air quantitiesduring unoccupied operation is costly. Energy recovery systems are not practical.

Manifolded exhaust systemIf there is a central manifolded fumehood exhaust system, then the exhaustcan tie into a main duct at one location on the floor. There are severaloptions for a manifolded system. Inmany cases, a manifolded system isdesigned so there may be a need fordedicated exhaust for specialrequirements, such as radioisotope and perchloric hoods.

AdvantagesExhaust air is well diluted before it is raised to the atmosphere. The central exhaust approach is verydependable, with redundant fancapacity. Energy consumption can be reduced with energy recovery andVAV controls.

DisadvantagesThis system should not be used with hoods handling radioactivematerials, perchloric acid, strongoxidizing agents, highly reactivechemicals, or biological hazardousmaterials (BL-3) or with hoods requiring water wash-down. Duct runs are longer and have the potential for spreading fire.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Site and Building-wide Issues

Load estimation

The load estimation process typicallyincludes conceptual load estimation,program-based load estimation, andapplied demand factors. The conceptualload estimation takes into account basicrules of thumb for good practice. Forexample, in lighting design, the followingstandards are recommended:

• 1.5–2.0 watts/sq ft in labs

• 1.3 watts/sq ft in offices

• 0.8 watts/sq ft in corridorsThe program-based load estimation

for electrical services typically takes into account lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, pumping, laboratoryequipment, receptacles, and elevators.

Site distribution conceptsSite distribution concepts are generallybased on master-planning issues andrecommendations of the local utilityagency. In talking with a local agency,two questions should be asked:

• What voltage (480 V, 5 kV, 15 kV,25 kV, or higher) is available?

• What rates (secondary versus primarymetering; independent powersuppliers' rates) are available?

Secondary metering generally entails less capital expense and higher energycosts; it is usually right for smaller clients.For primary metering, the customer must purchase or lease transformers,switchgear, and so on. There is a primarydiscount and future flexibility innegotiations with independent powersuppliers.

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Level of system redundancyThe most important place for systemredundancy is usually at the sitedistribution level. Annual maintenance is required at the medium-voltage switchgear and must be accommodated in thedesign. The costs and benefits must beanalyzed to design for the mostappropriate system redundancy. A goodrule of thumb is to provide 25 percentspare capacity for the electrical panelboard loading.

Analysis of electrical system redundancyfocuses on two points: probability offailure and incremental cost. Probabilityof failure is predicted by statistics. Forexample, a cable termination has a muchhigher probability of failing than aprotection device, which in turn has ahigher probability of failing than does atransformer. The electrical supply (electricutility) has the highest probability offailure.

Failure analysis leads to conclusionsabout the components and systems thatwould be best served by redundantcapabilities. This information must thenbe balanced against the cost of theredundancy, which is harder to providethe closer you get to the load. In otherwords, redundant building entranceequipment is less expensive thanredundant service to each duplexreceptacle. The normal break point is atthe unit substation level. In laboratories,it makes sense to regularly “double-end”unit substations and all of thedistribution before them, and to single-end the service thereafter.

Power qualityPower quality has to do with thecompatibility between the requirementsof the equipment and the characteristics

of the serving system. This compatibilityis defined in two ways:

• Frequency compatibility. Frequencycompatibility problems are rare inutility-based systems. Problems aremore common in engine/generator-based systems.

• Waveform compatibility. Distortion iscaused by “nonlinear loads” fromelectronic ballasts, computers, variablefrequency drives, and uninterruptiblepower supplies.

Interior distribution conceptsTypically in the United States, a 480/277volt load center supports major HVACand elevator loads at 480 volts andnonincandescent lighting at 277 volts.Systems using 240 volts should beavoided.

For interior grounding, the groundingelectrode system should be robust. Anequipment grounding conductor shouldbe specified in every branch circuit andfeeder conduit, and all equipment andboxes should be grounded.

Emergency/Standby PowerRequirementsIt is important to understand therequirements for a laboratory’s equipment and research beforedetermining the standby power. It is necessary to know whether theequipment can sustain short- or long-term interruptions.

Code-required loads for the emergencysystem must be identified, as mustoptional standby loads. It is alsoimportant to understand the NationalElectrical Code/Segregation requirements.

Three types of power are generally usedfor most laboratory projects:

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1. Normal power circuits are connectedto the utility supply only, without anybackup system. Loads that aretypically on normal power includesome HVAC equipment, generallighting, and most lab equipment.

2. Emergency power is created withgenerators that will back upequipment such as refrigerators,freezers, fume hoods, biological safetycabinets, emergency lighting, exhaustfans, animal facilities, andenvironmental rooms.

3. An uninterruptible power supply(UPS) is used for data recording,certain computers, microprocessor-controlled equipment, and possiblythe vivarium area. The UPS can beeither a central unit or a portablesystem.

A generator protects against prolongedutility outage; a UPS system protectsagainst any disruption in electricitysupply. In other words, a generator isavailable to provide electricity in theevent utility service is lost, after amomentary delay. A UPS system preventsthe load served from experiencing anyinterruption in the electricity supply,regardless of its origin.

At the outset of a project, it is critical to define the loads to be served by anemergency generator and potentially by aUPS. This is because the emergency loadtends to grow as the project planning iscompleted, and it is important to ensurethat the installed generator capacity canserve the loads that are ultimatelyconnected to it.

Very few laboratory facilities employfacility-wide UPS systems. A UPS isusually provided at an individuallaboratory or suite of laboratory levels,

often locally. A central UPS will have ahigher initial cost but lower long-termoperational costs. The failure of a singlecentral UPS, however, can be much morecostly than the loss of one portable UPS.Portable UPSs are more costly in the longrun but provide greater flexibility.Individual units can be relocated asequipment is moved. Either UPS optionwill typically provide power for 10–15minutes, after which emergency ornormal power will have to be operating.Receptacles should be color-coded todistinguish between normal, emergency,and UPS power.

Special electrical systems may be neededfor hazardous locations, locations withhigh or low temperatures, and unusualvoltage or frequency applications.

Locate at 36 in. maximum centers foroutlets in instrument-usage areas.Requirements for 110V, 208V, 220V, andso on must be verified. All electricaloutlets in the lab should be ground-faultinterrupters (GFIs). Areas where GFIs arerequired must be verified by referring toapplicable codes. If GFIs are required athoods, they must be specified separately.

Electrical Cable Trays/Panel BoxesElectrical components tend to be easier tocoordinate than plumbing or mechanicalsystems because the wire they use isflexible and requires a relatively smallamount of space.

Cable trays are usually located on araceway for easier maintenance. Electricaland data wires usually need to be run andmodified often through the life of thebuilding because of additional needs forcomputers, telephones, and equipment.Easy access is therefore very important.

Cable trays are usually located in thecorridor below the ceiling, at the

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same height as the ceiling, or just above it.

Panel boxes are located either in zoneson each floor or at the entry alcove toeach lab. An adequate number of extrabreakers must be included in each panelbox to accommodate future needs.

LIGHTING DESIGNLab spaces are at times generic in layout,but often they are unique to the researchand experimentation they serve, or at leastpossess certain unique elements. Therefore,it is vital that the lighting designerunderstand the laboratory environment,the purpose it serves, the way its userswork, and the physical properties of eachspace, including the opportunities for andlimitations on various lighting systems.

No matter what the differences fromone laboratory to the next, there is acommon and essential need: the abilityto perform a variety of detailed tasksquickly and accurately without eyestrainor visual discomfort. Above all, theintent of the laboratory lighting systemis to produce a visual environment thatenhances productivity, increases a senseof well-being, and fosters creativity inthe workplace. To achieve these highstandards, lighting design must bevisually comfortable, aestheticallyappealing, affordable, and easilymaintainable.

There is a misconception that lightingquality has only to do with controllingglare and/or providing a certain quantityof light. Both are important, withoutquestion. These are only two of numerousfactors to consider, however. Othersinclude direction of light, light-sourcecolor, the ability to render colorsaccurately, contrast, uniformity, andsurface reflectance.

Daylight is the standard for colorquality in lighting, with a color-renderingindex (CRI) of 100. Daylight is obviouslythe most energy-efficient source ofillumination.

Key IssuesThe first chapter of this book discussessustainability issues in lighting design.The following paragraphs cover some ofthe other key issues.

User expectationsMinimal glare and uniform lighting levelsare essential for visual comfort. Indirectlighting, or a combination of indirect anddirect, should be considered. A ceilingheight of at least 9'6" is necessary forindirect lighting. When indirect lightfixtures are used in main lab areas, tasklighting is usually required, which addscost to the project. Fluorescent lay-inlight fixtures with parabolic louvers canalso be used to minimize glare.

Illumination levelsToo often, an overwhelming emphasis isplaced on quantity of light as measured in footcandles by an illuminance meter.Although illuminance is a useful metricfor analysis, it is important to understandthe limitations of this tool. Illuminance isthe measure of light arriving at a surface,not what is actually seen. More importantis the amount of light reflected by thatsurface that actually reaches the eye,measured as luminance. Therefore,illuminance has no practical meaningwithout the knowledge of the reflectanceand light-dispersing properties of surfacematerials within the space. With thisknowledge, the designer can provide anamount of light appropriate for the taskto be accomplished.

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User requirements for lighting levelsmust also be considered, as well as anystate or local energy codes that may limitthe total lighting-power budget.Recommended illumination levels,according to the Engineering Society of North America, are as follows:

Most labs 75–100 footcandles Tissue andreading cultures 150–200 footcandles

Offices 50–75 footcandles

UniformityLighting for laboratory workspaces shouldprovide high visibility while reducingglare, extreme contrasts, and harshshadows. Lighting that is uniform reducesthe amount of adaptation a person’s eyemust endure when switching betweentasks, thereby reducing the potential foreyestrain and increasing productivity.

Horizontal illuminance is used toestablish the “base” level of light on ahorizontal work surface. Uniformity ofhorizontal illuminance is important toallow for a high level of task mobility andflexibility. Uniformity of vertical illumi-nance lets researchers perform three-dimensional tasks at multiple levels with-out encountering harsh shadowing or highcontrast from one work zone to the next.

Uniform ceiling luminance helps toblend daylight with artificial lighting,thereby reducing extreme contrasts andglare. Uniform ceiling luminance,combined with light colors and highlyreflective room surfaces, also increases theoverall perception of the brightness andspaciousness of a room.

Methods of light distributionTwo primary methods of lightdistribution are commonly used in

laboratory environments to produceambient (general) lighting. These are (1)indirect/direct distribution, acombination of downlighting anduplighting of the ceiling surface; and (2)direct distribution, or downlighting.

Indirect/direct distributionIndirect/direct lighting distributiontypically involves the use of fluorescentsources for spaces with higher ceilings. A minimum ceiling height of 9'6" isrecommended in order to suspendluminaires at a distance from the ceilingthat is sufficient to create uniform ceilingluminance without compromising the useof equipment space below. Ideally,luminaires are located so as to provideuniform ceiling luminance whileconcentrating the direct lightingcomponent on the work surface.

The benefits of indirect/directdistribution include a substantialreduction in distracting shadows overwork surfaces and an increased sense ofbrightness without overlighting the space.It is not uncommon that the level ofilluminance required with this strategy is less than that needed for directdistribution to perform tasks equally well,and often with increased lighting quality.

Direct distributionDirect distribution is commonly usedwith fluorescent sources in spaces withceiling heights lower than 9'6", in areasof high equipment density where users donot spend an extended duration of timeexcept for experiment preparation andcleanup, and where the ability to suspendluminaires is compromised. Directlighting is most successful when moreluminaires are used, each having a smallerlight output. This layout results in better

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control of glare, reduced shadowing, and increased uniformity. The two mostcommon luminaire types used with directdistribution are lensed fluorescent andparabolic fluorescent luminaires:

• Lensed fluorescent luminaires produce abrightly lighted lab environment butdo not provide any control of directglare for the user or of indirect glareon visual display terminals. Thedirect-only distribution also createsshadows on horizontal work surfaces,thereby reducing visibility.

• Parabolic fluorescent luminaires havelouvers that reduce light output athigh angles. The louvers offer glarecontrol, but, because of high light-source cutoff, often result in darkvertical surfaces, including roomwalls. This tends to produce acavernous effect and greatly reducesthe sense of room brightness. As with

lensed fluorescents, there will beshadows on horizontal work surfacesbecause of the direct distribution.

Luminaire location and orientationMinimizing shadows on a work surfacewill improve visibility and comfort,thereby increasing lighting quality. Whena luminaire with direct distribution and aparabolic louver is chosen, the layout ofthe light fixtures is particularly important.If the light source is behind the userstanding at the lab bench, that person’sown shadow is cast on the work surface.

When luminaires are oriented parallel to the lab bench, they should be alignednear the front edge of the bench to allowmaintenance from the aisle space and toprovide light distribution on the worksurface in front of the lab user. Whenorientating luminaires perpendicular tothe lab bench, they should extend 12–18in. beyond the edge of the bench.

� Lighting parallel tocasework.

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ENGINEERING DESIGN ISSUES

Laboratories can be successfully lightedwith luminaires oriented parallel orperpendicular to the lab bench. Eachlaboratory should be studied and the bestdetermination made after a considerationof all factors, including the dimensions ofthe lab module, equipment layouts, andthe luminaire selected. If possible, thebest method for making a final decision is to build a full-scale mock-up of one ortwo lab modules and install differentlighting options.

When locating luminaires, considera-tion should also be given to the easeand cost of maintenance. Lab benchesare typically covered with equipment,glass elements, chemicals, and otherobjects that maintenance staff prefer notto disturb when having to replace alamp or ballast. If luminaires arerun parallel to lab benches, it isrecommended not to locate themdirectly over the benches but where they

can be maintained from the aisle space.When luminaires are orientedperpendicular to lab benches, only aportion of the light fixture shouldextend over the lab bench so as to allowmaintenance from the aisle space.

Lighting Design for SpecificSpacesIn a flexible environment where team andindividual seating arrangements change,an appropriate solution is indirectlighting, with most of the light reflectedoff the ceiling from pendant-mountedfixtures. Pendant fixtures are typicallymounted 18–24 in. below the ceiling.Because light is reflected, an efficientinstallation requires 80 percent reflectivityfor ceiling materials and 65 percentreflective paint for major walls.

The separate switching of selected rowsof fixtures allows for a more efficient useof lighting resources. For example,

� Lighting perpendicular to casework.

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227

fixtures running adjacent to a windowwall can be switched separately; duringmost seasons and most hours of the day,illumination is provided by daylight, andthese fixtures are not needed. Anotherswitching option involves multipleballasts; with a three-lamp fixture, a usermay turn on one row of lamps, two rowsof lamps, or all three.

CostLighting quality is closely linked tofixture cost and efficiency. Prices vary,depending on the area of the country andother specific issues related to the designof the building. For example, lay-infixtures with acrylic prismatic lenses costabout $35 for a 4 ft fixture. Theirefficiency is 50–70 percent, and they aregenerally thought to provide poor-qualitylight. A similar fixture with a paraboliclouver produces less glare and can bepurchased for as little as $50. Pendantfixtures that create indirect light start at$80 each. The efficiency of a pendantindirect fixture is 70–85 percent, butbecause the light is indirect there is agood chance that task lighting will benecessary in labs using pendant indirectfixtures. Pendant fixtures with both directand indirect light start at about $140.The efficiency of a bidirectional pendantfixture ranges from 80–95 percent. Eventhough they cost more initially, pendantswill outperform lay-in fixtures for the lifeof the building and provide superiorlighting quality.

Light-Source Options, IncludingDaylightingToday the T-8 electronic ballast system is entrenched as the system of choice.Refinements are being researched for theT-8 system to provide for better lumen

maintenance, more precise fixtures, betterballasts, and less mercury. T-5 and T-2lamps are on the horizon. T-5 lamps forgeneral lighting are 18 percent moreefficient than the T-8s and are lessexpensive, provide better optical control,and offer better design opportunities.Some states currently allow a T-5 ballastsystem to be used. T-2 lamps areappropriate for task lighting and displaycases.

On an average winter day there aremore than four hours of sunshine that isusable for natural daylighting of interiorspaces; on an average summer day, aboutten hours. During winter, when moreartificial lighting is used, the additionalheat generated by this lighting is usuallybeneficial for the building. In thesummer, peak cooling requirements maybe reduced with the use of more naturaldaylight.

TELEPHONE/DATA SYSTEMThe telephone/data system consists ofwall outlets in all occupied spaces,including offices, laboratories, secretarialand clerical support areas, and conferencerooms. These outlets are then connectedin separate telephone and data rooms viaconduit and cable tray system. A centraltelephone and communication room(used for data acquisition and security)should be provided, usually in a centrallocation on the lowest level. Combinationvoice/data equipment rooms (VDERs)should be provided on each floor, usuallyin a central location to minimize thelength of run for the wire. Telephonesshould be provided at the exits ofmechanical and electrical rooms. A singleconduit should be run from each walloutlet box to the cable tray above anaccessible ceiling. A prewired building

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telephone and data cabling system is usually purchased and installed by the owner.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGYComputer networks must be flexible,manageable, and easily expandable. It iscritically important that the design teamhave the ability to communicate,comprehend, and document anunderstanding of a facility’s uniquesystems, operations, and startuprequirements and to translate those needsto construction bid documents. It is onlyby focusing on the specific requirementsthat these goals will be satisfied. Gettingqualified information technology (IT)consultants on board early in the projectcan add value to the design process andcan reduce overall project constructionand facility startup expenses.

Today, effective design for technologymeans much more than just placingvoice and data outlets in convenientlocations. It calls for a comprehensive,“whole network” approach tocommunication technologies. Voice,data, video, access systems, securitycameras, closed circuit TV (CCTV), andcable TV (CATV) all affect the buildingprocess and require coordination withother building systems and elements(e.g., door schedules, conduit and j-boxes, ergonomic and functionalfurniture selection, etc.).

Making efficient use oftelecommunications utility spaces and accommodating future changes in equipment and/or services requirethoughtful planning. Of course, savingconstruction dollars is important, but the impact the design will have onoperating budgets is just as critical aconsideration.

Fiber-Optic InfrastructureThe TIA/EIA-568-A CommercialBuilding Telecommunications CablingStandard recognizes 62.5/125 µm opticalfiber as the fiber-optic cable of choice forpremise networks. As the need for higherdata rates increases, however, facilityplanners and IT managers may wish todeviate from this industry standard andinstall 50/125 µm fiber-optic cableinstead.

The decision will be based onbandwidth, distances, advancingtechnology, and money. For fiber-opticinfrastructures, the amount of data thatcan be transmitted basically depends ontwo factors: the wavelength of the signaland the “loss budget” established for thefiber-optic network design.

Speed and bandwidthSince the 1980s, network data rates haveincreased so quickly that we have “addeda 0—10 Mbps, then 100 Mbps, then1,000 Mbps—approximately every fiveyears. Once only imagined, GigabitEthernet is now a reality, and 1.2 Gb/s(Gigabits per second) ATM(asynchronous transfer mode) is also a leading contender for high-speedbackbones. In terms of future planning,no one can predict with certainty whichtechnology will prevail, but if presenttrends continue, the need for morebandwidth will continue to drivetechnology and put heavy demands on a building’s infrastructure.

We need more bandwidth—or wepredict that we will need it in the not-too-distant future. We also desire lowcost. Data rates of more than 622 Mbpscannot be achieved using 62.5/125 µmmultimode fiber while applying thedistance limitations as specified by

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current Telecommunications IndustryAssociation/Electrical IndustryAssociation (TIA/EIA) and InternationalStandards Organization/InternationalElectrotechnical Commission (ISO/IEC)standards.

Interestingly, we can achieve morebandwidth, over greater distances, andwith some surprising cost savings bydeviating from today’s published standardand installing 50/125 µm multimodefiber to support some applications.

Vertical cavity surface emitting lasers(VCSELs) have been developed as a lower-cost light source, supplementing LEDs and single-mode lasers in higher-speedapplications. Through extensive testing by the 802.3z committee (Institute ofElectrical and Electronics Engineers,IEEE), which has put togetherspecifications for running Gigabit Ethernettraffic over fiber-optic cable, 50-micronmultimode optical fiber cable has provedsuperior in its ability to support GigabitEthernet. Fifty-micron optical fiber has theability to support Gigabit Ethernet up tothe recommended 500 in both long andshort (1300 nm–850 nm) wavelengths.The result will probably be that VCSELsrather than LEDs will be used in Gigabittransmissions, and 50-micron fiber has anadvantage at these speeds and distances.

CostNot only is 50/125 µm about 10–12percent less expensive than 62.5/125 µm,but it uses the same form factorconnectors. TIA/EIA has accepted aproposal to include 50-micron fiber inthe upcoming TIA/EIA-568b cablingstandard, and the ISO/IEC haverecognized 50-micron fiber for some timein the ISO/IEC-11801 internationalcabling standard.

In new installations, 50-micron opticalfiber is an intelligent choice because of itslower cost and better performance. Inexisting networks where there may be alarge installed base of 62.5-micron fiberthere are aperture mismatch issues thatwill have to be considered.

CLOSETSElectric, data, and custodial closets—typically 65–100 NSF each—are usually located near one another at thecenter of each lab zone. It is moreefficient and cost effective to locate theclosets centrally, but in many facilitiesthat location is within the lab zone. Data closets are typically bigger thanother closet types, and more of them areneeded than in the past because of thehigh requirements for informationtechnology. All closets of the same typeshould be located directly above eachother for efficiency.

AUDIOVISUAL ENGINEERINGFOR PRESENTATION ROOMSPresentation rooms (includingclassrooms) must be designed fordisplaying images and reproducing audioprogram material in a manner that can beaccurately perceived by the viewer. Thisrequires proper attention to the facility’sspace arrangement, acoustics, andlighting.

Projection Screens/Viewing AreasSpace planning for front projectioninvolves placement of an opaque,reflective surface so that projected imagescan be clearly seen by all viewers.Appropriate viewing-area designencompasses a number of interrelatedfactors, including screen size, placement,and material.

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Screen size is determined by the type of media being presented and by thedistance to the farthest viewer. If theimages are to include dense text, a ratioof 1:6 should be used. This means, forexample, that if the distance to thefarthest viewer is 48 ft, the screen shouldbe 8 ft tall for dense text such asspreadsheets or document displays.

Screen width is based on screen heightand is determined by the image format to be displayed. Normal television andcomputer images have a 4:3 image width-to-height ratio. For most rooms, aminimum screen dimension of 60 in.high x 80 in. wide should be specified.Distance to the nearest viewer is also a concern. With higher resolutioncomputer video display images, thenearest viewer should be no closer thantwo times the screen height.

The viewing-area width depends on theplacement of the screen and the type ofscreen material used. Projection screensshould typically be centered on the frontwall of the space. In general, matte whiteprojection screens should be used becausetheir characteristic even diffusiontypically offers the widest and mostconsistent viewing areas. Although theoptimum maximum off-axis angle isabout 30 degrees, the practical limitationis an angle of about 50 degrees off-axis.(Note that the viewing angle should bemeasured from an axis placed at the faredge of the screen.)

Depending on ceiling height, thenumber of rows of seats, and whether thefloor in the seating area is flat or tiered,the screen’s bottom edge should be 42 in.(tiered seating) to 48 in. (flat seating)above the floor. Screen size andplacement can also be limited by theceiling height. At least 6 in. of space

should be maintained between the ceilingand the top edge of the screen’s projectionarea. In a typical flat-floored classroomwith a 5 ft high screen, the ceiling heightwill have to be at least 9 ft. Most roomshave a 9–10 ft ceiling height, so a 5 fthigh screen should work well.

Another option to consider is a com-puter board. Computer boards areapproximately 3 ft high and 5 ft wide andcan be viewed in small- or medium-sizerooms. Larger rooms will require

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231

� Projection screen indeep room.

� Projection screen inwide room.

monitors to be added so that everyonecan easily view the presentation.Computer boards can be written on andnetworked to others.

Document cameras allow a presenter to display a three-dimensional object, aphotograph, a sheet of paper, or anysimple text document on a large screen,using a ceiling-mounted video/dataprojector. A document camera does notrequire as much space as an overheadprojector. Document cameras can bepermanently mounted in the ceiling, withcontrols located in the media panel nearthe front corner of the room. Calculate1.5 times the width of the screen toapproximate the distance between thescreen and the document camera.

For additional flexibility, one or twoscreens may be added on either side ofthe center screen. Some rooms will lendthemselves to an additional corner screenat a 45-degree angle.

Presentation Space AcousticsSpeech intelligibility can be degraded byexcessive reverberation (and/or echoes)and excessive background noise.Traditionally, classrooms have beenconstructed with minimal amounts ofacoustically absorptive materials, andacoustical deficiencies have been tolerated.In presentations where there is no livepresenter, the clarity of the program isdependent on the quality of the audiorecording, the audio playback system, andthe acoustics of the space.

Excessive reverberation is an especiallycommon acoustical deficiency.Reverberation can be controlled by usingacoustically absorbing materials such asmineral fiber or fiberglass ceiling tile,fiberglass wall panels, and carpet. Carpetcan also reduce noise caused by students

shifting in their seats. Note that the frontthird of the ceiling should be hard surfaced(e.g., gypsum board) to help reflect soundfrom the presenter to the listeners.

A related common acoustical deficiencyis flutter echo. This deficiency ischaracterized by a “hollowness” in thesound that is caused by its being reflectedmultiple times between parallel walls.Splayed wall panels can minimize theproblem created by flutter echo. Anotherrelated problem is “slap back,” an echocaused by sound being reflected off therear wall. The problem can be addressedby installing acoustically absorptivematerials, such as 1–2 in. thick fiberglasswall panels on the rear wall.

Wall construction with a soundtransmission class (STC) of 57 or bettershould be used to separate rooms equippedwith audio program playback systems.

Presentation Space LightingControl of ambient light is critical.Ambient light falling on a screen will bereflected back to the viewers, washing outprojected images. Because the area aroundthe projection screen must be able to bedarkened while maintaining necessarylighting levels at student and instructorpositions, careful control of room lightingand daylight entering through windows isessential.

Diffuse indirect lighting is desirable for general classroom use, but indirectlighting should not be used duringpresentations where front projection isrequired. A direct, controlled lightingcomponent must be provided for useduring these presentations. To minimizedirect light on the wall and ceilingsurfaces during presentations, directlighting in audience areas should providereasonable cutoff characteristics, with

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glare and lamp image cutoff angles of45–55 degrees. Illumination levels(footcandles) for general lighting shouldprovide 70 horizontal footcandles(maintained) at work surfaces. Lightingon the speaker should be tightlycontrolled and provide 75–100 verticalfootcandles from a front overhead angleof approximately 45 degrees.

Incandescent sources should be avoidedfor general lighting. However, accentlighting at the speaker’s station and othercritical locations requiring directionaland glare control may be incandescent.In general, such accent lighting shoulduse quartz and/or halogen (PAR) lampsfor good light control and extendedlamp life. Fluorescent lamps should havecolor-rendering indexes (CRI) of 70or better.

Lighting fixtures should be grouped inzones to allow various areas of the roomto be controlled separately. Accentlighting, step lighting, and lighting forother specific areas should also be inseparate zones. The lighting zones shouldenable the area around the projectionscreen to remain darkened (and therebyminimize stray light falling on theprojection screen) while illuminating apresenter at either side of the screen. Thezoning should also allow sufficient lightto remain on over seating areas so notescan be taken. Zoning is appropriate forlecture halls and classrooms with front-screen video projection. Lighting fixturelocations will have to be coordinated withceiling-mounted video projectorplacement and monitors.

BudgetingAccurate budgeting for presentationsystems has long been problematic. Notonly are historical cost data for

audiovisual technologies limited, but thetechnologies are advancing at such a pacethat such historical data as do exist arepotentially misleading.

The available data, however, indicatethat adding instructional presentationsystems can increase the overall cost of anew building project by 8–15 percent.This cost impact results from the installedcost of the cable plant, equipment and itsinstallation, and design. Provisions forspecialized lighting and acousticaltreatments must also be considered. Thecomputer furniture discussed in chapter 1will also add cost to the furniture budget.

In addition to the costs associated withthe design and installation ofinstructional presentation systems, thereis a potentially significant administrativeburden. Technical staff to assist in thesetup and operation of the systems will be required. Furthermore, presentationsystems require routine maintenance and,over time, may have to be upgraded.

PLUMBING SYSTEMS

Floor Drains, Roof Drains, and SprinklersRoof and floor drains can be tricky tocoordinate. Usually it is good practice tominimize the number of drains in a lab,which provides fewer opportunities forleaks in the rooms below. Ideally, thehorizontal piping from a drain should go directly to the outside wall or to aninterior chase via a “wet” column, thendown the building to the building-widedrain system. When the drains areadjacent to the columns, care must be taken to coordinate the drain andhorizontal piping with the beams andinterior walls. The vents should behandled in the same manner as the drains

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and should be tied into a wall or “wet”column. Some labs require dedicateddrains for radioactive materials andcertain chemicals that must be handledwith special tanks and dilution systems.The plumbing risers should be located ona modular basis to address future needsand lab renovations. The slope of thepiping will have to be coordinated tomake sure the length of the pipe is nottoo great and that there is enough spaceto accommodate the slope withoutconflicting with the ductwork, otherpiping, or wiring.

Roof drains are sometimes forgottenuntil the end of design. A roof drain caneasily be 6 in. in diameter, which will notfit in most interior walls (usually less than4 in. clear). Roof drains are oftencoordinated with the fume hood orplumbing risers in a common chaselocated either along the corridor or on the outside wall at most structural bays.Again, the vertical risers for the roofdrains should be organized according tothe lab module at the beginning of theproject. The wet piping for the drains,sprinklers, and the process piping isusually located below the ductwork andabove the electrical systems.

Sprinklers require a modest pitch. Ifthere is a ceiling, the sprinkler heads willhave to go under the ceiling. If there is noceiling, the sprinkler heads will have to beat the underside of the structure to coverthe entire volume of the space below.

Laboratory Piping SystemsProcess piping is usually installed on rackshorizontally or vertically. If the racks arehorizontal, there is usually less conflictwith the other engineering systems. Thelocation of the shutoff valves for theprocess piping is important. Maintenance

staff and researchers need direct access incase of an emergency or to make easymodifications to the lab. Options includethe following:

• Shutoff valve boxes in the lab or at thelab entry alcove

• Above the door at the entry alcove

• Where the piping comes into thebench

• Behind the casework at the rack

There are several key design goals tostrive for in designing laboratory pipingsystems:

• Provide a flexible design that allowsfor easy renovation and modifications.

• Provide appropriate plumbing systemsfor each laboratory based on the labprogramming.

• Provide systems that minimize energy usage.

• Provide equipment arrangements that minimize downtime in the eventof a failure.

• Locate shutoff valves where they areaccessible and easily understood.

• Accomplish all of the preceding goalswithin the construction budget.

Laboratory Waste and VentsThere are a variety of pipe materials toconsider for laboratory waste and vents:

• Flame-retardant polypropylene is a verystable material with high corrosiveresistivity. Installation cost is relativelylow. Hangers are necessary every 5 fton center. This material has lowtolerance to high temperatures.

• Borosilicate glass is also a very stablematerial with high corrosive resistivity.Borosilicate does have high tolerance

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to temperature and can be finished inplenum spaces. Disadvantages includehigh installation costs, high materialcosts, and construction with amechanical joint (which is less reliablethan a polypropylene fusion joint).

• Duriron is most commonly usedbelow ground. It has a high toleranceto temperature, but installation costsare extremely high. Duriron also hascorrosive reactions with ketones andstrong bases.

There are various means of dispensingof laboratory liquid waste. Neutralizationof waste disposal can occur in fourdifferent ways:

• Passive neutralization with nomonitoring

• Passive neutralization withmonitoring

• Active neutralization with monitoring

• Passive and active neutralization withmonitoring

Hot WaterWater-system options for hot-watermaintenance include heat tracing,recirculation, and the use of local waterheaters. The advantages of local waterheaters include the reduction of pipingand lower first costs. The disadvantagesare the large electrical draw required forthe local water heaters and the cost ofmaintenance. Local water heaters domake sense for domestic water and forsome lab water requirements.

VacuumLocal vacuum systems can be employedwhere the need for vacuum is limited andrelatively distributed through the facility.Central systems should be employed infacilities where the need for vacuum is

great or vacuum is required at alllaboratories. Three notes of caution are inorder:

1. Make sure that central vacuumsystems are not used for housekeepingpurposes; they should be used forscientific purposes only.

2. The vacuum system’s effluent can besubject to environmental regulations.If this is the case, a central systemgenerally is most appropriate,enabling treatment to be performedat a single point.

3. If an especially deep vacuum isrequired, a local system should be considered. Equipment anddistribution costs can risegeometrically for central systems with deep vacuum requirements.

The decision to centralize a vacuumsystem often rests on operational issues.Vacuum pumps consume space, generatenoise and effluent, and are somewhatmaintenance-intensive. As a result,systems are often centralized.

Piped GasesThere are several options for locating thepiped gases needed to service a laboratory.The central location within the buildingcan serve large areas, but the amount ofusage must be justified financially. Localclosets can serve multiple labs; theyusually need to be fire rated for codecompliance and may require an auto-switchover, and the contractor will haveto install the piping. Locating the pipedgases in the lab near the door is anotherapproach. The piping can serve multiplebenches. This option requires thecontractor to install the piping but maynot require an auto-switchover. Locatingpiped gases in the lab at a bench will take

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more program space, but this option isvery flexible and it will not require thecontractor to install the piping. Localgeneration of the gases with cylinderseliminates the need for contractors andprovides a flexible system.

Typically, gases are supplied eitherthrough central systems or via gascylinders stored in or near thelaboratories. If cylinders are used, theyshould be restrained—that is, anchoredto a wall, a wall rack, or a bench. Inaddition, some provision must be madefor storing incoming cylinders and wastecylinders at the receiving dock. Storagemust also be provided for cylindersdelivered to the labs or to the lab floor.

Numerous code requirements, such asthose issued by the National Fire ProtectionAssociation (NFPA) and the OccupationalSafety and Health Administration(OSHA), govern gas systems. Thesegoverning codes should be identified foreach gas system early in the design process.

Compressed airCompressed air is another importantrequirement for many laboratories.Pressure regulation can be at thecompressor, by the floor, or by the lab. Compressed gases are similar tocompressed air.

Storage of gases and cryogenic liquidsOxygenOxygen can be provided by an outsidevendor, with a bulk storage tank that islocated on the site. Cylinders can also be used in or near the labs.

NitrogenNitrogen can be supplied in a bulk liquid nitrogen storage tank by an outside vendor, or in cylinders located

in or near the labs.

Natural gasNatural gas can be provided by an on-sitegas utility or from a bulk propane gasstorage tank located on-site.

HydrogenHydrogen is provided by an outsidevendor, usually in bulk storage located onsite. A second option is manifoldedcylinders, also provided by an outsidevendor.

Cryogenic liquidsCryogenic liquids (nitrogen, argon, andcarbon dioxide) can be stored in bulktanks or liquid dewars.

Laboratory Water SuppliesFour types of water are typically suppliedto laboratories:

• Chilled water provides cooling forspecial equipment (such as an electronmicroscope). A chilled water system istypically constructed as a part of thecentral building system.

• Potable water is provided forlaboratory work areas and rest rooms.

• Domestic water is used at drinkingfountains, emergency showers,eyewashes, break rooms, and janitor’sclosets.

• High-purity water is required for manyresearch processes. High-purity watersystems are dealt with below.

High-purity water systemsHigh-purity water is classified into threetypes: Type I, Type II, and Type III.

Type I waterType I water is used in numerous critical

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laboratory applications. Inorganic analysisapplications include inductively coupledplasma spectrometry (ICP), ionchromatography (IC), atomic absorptionspectro-photometry (AA), andelectrophoretic procedures (EP). Organicanalysis applications include liquidchromatography (LC), high performanceliquid chromatography (HPLC; higherrestrictions, such as “organic free,” maybe imposed), gas chromatography (GC),and mass spectroscopy (MS).

Type I water is also used for biologicalapplications, fermentation systems, invitro/in vivo fertilization, generalmicrobiology, recombinant DNA, tissueculture, and immunological applications.

Type II waterType II water is purified water that meetsthe requirements of most routine clinicallaboratory methods in chemistry,immunology, hematology, and so on. It is the type of water used in reagentpreparation and glassware rinsing.

Type III waterType III water is general laboratory-gradewater. This class of purified water is usedfor qualitative procedures, glasswarewashing, and preliminary rinsing. Finalrinsing water should match waterintended for glass-washer use.

These are the basic methods used forwater purification:

• Reverse osmosis, producing RO water

• Distillation, producing distilled water

• Deionization, producing deionizedwater

• Deionization combined with reverseosmosis

A combination of these methods andadditional purification processes are

necessary to meet levels required by TypeI water.

The first of these processes, known asRODI (reverse osmosis deionization), isused most often. Its advantages are lowinstallation cost and maintainability. Its disadvantages are that it wastes asignificant amount of water(approximately half the total) and thatthe water comes in direct contact with a membrane. The equipment used fordistillation can result in water with higherpurity and is used in regulatedapplications, such as water for injectionfor pharmaceutical facilities. However,this process is maintenance-intensive.

Case studyA key issue in designing most laboratoryfacilities is to decide whether the water-purification system should be a centralsystem, with water piped throughout thebuilding, or a local point-of-use system atthe sink. What follows is a summary of a study recently conducted for a newteaching laboratory of approximately110,000 gross sq ft (GSF). The centraland point-of-use approaches are bothevaluated.

The building occupants require purewater at a CAP Type II standard ofquality. This grade of pure watermaintains 1,000 colonies of bacteria perml of water maximum, and the electricalresistance of the water may not dropbelow 2 Megohms at the outlet. In theevent that an end user requires higher-quality water, a secondary form ofpolishing will be provided.

The present number of desired pure-water outlets within the building is 80.The biology and chemistry programsaccount for all these outlets. The teachinglabs require more than one outlet to serve

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students. The total number of labs servedby pure-water is approximately 38.

There are two ways in which the collegemay approach the pure-water provisions.

The first is as defined in the conceptualprogram, which calls for point-of-usepolishing. Within each lab, a point-of-use polisher (POP) is installed to feedone or more outlets. The polisher isconnected to the laboratory cold-watersystem. If the polisher feeds more thanone outlet, multiple outlets can beprovided at the station. Point-of-usepolishers are connected in series whenmore stringent water quality is required.POPs typically have a low first cost ofinstallation, but when multiple units areinstalled serving the same purpose, annualmaintenance costs become high.

The second approach is to make useof a centrally piped system. The central

system groups the polishing equipment in one location and pumps the polishedwater out to multiple outlets throughoutthe building. To achieve consistent waterquality throughout the system, waterfrom outlets is continually returned to thecentral apparatus. When multiple outlets

are required within the building, thisapproach becomes attractive due to lowerannual maintenance costs. First costs of a central system are usually higher thanthose of a point-of-use system.

To evaluate the cost-benefit ratio of usingpoint-of-use polishing versus a centrallypiped system, two schemes with differentnumbers of intended outlets weredeveloped to understand their costimplications to the building. The firstdesign scheme assumes the desired 80outlets installed in the building. It isevaluated as both a centrally piped systemand a point-of-use system. The secondscheme takes liberty in the number ofactual required outlets. It assumes that thetotal number of polishing stations is 38—one per lab on average, with more in theteaching labs and none where not required.

The table above illustrates both pure-water approaches. Dollar amounts listedare for the analysis only and shouldnot be used for budgeting. All costsassociated with the pure-water equipment,either central station or point-of-use,have been confirmed with a local pure-water systems vendor.

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POINT-OF-USE (POU) VERSUS CENTRAL HIGH-PURITY WATER SYSTEM

Number of Outlets 38 80

Approach:

Central System

First Cost $165,000 $200,000

Annual Maintenance $5,100 / yr $6,000 / yr

Point Of Use

First Cost $56,900 $100,000

Annual Maintenance $17,000 / yr $24,000 / yr

Simple Payback:

Central over POU 9 yrs 5.1 yrs

The table assumes that the point-of-usepolishers are leased and maintained by apure-water vendor for the college. Thelease is a one-time first cost. The first cost associated with the polishers is not a purchase cost of the equipment; it represents installation cost only. Costsdeveloped assume some contractormarkup as well as contractor supplieditems such as distribution piping for thecentral system and hoop-up for eachpolisher.

It is clear from the table that the fewerthe outlets, the more attractive the point-of-use polishing system becomes.Consideration to the number of pure-water outlets the college actually needsmust be applied. The point-of-usepolishing approach involves a lower firstcost with no reduction in the quality ofthe water. Additionally, if a point-of-usesystem is chosen, the expense of thesystem can be deferred incrementally bythe number of units not needed directlyafter construction. As a station becomesneeded, the college can then lease theunit. The entire first-cost burden of thecentral system is incurred at the time ofconstruction.

This type of analysis should occur oneach project. When there is a significantneed for high-purity water and outlets,then a central system may be the morecost-effective approach, based on bothinitial and operating costs.

Other Plumbing ConsiderationsOther plumbing-related designconsiderations include the following:

• Provide spare plugged tees in waterand gas lines.

• Specify handles instead of knobs ongas stopcocks.

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� Plumbing fixturelocation options. Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

� Plumbing fixturelocation options. Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

� Plumbing fixturelocation options. Courtesy Fisher Hamilton.

• All fixtures should be color-coded toclarify service.

• To prevent contaminating the watersystem, include vacuum breakers onall water fixtures that allow theattachment of a hose.

• Provide an electrical outlet neardeionized water systems so thatpurity-level warning lights can beutilized.

• Provide a master control valve for gas.

COMMISSIONINGCommissioning is the process ofdocumenting that all building systemsand critical components are properlyinstalled and placed in service andverifying that they operate according tothe design. Commissioning is necessaryfor user acceptance, to minimize risk, andfor due diligence. The purpose ofcommissioning is to minimize the risk ofcritical component failure or malfunctionand to bring the facility to a fullyoperational status in an orderly andexpedient manner. Also, commissioningcan ensure that the facility design andconstruction respond to facility functionalrequirements.

The following lab facility systems andcomponents are typically commissioned:

• Fume hoods

• Control systems

• Waste treatment systems

• Standby power systems

• Safety devices (showers, eyewashes,etc.)

• Environmental rooms

• Life-safety and alarm systems

• High-purity water systems

• Fire suppression water systems

• HVAC equipment (air-handling units,boilers, chillers, pumps, and fans)

• HVAC distribution components andsystems (air valves and controldevices)

• Power distribution and circuitprotection

• Lighting controls with occupancysensors

The scope of commissioning should bedecided at the beginning of the project.Several tasks must be accomplished ineach of these phases to ensure thatcommissioning can be effectivelyperformed.

Commissioning ensures that each pieceof equipment and each control operatesproperly and in the right sequence withall the other components in the building.Commissioning puts the HVAC systemthrough detailed operational tests. Anindependent consultant or theengineering design team will verify thatall components are working as designedand meeting the manufacturers’specifications. The cost of commissioningis approximately 1–3 percent of the costof the mechanical system. Many ownersfind this outlay to be a good investment.Without commissioning, there may bemajor problems that go undetected for aperiod of time.

It is also important to equip facilityoperators with the necessary training tooperate the facility properly.

RENOVATION/RESTORATION/ADAPTIVE REUSEHistorically, more money has been spenteach year on renovating labs than onconstructing new laboratory space. In

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addition, more than half of the researchbeing conducted today is housed infacilities that are more than 20 years old.Many renovation projects are modest insize and are usually taken care of byarchitects and engineers from theinstitution itself. Larger renovationprojects usually involve outsideconsultants. The renovation of laboratoryfacilities is usually necessary for one ofthe following reasons:

• To accommodate growth in staff or torearrange the lab for more efficientwork space. A group of labs may alsohave to be modified to allow theresearch team to work moreefficiently.

• To improve and update the visualappearance of the lab and building to provide a higher-quality workenvironment.

• To meet new casework, equipment, orutility service requirements.

• To upgrade the utilities in the lab—increasing electrical power, addingdata ports, instituting energyconservation controls, or installingmore efficient exhaust systems.

• To address code requirements, such aslife-safety codes or the requirementsof the Americans with Disabilities Act(ADA).

• To upgrade the building to be moreenergy efficient. Lab buildings havealways been energy hogs, and if a labbuilding is 20–30 years old, much ofthe main equipment may have to bereplaced.

One of the most difficult aspects of arenovation project is the need to phasethe work without interrupting day-to-dayresearch operations. Phasing adds cost to

any renovation project. If possible, aswing space should be identified intowhich researchers can temporarily movewhile their labs are being renovated. It isbest to move the people no more thantwo times: once into a temporary spaceand then into their finished, renovatedlab.

Another difficult aspect of renovatingprojects is the unknown. Initialobservations or information may not becomplete. A contingency should bemaintained for unforeseen conditions.

The most difficult lab buildings torenovate are those that were not originallydesigned as labs. These structures must bethoroughly evaluated to see whether it is more affordable to renovate or toconstruct a new building, if that is anoption. The renovation cost shouldinclude an estimate of the cost of losttime and disruption to the research.Some research cannot be interrupted andcannot have any downtime.

Before a renovation is undertaken, thebuilding's structural system and theexisting mechanical systems, processpiping, and electrical system must all beevaluated.

Structural SystemThe structure of a building is the leastforgiving system and the most difficult tochange. If a building was originallyconstructed for a different use, there is agood chance that its structural system isnot really appropriate for laboratories andthat final lab design will be inefficient.Columns may not be in the bestlocations, producing a less efficient layoutof casework or location of doors into thelab. The structural system may not bedesigned to meet vibration requirements.This problem may be resolved by using

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241

isolation pads at the source, under theequipment, or by thickening thebasement concrete slab. If the basementslab can be upgraded, the sensitiveequipment may have to be located in the basement.

Other key issues include whether thefloor slab can sustain more penetrationsand whether there are areas where newvertical risers can be located. If there arefew areas available for penetrations, therenovation may not be possible or it mayrequire another, more complex solution,which may be more costly.

Mechanical SystemsA building’s mechanical systems may bequite difficult and expensive to upgrade.Do fume hoods need to be replaced? Isthe exhaust system working properly forthe lab? For the hoods? Does a heatrecovery system make sense? Do thebuilding systems have the capacity to runmore fume hoods? Can the hoods berelocated to other areas of the building?One frequently overlooked way toincrease the number of hoods withoutmaking major changes to the mechanicalsystems is the use of horizontal/vertical(HV) sash hoods.

If the existing lab has vertical sash hoodsas well as 100 percent outdoor airsystems, it may be possible to replace theroom exhaust air registers with HV-sashhoods. If the lab has vertical sash hoods,it may be possible to increase the hoodcount by replacing the existing hoodswith HV-sash hoods. In some cases, itmay be possible to reduce costs further by retrofitting existing hoods with HVsashes.

The amount of outside air and thenumber of air changes required will haveto be studied. In many older buildings,

the air is recirculated, which isunacceptable in many wet labs today. Theair handlers will have to be evaluated tosee whether they can move the correctamount of air through the building.

Process PipingThe location, amount, and type ofprocess piping must be evaluated. If thevacuum, deionized water, air, and othergases are on a central piping systemthroughout the building, these systemsmay have to be repaired or replaced. Thelocation of the shutoff valves must bedetermined, as well as the extent of thearea covered by those shutoff valves. Forexample, if a shutoff valve is located onevery floor, then the entire floor will haveto be shut down during renovation,which obviously can be a problem. Ifthere are shutoff valves for each lab, itshould be easier to phase the renovation.

Electrical SystemElectrical power to the building or the labmay have to be increased. Additionalbreakers may be required toaccommodate the more equipment-intensive labs of today. Many olderbuildings may have panel boxes in acentral location. Usually it is moreappropriate to have one panel box for oneor two main labs (approximately 1,200NSF). Light fixtures and the lightingdesign should be reevaluated. Lightfixtures are usually easy to replace, and ashort-term payback on investment can berealized with today’s more energy-efficientfixtures.

FACILITY MANAGEMENT ISSUESThe design team must understand thecapability of the owner’s operating andmaintenance staff and how operating and

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maintenance expenses are budgeted.Generally, laboratories operated by publicinstitutions are not able to provide thesame level of operating and maintenancesupport as private companies. Inaddition, energy costs are often funded bya separate, campus-wide budget; if so, thebenefits of system enhancements—forexample, reduced energy use—may beoffset by increased operation andmaintenance challenges. Therefore, thereis a valid rationale for utilizing simple,straightforward systems in public facilitiesand reserving those with greater levels oftechnical complexity and challenge forprivate companies that have theorganization in place to manage them.

In the 21st century, cost savings will be a main focus for facility managers.Facility managers will need to transform functional facilities intobuildings that are consistently improvingin performance and production, and they will be expected to developpreventive and predictive maintenanceplans proactively to minimize the number of emergency repairs and reactive maintenance requirements. The facility manager will need to be able to extend the life cycle of equipmentand to forecast equipment needs at least two to three years ahead, to allowprojected costs to be incorporated incapital budgets.

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Laboratory buildings cost more than most other types of buildings, for severalreasons:

• They require specialized rooms,specialized equipment, and casework.

• Lab buildings are usually constructedwith a certain level of flexibility toaccommodate different types ofresearch in the future. The cost of thisbuilt-in flexibility may be from 5–15percent of the budget. Measures toenhance flexibility may includemechanical systems designed toaccommodate additional fume hoodsor the relocation of hoods, redundancyin air handlers, and change in airpressure (5–15 percent of the budget);greater floor-to-floor height forallowances to maintain the engineeringsystems (0.25–1 percent); additionalelectrical power for future needs (2–5percent); and mobile casework (2–5percent).

• Labs are “energy hogs,” requiringspecial mechanical equipment and agreat amount of electrical power.

• The structural system must bedesigned for heavy loads and vibrationcontrol.

• There are usually several systems forpiped gases, vacuum, and deionizedwater.

• Backup generators are usually requiredfor fume hoods, environmental rooms,vivarium facilities, and other specialrooms and equipment.

• Safety features—such as eyewash andbody wash at sinks, safety showers atleast every 75 ft, and safety cabinets—are required.

• The building net-to-gross efficiency is usually low because of the amountof space necessary for mechanical,electrical, and plumbing equipment.

• Most labs require 100 percent outside air.

The following percentages represent thetypical portions of a laboratoryconstruction budget allotted to eachcomponent:

Mechanical/ 30–50 percentelectrical/plumbing or more

Casework 7–12 percent

Fixed equipment 5–10 percent or more

Structure 15–20 percent

General construction 20–25 percent

PROJECT COSTSThe goal is to design the highest-qualitybuilding within the budget. The designteam must work closely with the clientthroughout the planning and designprocess to balance quality expectationswith budget constraints. Initial macro-decisions (size of program, corridorarrangement, flexibility desired, cost ofland, initial cost versus long-termoperating cost) will have the greatestimpact on the construction budget. It isimperative that the decision makers haveinput early in the planning and designprocess and clearly understand thedesigner’s options before makingdecisions.

Construction CostsOn most projects, construction costsamount to 70–80 percent of the project

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COST GUIDELINES

245

cost. Construction costs include bricksand mortar, demolition, sitedevelopment, and utility services. Totalproject costs (see below) includeeverything necessary to build the facility.

There are a variety of ways to calculateconstruction cost, including cost per grosssq ft (GSF) and percentage of totalproject cost. An analysis of academicresearch buildings from The College andUniversity Science Facilities Reference Bookis shown in the table below. Approximately100 laboratory projects were included inthe analysis.

It is very difficult to compare theconstruction costs of laboratory buildings,for several reasons:

• The cost of labor varies depending onwhere the lab is located and whetherunion labor is required.

• If the construction market is especiallyhot when the price of the building isdecided, the price may be higher thanin a more competitive market.

• The quality of the finishes for thebuilding can make a significantdifference in the construction cost.

• The proportion of lab and nonlabspace varies from project to project.Lab space generally costs at least twiceas much as nonlab space.

• Site and infrastructure costs vary fromproject to project.

• If all engineering rooms are located inthe building (either in a basement orin a roof penthouse area), the buildingcost per sq ft will be less because theengineering rooms will cost less thanoffice and laboratory spaces.Unfortunately, the building area (GSFwill be more, making the constructioncost higher than if the engineeringequipment is in a central plant orlocated outside the building.

• Different types of lab differ in theirrequirements and cost. Wet labs costmore than most dry labs because ofthe cost of plumbing and fume hoodsand because of the greater number ofair changes required.

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� The impact of decisions.

Average Maximum Minimum

Construction cost ($) 36,567,800 116,000,000 14,000,000

Construction cost/sq ft ($) 204 302 110

NSF 108,800 260,000 43,650

GSF 182,600 384,000 68,600

Net/gross (efficiency, %) 0.6 0.9 0.52

* Based on 100 projects built by 1998.

COST ANALYSIS OF 100 LABORATORY PROJECTS

• Vivarium facilities and clean roomsrequire special finishes and engineeringservices, making these spaces moreexpensive than almost all other typesof laboratory-related spaces.

• The amount of corridor space in thebuilding has an impact on cost per sqft. More corridors increase the overallconstruction cost but reduce the costper sq ft because corridor space costsless than office and laboratory spaces.

A breakdown of construction costpercentages, based on three recentlycompleted laboratory buildings inGeorgia, is shown at right. In 1998dollars, costs ranged from $128.26 to$175.60 per GSF.

A breakdown of construction costpercentages based on recent laboratorybuildings at four of the country's topmedical schools is shown at bottom right.In 1998 dollars, costs ranged from$146.00/GSF to $289.00/GSF. Thisshows that, even among buildings withsimilar programs, the cost per GSF canvary significantly.

Total Project CostsTotal project costs include constructioncosts, consultant fees (including architects’and engineers’ fees), furniture, equipment,and usually a 5 percent constructioncontingency. Project costs may alsoinclude the following:

• Custom furniture and equipment

• Unusual site conditions (e.g.,wetlands) and special construction(retaining walls, structuralrequirements) that unusual siteconditions may require

• Landscaping

• Relocating equipment and furniture

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COST COMPARISON OF LABORATORY FACILITIES FOR MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS

Cost/GSF($) Percent of TotalGeneral conditions 12–18 5–8

Foundation/substructure 12–14 34–0

Superstructure 17–30 8–12

Roofing 1–3 1–2

Exterior enclosure 20–30 12–21

Interior enclosure 14–31 10–11

Lab equipment 11–24 7–1

Vertical circulation 2–5 1–4

Mechanical/plumbing 31–100 21–257

Fire protection 2–4 1–2

Electrical 17–33 0–12

Site Varies 1–0

Average 227

COST COMPARISON OF THREE LAB FACILITIES IN GEORGIA

Cost/GSF ($) Percent of Total

General conditions 14–20 10–12

Foundation/substructure 5–7 3–5

Superstructure 17–19 10–14

Roofing 2–2 0.02

Exterior enclosure 12–15 7–11

Interior enclosure 14–18 10–14

Lab equipment 5–10 4–11

Vertical circulation 1 0.01

Mechanical/plumbing 20–48 22–27

Fire protection 2 1–2

Electrical 10–15 7–0

Site 2–8 3–8

Communications/IT 3–4 2–3

Average 148

• Asbestos removal (on renovations)

• Surveys

• Soil borings

• Materials testing

• Commissioning

• Reimbursable expenses such as travel,courier services, reproduction, etc.

• Project management

Capital CostsCapital costs typically include the cost ofland, legal fees, moving expenses, andfinancing. Project costs are approximately80 percent and capital costs 20 percent of a total project budget. Other types ofcosts to consider are life-cycle costs,operating costs, and maintenance costs.

There are some hidden costs that mustalso be taken into account. Theresearchers and other professionalsemployed by the research institution willhave to be involved in the design andmove-in phases. This cost can add upquickly, but their involvement in thedesign process should have a long-termpayback in a more efficient laboratorybuilding. Move-in costs can be 5 percentor more of the construction cost:equipment must be moved andcommissioned; computer systems mayhave to be modified; and research timecan be lost.

AFFORDABILITY/VALUEENGINEERINGValue engineering reduces costs withoutcompromising quality.

The efficiency of the floor plan is animportant cost issue. The net-to-grossratio can indicate how efficient a labfacility is. Typically, laboratory space has anet-to-gross efficiency of 50–60 percent.The corridor arrangement has a moresignificant impact on efficiency than domost other program requirements. Asingle-loaded corridor is the most cost-efficient, and a three-corridor layout (withthe service corridor in the middle) is themost costly.

In addition to creating an efficient floorplan, value engineering seeks to minimizethe extent of the exterior facade and thelevel of detail on the facades, as well as

� Efficiency of differentcorridor designs.

COST GUIDELINES

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THREE CORRIDOR

TWO CORRIDOR

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the volume of the building. The largerthe massing of the building, the greaterthe construction costs will be. Laboratoryprogram space is more expensive thanoffice space because of the intensivemechanical, electrical, and plumbingrequirements as well as the structuralvibration criteria.

Lab versus Nonlab ZonesOne value engineering option is toseparate nonlab space from labs. Zoningthe building between lab and nonlabspaces will reduce costs. The appropriateutilities are provided for each zone, andthe building codes for two differentcategories of construction may be used.At least 25 percent of the area must benonlaboratory space to allow fordifferent mechanical systems. The labscan have 100 percent outside air, andthe nonlab spaces can be designed cost-effectively with recirculated air, like anoffice building.

The nonlab area may include researchand administrative offices, meeting rooms,rest rooms, main circulation areas(including stairs and elevators), breakrooms, classrooms, utility closets, cafeteria,auditorium, storage rooms, mail rooms,some teaching labs, and mechanical spaces.Assuming that 40 percent of a lab buildingis nonlaboratory space and 60 percent islaboratory space, separating lab andnonlab spaces can result in cost savings of as much as 15 percent.

Besides reducing costs, locating theoffices in a different zone from the labspermits windows in offices to beoperable—something that many peopledesire.

Other General Value EngineeringOptionsA number of other general valueengineering options should be discussedand evaluated in the initial programmingand design phases:

� Lab and nonlab zoningfor more affordableconstruction. College of Engineering, Phase 1,North Carolina StateUniversity, Raleigh. Perkins & Will, architect.

Affordability/Value Engineering

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Lab Zone

Nonlab Zone

• Try to design with standard buildingcomponents instead of customizedcomponents.

• Identify at least three manufacturersof each material or piece ofequipment specified to ensurecompetitive bidding for the work.

• Locate fume hoods on upper floors to minimize ductwork and the cost of moving air through thebuilding.

• Evaluate whether process pipingshould be handled centrally or locally.In many cases it is more cost-effective

to locate gases, in cylinders, at thesource in the lab instead of centrally.

• Create equipment zones to minimizethe amount of casework necessary inthe initial construction.

• Provide space for equipment (e.g., icemachine) that also can be shared withother labs in the entry alcove to thelab. Shared amenities can be moreefficient and cost-effective.

• Consider designating instrumentrooms as cross-corridors, saving spaceas well as encouraging researchers toshare equipment.

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COMPARABLE LAB PROJECTS

PROJECT MECHANICAL PENTHOUSE OR BASEMENTGSF NSF Efficiency (%) Type of Corridor Comments

Georgia BOR ProjectsWest Georgia TELC 114,470 65,560 57 double mech. basementGeorgia Tech. MRDC II 151,581 85,222 56 double penthouseNorth Georgia Nat. & Health Sci. 100,000 56,515 56 to be determined to be determinedGeorgia Tech. MARC 133,037 87,947 66 double/suite mechanical in atriumGeorgia Tech. MRDCI 116,923 69,219 59 singleGeorgia Tech. BioSciences doubleGeorgia Tech. Environmental Sc. 286,263 166,243 58 double penthouseOther Georgia ProjectsSpelman Science Center 115,876 64,988 56 doubleEmory Woodruff Building three

The SoutheastUniv. of Florida Brain Inst. doubleUniv. of Florida Vet. School singleMUSC Thurmond/Gazes Res. Bldg. 193,615 109,100 56 double penthouseUniv. NC Biological Res. Center 120,000 70,180 58 double penthouseWake Forest Human Nutrition 270,000 134,000 50 double penthouseDuke Neurobilogy Res. Bldg. 165,000 90,831 55 double penthouseFlorida A & M Eng. & Science double penthouseUniv. of Alabama Revill Bldg. 245,000 138,000 56 single penthouseUniv. of Florida Academic Res. double penthouseVanderbilt Wilson Hall doubleWake Forest Hanes Res. Center 141,000 86,496 61 single penthouse

Open labs, no corridor, 60–70% efficient; single-corridor plan, 57–62 efficient; two-corridor plan, 50–58% efficient;three-corridor plan, 45–50% efficient

• Design easy-to-maintain, energy-efficient building systems.

• Expose mechanical, plumbing, andelectrical systems for easymaintenance access from the lab.

• Locate all mechanical equipmentcentrally, either on a lower level of thebuilding or on the penthouse level.

• Stack vertical elements above oneanother without requiring transfersfrom floor to floor. Such elementsinclude columns, stairs, mechanicalclosets, and rest rooms.

Value Engineering Options by Construction DivisionThe following outline, arrangedaccording to the typical constructiondivisions, provides some ideas forreducing costs in the constructionbudget.

�� Shared deionized waterand ice machine on eachfloor. Stevenson CenterComplex ChemistryBuilding, VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee. PayetteAssociates, Inc., architect.

� Instrument rooms as cross-corridors. VanderbiltUniversity, Nashville,Tennessee.

� Exposed engineeringsystems in corridor.

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Division 1: General conditions

• The contractor may be able to suggestcost-reduction ideas here.

Division 2: Foundations/substructure• Minimize excavation and cut-and-fill.

• Minimize blasting of rock.

Division 3: Superstructure• Space columns efficiently.

• Use one row of columns along thecorridor instead of two.

Division 4: Roofing

• Specify less expensive materials for the penthouse.

Division 5: Exterior enclosure

• Evaluate the amount of glass on theexterior facade and interior walls.

• Evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a metalstud backup system rather than concreteblock for a brick exterior facade.

• Consider using screens aroundmechanical equipment at the roofinstead of enclosing the area andcreating a penthouse.

Division 6: Interior enclosure

• Minimize interior glazing at walls anddoors.

• Create two-story (instead of three-story or higher) atriums. This willeliminate the need for a smokeevacuation system.

• Use as many standard details aspossible.

Division 7: Lab equipment/casework

• Choose cabinets that are modular andrepetitive in design. The benefit ofselecting casework that is all on thesame module is similar to that ofbasing the building design on a labmodule: it creates a flexible lab wherethe casework can be changed easily.

� Design with modularcasework.

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Purchasing the same size caseworkwill also save money. Always try touse a manufacturer’s standard system,because this is the most cost-effectiveapproach. A 3 ft module, coordinatedwith a standard knee space, isrecommended.

• Purchase casework directly from thevendor, eliminating the contractormarkup (approximately 10 percent).Purchasing the casework separatelymay, however, create somecoordination problems duringconstruction if the general contractoris not responsible for overseeing theinstallation.

• Purchase casework when the actualneeds have been identified, reducingthe amount of casework included inthe initial construction budget.

• Specify movable casework. This willcost more initially but should savemoney over time.

• Identify storage space outside the lab,which may be more affordable thanstorage in the laboratory space itself.

• Buy in bulk and construct centralstock and storage rooms. Researcherscan purchase what they want on adaily basis and can be billed eachmonth.

• Provide continuous flooring first, then locate the casework.

• Specify casework with doors ratherthan drawers. Doors are more cost-effective, producing a savings ofapproximately 40 percent. Anotheroption is to design baskets behind thedoors when drawer space is necessary.Baskets may be placed on full-extension shelves to minimize theneed for drawers.

• Specify plastic laminate tops for drybenches. Wet benches require epoxyresin countertops, which cost slightlymore. (Black resin tops are the mostcost-effective. Other epoxy colors willincrease the cost by 5 percent ormore, depending on the color.)

• Use 3' 6" doors instead of 3' doorswith 1' (or larger) movable sleeves. A3'6" door is wide enough for mostequipment to pass through, and asingle door has half the hardware andcosts approximately 20 percent lessthan the two-door arrangement.

• Use adjustable shelving rather thanwall cases (which can be 83 percentmore cost-effective).

� Doors are more cost-effective than drawers.

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• Specify metal cabinets rather thanwood casework. The price will varydepending on demand, but metalcabinets are usually slightly cheaper.

• Note that the costs of wood finishesvary: maple is least costly; red oak ismore costly (as much as 35 percentmore); and white oak is the mostexpensive (as much as 70 percentmore than maple).

Division 8: Vertical circulation

• Use the freight elevator as a passengerelevator as well.

• Build an architectural stair next to thepassenger elevator instead of buildingtwo passenger elevators.

Division 9: Mechanical/plumbing

• Keep the wet services along theoutside wall. Center islands are morecost-effective as dry areas forinstruments and for highconcentration of electrical services.

• Determine the number of labs thatwill need 100 percent outside air.Most dry labs should not need 100percent outside air.

• Evaluate the possibility of using aheat-recovery chiller, a buildingmanagement system, and electronicballasts to conserve energy.

• Use large, manifold exhaust fans insteadof small, individual exhaust fans.

• Locate the mechanical shafts so as toeliminate lengthy horizontal duct andpiping runs.

• Review the need for ducted versusnonducted returns.

• Evaluate the number of systemredundancies needed.

• Reduce the number of zones thatrequire thermostats.

• Allow nonwelded fittings for chilledwater and hot-water piping.

• Consider welded versus nonweldedductwork.

• Reduce the number of control pointsfor process piping.

• Eliminate branch piping valves, andprovide the valves in the corridor only.

• Provide a duct leak test only forwelded ducts in labs.

• Require competitive bidding (threebids or more) for the controls system.

• Utilize spot welding of continuousweld, and use an approved duct sealant.

• Provide PVC instead of cast-ironpiping in the building and forunderground services.

Division 10: Fire protection

• (No cost-reduction suggestions.)

Division 11: Electrical system

• Determine the type and number oflight fixtures. Minimize the types oflight fixture in the building tosimplify long-term operations andmaintenance.

• If possible, use electric outlet boxes,which are more affordable thanraceways.

• Wire light fixtures continuouslyinstead of individually.

• Review the amount of emergencypower and the number ofuninterruptible power sources needed.

• Locate the transformer outside thebuilding envelope.

• Substitute rated cable for conduit for the fire-alarm wiring.

• Consolidate panel boards at labs.

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Division 12: Site

• Obtain a soils report early.

• Balance the amount of cut and fillrequired to eliminate the need tomove soil from the site or to bringsoil onto the site.

• Reduce the amount of rock excavation.

Division 13: Special construction(communications/IT)

• Install conduit in the initialconstruction. Run the wires where theyare needed, when they are needed.

PROJECT DELIVERY OPTIONSHow a project is bid and constructed—the project delivery method—caninfluence cost. The following paragraphsdiscuss the main options:

Conventional BidsThe conventional bid process(design/bid/build), which allows allcontractors a fair chance to bid and to beawarded a project, is common in manystate and federal projects. Some projects,like laboratory facilities, may require thecontractors to prequalify. This means thateach contracting firm that wishes to bidmust first submit information about itsexperience, as well as a list of the peopleproposed to work on the project. Thearchitect reviews the information. If thereis a strong enough reason not to allow acontractor to bid, then the architect mustpresent the findings and allow the clientto make the final decision.

The architects and engineers preparedrawings that contractors review beforesubmitting their bids to do the work. Thequalified contractor with the lowest bid isawarded the project. Because the lowest bidwins the award, contractors will estimatewhat is clearly documented, then submit

for additional fees for what is notdocumented. Most architects andcontractors consider the conventional bidprocess to be the least desirable optionbecause of the high number of changeorders that usually result. The change-orderprocess is costly for everyone on the team,and it creates division as people debatewhat is a change order and what is not.

Construction ManagementIn the construction-management option,an outside firm serves as the generalcontractor or the owner's managementconsultant, or both. A constructionmanager (CM) manages the overallschedule and budget. There are two typesof construction managers: those “at risk”and those "not at risk.” The “CM not atrisk” management process can be used forany project delivery method, includingdesign/bid/build, multiple prime,design/build, or even CM at risk. (In thislast option, the CM starts out not at risk;then the client asks the CM to commit toa price rather than having others bid forthe project.) The “CM at risk” provides aguaranteed maximum price (GMP), isresponsible for the successful performanceof each trade, and guarantees theschedule for completing the project. TheCM may be both responsible for projectmanagement and at risk for the financialperformance of the project delivery.

Negotiated BidsNegotiated bids allow the owner todiscuss, review, and evaluate the projectwith a contractor after bids are received.Usually, add alternates or deduct alternatesare estimated. The owner can negotiatewith the contractor he or she is most com-fortable working with and is not neces-sarily obligated to accept the lowest bid.

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Design-BuildThe design-build procedure is usually ledby a contractor, who typically provides aGMP at the end of design development.There is currently a trend towardarchitect-led design-build teams. Thedesign-build process is often preferred by private-sector companies for thefollowing reasons:

• The schedule is accelerated.

• The owner wants to avoid theproblems associated with the bidprocess.

• The owner wants to finalize the costearly in the process.

• The owner is comfortable with aparticular contractor.

• Coordination of drawings can reducechange-order costs.

• The owner seeks sole-sourceresponsibility.

TRENDS IN PROJECT FINANCINGProjects can be funded through publicagencies, the private sector, donors, or anycombination of these. There is an increasein partnering between academia and theprivate sector, with private-sectorcompanies paying for some research spacesand sometimes funding equipmentpurchases. Baby boomers are beginning todonate to their alma maters (includingmedical schools and other researchinstitutions), and some state legislaturesare encouraging public universities to seekdonors more aggressively by pledging tomatch their contributions. (This can speedup the state appropriations process andgive institutions another avenue to raisefunds to meet their construction needs.)Some institutions are trying to pay forsome of their construction and operation

costs with research grant money. It isdifficult to fund an entire building withthese resources, but it may be possible tofund a portion of the construction.

SUMMARY OF COST ISSUESThe value and cost-effectiveness of everybuilding component must be challengedand weighed. This evaluation must includelong-term operating costs as well as firstcosts. The following factors will play a rolein determining value far into the future:

• Speed to market and cost reductionwill continue to be pushed, to satisfyshareholders.

• Facilities must adapt faster and at alower cost.

• Real scrutiny of time and researchdollars will determine someassignments of actual research space.

• A company can now buy science.There is a proliferation of small labsserving large companies.

• The downsizing of companies anddepartments continues. The size of in-house engineering departments isgoing way down—services areoutsourced.

• Corporations are taking a harder lookat the entrepreneurial sectors of theircompanies. They recognize that thesesectors have to be lean, fast, flexible,and very innovative.

• Universities are getting into researchand development (R&D) projects.

• The requirement to balanceinstitutional budgets may affectresearch funding, driving buildings to higher populations and lowerconstruction and operating costs.

• R&D is considered the new wave of economic development.

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The U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA) and the U.S. Departmentof Energy (DOE) have launched a new,voluntary initiative to improve theenvironmental performance of U.S.laboratories. The Laboratories for the 21stCentury (Labs21) initiative is focusing onimproving the energy efficiency of thenational’s laboratories. As laboratoryenergy efficiency improves, Labs21 willfocus on even more aggressive pollutionprevention goals and strategies unique toeach type of laboratory.

The primary guiding principle of theLabs21 energy and water focus is thatimproving the energy efficiency andenvironmental performance of alaboratory requires examining the entirefacility from a holistic, or comprehensive,perspective. Adopting this perspectiveallows laboratory designers, operators, andowners to improve the efficiency of theentire facility rather than improving theefficiency of specific laboratory buildingcomponents. As Labs21 practitionersunderstand, improving the efficiency ofindividual components without examiningtheir relation to the entire system caneliminate opportunities to make othermore significant efficiency improvements.

As currently envisioned, Labs21 willfocus on the following five activities:

• Creating a national database of currentenvironmental practices, includingenergy and water consumption datafor a variety of laboratory types. Thedata can be used to comparelaboratory performance.

• Negotiating voluntary goals forlaboratory environmentalperformance, including energy andwater efficiency goals, with eachpotential Labs21 participant.

• Providing training or otheropportunities to exchange technicalinformation.

• Establishing partnerships withinterested Labs21 participants.

• Promoting the Labs21 initiative.

Other benefits of the Labs 21 approachinclude lower laboratory utility andoperating costs, reduced health and safetyrisks, improved facility management,reduced greenhouse gas emissions,elimination of waste and otherinefficiencies, improved communityrelations and lower insurance premiums.

Case Study 1: National Vehicleand Fuel Emissions LaboratoryThe Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) has adopted the Labs21 perspectivefor its facilities and is anticipating somesignificant cost savings and environmentalbenefits as a result. For example, EPA’s150,000 sq ft National Vehicle and FuelEmissions Laboratory in Ann Arbor,Michigan, has required 2.5 MW ofelectricity, consumed energy at a rateexceeding 700,000 Btu per GSF, andconsumed 31 million gal of waterannually at a cost to the taxpayers of morethan $1 million a year. EPA isimplementing mechanical modificationsat the facility that are estimated to reduceannual electrical demand by 68 percent,

APPENDIX

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257

reduce energy use per GSF by 66 percent,reduce annual water consumption by 80percent, reduce the annual utility bill by74 percent (for a savings of more than$800,000 per year), and provide a simplepayback on the contractor’s capitalexpenditure of less than ten years.

Based on the expected successes of thisproject, EPA is retrofitting several otherlaboratories with very different userprofiles, energy costs, and meteorologicalconditions and is predicting comparablesavings.

Case Study 2: North CarolinaState University College ofEngineering Chemical andMaterials Science EngineeringBuildingThe building is 155,000 GSF, with 40percent of the building for wet labs andthe remaining 60 percent for classrooms,dry labs, and offices. The project was inthe middle of design development whenthe experts met with the architects andengineers to discuss design options toimprove the quality of the building,maintain the initial construction budget,and reduce the long term operationalcosts. The following is a list of designdecisions that have been made to providethe university with a laboratory facilitythat focuses on sustainable design:

• Change to a task/ambient lightingsystem in offices and faculty lounges,reducing lighting levels from 70 foot-candles direct to 30 foot-candlesambient lighting, with appropriatetask lighting. The associated heat loadcan be reduced from 2 W/sq ft to0.75 W/sq ft (approximately 30 foot-candles, resulting in a reduced needfor cooling).

• Light fixtures parallel to the outsidewall will allow for each row of lightsto be controlled by the sensors moreefficiently. Natural light should go toa depth of two to three times ceilingheight into the labs. The light fixturesin this area should not need to go onduring the day.

• Provide a photo sensor that willautomatically turn off the fixture if itsenses that there is enough light in thespace. This will be used in all non-wetlab spaces and 10 ft along the outsidewall of the wet labs.

• Occupancy sensor for all spaces exceptthe exit light requirements.

• Offices along the exterior walls shouldhave dimmable ballasts or a three-position switch (off, 1 lamp on, 2lamps on).

• Exterior and interior light shelves canhelp bounce the light 30–45 ft intothe space. The shelves are generallymore cost effective if integrated intothe design of the window wall.

• Specify a simple fixture to justify thecosts because pendants generally willcost more than the lay-in type evenwhen taking into account the energycost savings.

• Specify different glass for each façadebased on the solar impact. Alsoconsider different glazing for windowsthat are used to see out versus theclerestory windows that allow lightinto the space.

• To reduce leakage of air, avoid buttjoints in exterior wall construction.Do not count on caulk to seal thejoint. Detailing of windows isimportant to minimize butt jointsand reduce air leakage.

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• Consider using natural convection toexhaust air in the atrium; this mayeliminate the need for a separate airhandler.

• Study the possibility of fiberglasswindows. They are less expensive thanaluminum and reduce energy cost.

• Use light color roof with a reflectivecoating to reduce heat gain and energycosts. This is a big energy saver.

• Propose 3 in. for wall insulationinstead of 2 in.

• Roof insulation at R-19 is probablysufficient. The building generates asignificant amount of heat because ofthe amount of equipment, whichmeans it is better for the heat to gothrough the roof. More insulation inthe roof can actually hurt, raising thecost of cooling the building. This willneed to be verified by energycalculations.

• Eliminate microbial growth in HVACsystem. Always try to eliminate anydrip pans and areas where water cancollect. The biggest problem is usuallyat the cooling coils, which are wet allthe time. Ultraviolet lights can beused to kill the microbial growth, but

the lights are expensive and difficultto maintain.

• Combination sashes are not necessaryfor fume hoods because heat buildupfrom the equipment (not the numberof fume hoods) drives the number ofair changes through the labs.

• Construct the skylight with clerestorywindows that allow indirect light intothe building.

Case Study 3: University ofMinnesota Molecular and CellularBiology Building This is a 243,000 GSF building locatedon the University of Minnesota's EastBank campus. The energy cost wasestimated at $1,406,353 per year atcode level. For the facility, NorthernStates Power Company developeda DOE-2 model (a sophisticatedenergy performance simulation program).The following is a list of issues thatresulted from the study, in which thedesign team was involved:

• Heat recovery saves the most dollarsbecause of the large amount of heatrequired and the relatively high costof University of Minnesota steam; it

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Design Issue Annual Energy Savings ($) Peak kW Savings

Heat recovery 309,933 8.0Lab VAV 140,662 108.4Chiller/motors 46,348 403.4Variable speed drives 39,843 218.4Decreased fan static 28,812 176.5Glass selection 12,744 26.0Daylight dimming 10,241 131.1Occupancy control VAV 8,273 13.8Lighting controls 6,176 64.6Lighting design 5,990 66.9Daylight step 4,235 51.5

SUMMARY OF THE DOE-2 ANALYSIS

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saves relatively few kW however (8.0peak savings), as most of the savingsare in heating energy ($309,933annual energy savings).

• Improving the chiller efficiency savesthe most kW (403.4), as well as arelatively large amount of energydollars ($46,348).

• Variable speed drives, decreased fanstatic, daylighting, and lab variable air

volume also show strong kW savingspotential (218.4) but relatively lessdollar savings ($39,843).

The DOE-2 study is very helpfulin identifying the best investmentpaybacks. The study has identified thepossibility of reducing annual energycosts by $613,257 (a 44 percentreduction from the estimated$1,406,353 per year).

PRINTAmerican Institute of Architects, Center for Advanced Technology Facilities Design. 1999.

Guidelines for Planning and Design of Biomedical Research Laboratory Facilities.Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Architects.

Arthur, Paul, and Romedi Passini. 1984. Wayfinding: People, Signs, and Architecture. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.

ASHRAE Handbook. Atlanta, Ga.: American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and air-conditioning Engineers. Since 1996 the handbook has consisted of alternately issuedvolumes with subtitles Fundamentals, Applications, Equipment, and Systems.

Braybrooke, Susan. 1993. Design for Research: Principals of Laboratory Architecture. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons.

The College and University Science Facilities Reference Book. 1998. Orinda, Calif.: Tradeline,Inc..

DiBerardinis, Louis J., et al. 1993. Guidelines for Laboratory Design: Health and SafetyConsiderations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Earl Walls Associates. 2000. Laboratory (a newsletter published by Earl Walls Associates).May.

Furr, A. K. 1995. CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety. 4th ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRCPress.

Hain, W. 1995. Laboratories: Briefing and Design Guide. London: E & FN Spon.

Haxton, Bruce. 1999. Facility Management Journal, March/April.

Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (U.S.), Committee on Care and Use ofLaboratory Animals. 1985. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Bethesda,Md.: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, NationalInstitutes of Health.

Mayer, Leonard. 1995. Design and Planning of Research and Clinical Laboratory Facilities.New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Miller, W. L., and L. Morris. 1999. Fourth Generation R & D: Managing Knowledge,Technology, and Innovation. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

National Institutes of Health, Division of Engineering Services, Office of Research Services(Farhad Memarzadeh, principal investigator). 1996. Methodology for Optimization ofLaboratory Hood Containment Using Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling.Bethesda, Md.: National Institutes of Health.

National Science Foundation. 1992. Planning Academic Research Facilities: A Guidebook.Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation.

National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies. 1996. Scientific andEngineering Research Facilities at Colleges and Universities. Arlington, Va.: NationalScience Foundation.

—————. 1998. Research and Development in Industry: 1995–96. Arlington, Va.:National Science Foundation.

Ruys, T. 1990. Laboratory Facilities. Vol. 1 of Handbook of Facilities Planning. New York:Van Nostrand Reinhold.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

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WEB SITES

Sustainable DesignAmerican Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE): www.aceee.org/

American Institute of Architects, Committee on the Environment:www.earchitect.com/pia/Cote/home.asp

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE):www.ashrae.org/

American Solar Energy Society (ASES): www.ases.org/

Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology (CREST):www.solstice.crest.org

Center for Resourceful Building Technology (CRBT): www.montana.com/crbt/mis.html

Consortium on Green Design and Manufacturing: euler.berkeley.edu/green/

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network (EREN): www.eren.doe.gov

Federal Energy Management Programs: www.nrel.gov/femp/

Illuminating Engineering Society of North America: www.iesna.org

The Labs21 initiative: www.epa.gov/labs21century

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, A Design Guide for Energy-Efficient ResearchLaboratories: ateam.lbl.gov/Design-Guide

U.S. Department of Energy, Center for Sustainable Development:www.sustainable.doe.gov/

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Administration and ResourcesManagement: www.epa.gov/oaintmt/

U.S. Green Building Council: www.usgbc.org/

Vivarium FacilitiesAssociation for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International

(AAALAC): www.aaalac.org

National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council, Guide for the Care andUse of Laboratory Animals: www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/labrats Includes the current (1996) edition of the Guide, used as a standard by the AAALAC.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS):www.aphis.usda.govAPHIS is responsible for vivarium facilities under the U.S. Code of FederalRegulations.

U.S. Government Printing Office and the National Archives and Records Administration:www.access.po.gov/nara/cfrIncludes the Code of Federal Regulations regarding APHIS.

262

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

263

Abbott Laboratories, 42Academic labs, 68–99

case studies, 89–99Bicentennial Hall, Middlebury

College, 94–97Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical

Science Center, Florida AtlanticUniversity, 89–93

McDonnell Research Building,Washington University School ofMedicine, 97–99

design requirements, 73–78high-technology environments, 82–89research and teaching lab integration,

70–73research labs, 78space guidelines, 78–81undergraduate teaching labs, 68–70

Acoustical concerns:architectural design, 152audiovisual rooms, 232mechanical systems, 215–216vivarium facilities, 191

Adaptive use. See RenovationAdjacencies, 141–151

corridors, 141–148open versus closed plans, 148–149write-up areas, 149–151

Agilent Technologies, formerly HewlettPackard (Wilmington, Delaware), 27

Air equipment, vivarium facilities, 189. Seealso HVAC

Air-supply grill location, mechanicalsystems, 213

Aisles, architectural design, 105American National Standards Institute

(ANSI), 162American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-ConditioningEngineers (ASHRAE):

acoustical concerns, 216

fume hood height, 163sustainable design, 33

American Society of Interior Designer(ASID), 3

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 15,85, 106, 110, 162, 163, 169–172,241

Animal cubicles, vivarium facilities, 196Animal Facility, Clemson University

(Clemson, South Carolina), 190,192, 198

Animal housing systems, vivarium facilities,192–193. See also Vivarium facilities

Anshen & Allen, 118Architectural design, 101–198. See also

Design model; Engineering designacoustical issues, 152adjacencies, 141–151 (See also

Adjacencies)aisles, 105Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA),

169–172bid phase, 104building massing, 124–125casework, 152–156

materials selection, 155–156types of, 152–155

ceiling height, 105construction administration, 104construction documents, 104design development, 102–104doors, 105ergonomics, 156–157exterior image, 110–124fume hoods, 157–159 (See also Fume

hoods)furnishings, 105interior finishes, 151–152interior image, 125–141

corridors, 129–133elevators and stairs, 133, 134–135

INDEX

264

Architectural design (cont.)labs, 135–140lounges and break rooms, 129offices, 139, 140–141reception and lobby, 125–129

lab module, 106–110basic, 106–107three-directional, 107, 109–110two-directional, 107

mechanical systems, engineeringcoordination study, 210

program, 101–103regulatory environment, 165–169safety, 161–165

chemical storage, 163–164chemical wastes, 165fume hood height, 162–163principles, 161–162showers and eyewashes, 162–163

schematic design, 102security, 165shell space, 105–106signage, 169–174site planning, 110specialized equipment and equipment

spaces, 182–198electron microscope suite, 183–184lasers, 184magnetic resonance imagers (MRIs),

184mass spectrometry (MS) suites, 185nuclear magnetic resonance apparatus,

183size considerations, 185, 186–188vacuum systems, 185vivarium facilities, 185, 188–198

specialized lab areas, 177–182biosafety level labs, 177–179, 180clean rooms, 179–180darkrooms, 180–181environmental (cold and warm)

rooms, 181–182tissue culture suites, 182

sustainable, 29–30wayfinding, 172–174

Argon, Chicago, Illinois, 126Parking, architectural design, 110ASHRAE. See American Society of

Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

Association for Assessment andAccreditation of Laboratory AnimalCare (AAALAC), 101

Asynchronous distance learning, academiclabs, 83–84

Audiovisual rooms, 230–233acoustical concerns, 232equipment for, design model, 21–22lighting, 232–233projection screens, 230–232

Automated labs, design model, 26

Basement, exterior image, 117Bass Center, Yale University (New Haven,

Connecticut), 116Bay-Dole Act of 1980, 33Bedding storage, vivarium facilities, 196Beham Group, 57–60Benchmarking, space guidelines, private-

sector labs, 41–43Bicentennial Hall, Middlebury College

(Middlebury, Vermont), 94–97Bids:

architectural design, 104cost containment, 255

Biochemistry Building, University ofWisconsin (Madison), 9, 139, 183

Biogen Labs, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 10Biological safety cabinets, 158–159Biology labs, design requirements, 73Biomedical Research Building II, School of

Medicine, University ofPennsylvania (Philadelphia), 31

Biosafety level labs, 177–179, 180Borosilicate glass, 234–235Boyer Center for Molecular Medicine, Yale

University (New Haven,Connecticut), 4, 134, 135

Break rooms, interior image, 129Budgets. See CostsBuilding massing, architectural design,

124–125Bundled stacks, 120–121

Cabinets. See CaseworkCable trays, electrical systems, 223–224

INDEX

265

INDEX

Cage washers, vivarium facilities, 196, 198Cagewash flow diagram, 188Cannon (Boston, Massachusetts), architect,

127Canopy hoods, 159Cantilevered casework, 154, 155Capital costs, 248Carpeting, 151, 232Carts, interiors, 15–16Casework, 152–156

architectural design, 105costs, 252–254exterior image, 115green products, 33interior image, 135–140materials selection, 155–156mobile, interiors, 15–16safety principles, 161types of, 152–155undergraduate teaching labs, 68wet and dry labs, 19–20

Cast-in-place concrete, structural systems,201–202

Ceilings:finishes, 151height of:

architectural design, 105building massing, 124–125

vivarium facilities, 192Centennial Campus, North Carolina State

(Raleigh), 119, 120Centers for Disease Control (CDC), open

labs, 9Central high-purity water system, point-of-

use (POU) system versus, 238Cesar Pelli & Associates, 4, 5, 134Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical Science

Center, Florida Atlantic University(Boca Raton), 89–93

Chemical storage, safety, 163–164Chemical wastes:

biosafety level labs, 178safety, 165

Chemistry Addition, University of Virginia(Charlottesville, Virginia), 5

Chemistry and Life Sciences Building,University of Illinois (Urbana), 8,122, 128

Chemistry labs, design requirements,74–75, 88

China, private-sector labs, 40–41, 42Chiron Life Sciences Building, #4

(Emeryville, California), 48–50Circulation:

churn, flexibility for, 11–12corridors, 129, 131government labs, 57–58team-based research, 4–6

Clean rooms, 179–180Client objectives, exterior image, 110Clinical Research Building, University of

Pennsylvania, 114Closed lab plans:

adjacencies, 148–149design model, 9–11

Closets, engineering design, 230Codes. See also Hazards; Safety

fiber-optic infrastructure, 229–230piped gases, 236regulatory environment, 165–169sustainable design, 28, 33

Cold rooms, 181–182College of Medicine, Northwestern

University (Evanston, Illinois), 13Color:

corridors, 129labs, 135wayfinding, 172

Columns, structural systems, 203Combination sash, fume hoods, 219Commissioning, process of, 240Communication systems. See also Electrical

systemsaudiovisual equipment, 21–22costs, 255open versus closed labs, 12–14presentation and conferencing spaces,

20–21telephone/data system, 228–229

Compatibility, electrical systems, 222Compressed air, piping system, 236Computers:

academic labs, 82–89costs, 255design model, 22–24science and technology, 2

266

INDEX

Computers (cont.)sustainable design, 33undergraduate teaching labs, 70

Computer science labs, designrequirements, 77–78

Concrete floors, 151Conferencing spaces, design model, 20–21Consolidations, private-sector labs, 38Constant volume (CV) system, fume hood

exhaust, 217–219Construction administration, architectural

design, 104Construction costs, 245–247. See also CostsConstruction documents, architectural

design, 104Controls:

ductwork control location, 214–215plumbing, 239–240

Corridors:adjacencies, 141–148cost comparisons, 248interior image, 129–133service, shafts and ductwork, 207–208

Costs, 245–256. See also Finances andfinancing

fiber-optic infrastructure, 230financing trends, 256issues summarized, 256laboratory requirements, 245lighting, 228presentation spaces, 233project costs, 245–248renovation/restoration/adaptive use,

240–241value engineering, 248–255vivarium facilities, 189water supply, 238

Cryogenic liquids, plumbing, 236Cubicles, vivarium facilities, 196Cummings Research Park (Huntsville,

Alabama), 33Custodial closets, engineering design, 230

Darkrooms, 180–181Data closets, engineering design, 230Daylighting. See also Lighting

corridors, 141exterior image, 115

labs, 138skylights, government labs, 58–59source options, 228support spaces, 142sustainable design, 28, 31–32

Department of Energy (DOE), sustainabledesign, 33

Design-build procedure, cost containment,256

Design model, 3–36. See also Architecturaldesign; Engineering design

academic labs, 73–78flexibility, 11–20

churn, 11–12engineering systems, 12–14interiors, 14–20

open versus closed labs, 9–11principles of, 3science parks, 33–36shifts in, 1–2, 3sustainability, 27–33

architecture, 29–30criteria for, 28engineering considerations, 30–33

team-based research, 3–9laboratories, 6–9meeting places, 4–6

technology, 20–26audiovisual equipment, 21–22automated labs, 26computer, 22–24presentation and conferencing spaces,

20–21robots, 24–25virtual labs, 26

Developer-owned buildings, private-sectorlabs, 38–40

Distance learning, academic labs, 83–84Diversity, mechanical equipment, 212Docking stations:

design flexibility, 19, 20undergraduate teaching lab and research

integration, 72Doors, architectural design, 105Drains, plumbing, 233–234Dry labs, design flexibility, 19–20, 21Ductwork:

control location, 214–215

INDEX

267

mechanical systems, 204–210DuPont Labs (Wilmington, Delaware), 21,

39, 44–47Duriron, 235

Edison, Thomas, 1Edison chemical research laboratory (Ft.

Myers, Florida), 1Efficiency, mechanical equipment, 212Electrical closets, engineering design, 230Electrical systems, 221–224. See also

Communication systemscable trays/panel boxes, 223–224computer and, 23, 27corridors, 129costs, 254, 255emergency/standby power, 222–223engineering design, 221–222information technology, 229–230open versus closed labs, 12–14renovation, 242sustainability, 27telephone/data system, 228–229wet and dry labs, 19–20

Electron microscope suite, specializedspaces, 183–184

Elevators:costs, 254interior image, 133, 134–135

Ellensweig Associates, Inc., 5, 113, 160Ellerbe Becket, 26Emergency situations. See Redundancy;

Standby capabilityEnergy, government labs, 58Energy considerations:

design model, 27sustainable design, 29, 30

Engineering design, 199–243. See alsoArchitectural design; Design model

audiovisual rooms, 230–233closets, 230commissioning, 240electrical systems, 221–224

cable trays/panel boxes, 223–224emergency/standby power, 222–223site and building-wide issues, 221–222

facility management, 242–243information technology, 229–230

lighting, 224–228 (See also Lighting)mechanical systems, 204–221 (See also

Fume hoods; Mechanical systems)air-supply grill location, 213architectural/engineering coordination

study, 210ductwork control location, 214–215equipment, 210–213fume hoods, 216–221 (See also Fume

hoods)noise control, 215–216secondary containment, 213–214shafts and ductwork, 204–210ventilation, 214

plumbing, 233–240 (See also Plumbing)renovation/restoration/adaptive use,

240–242structural systems, 199–204

cast-in-place concrete, 201–202columns, 203generally, 199–200steel, 200vibration control, 203–204

sustainable design, 30–33telephone/data system, 228–229

Engineering Graduate Research Center,Centennial Campus, NorthCarolina State (Raleigh), 120, 136

Engineering labs, design requirements,75–76

Environmental (cold and warm) rooms,181–182

Environmental health and safety (EH&S)office, 174

Environmental issues, sustainable design, 29Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

sustainable design, 33Equipment. See also Specialized equipment

and equipment spacesacademic labs, 86–87corridors, 131costs, 252–254labs, 138, 139mechanical systems, 210–213NMR equipment, closed labs, 10specialized equipment and equipment

spaces, 182–198sustainable design criteria, 28

268

INDEX

Equipment zones, interiors, 14Equivalent linear footage of bench (ELF),

space guidelines, private-sector labs,41–43

Ergonomics, design, 156–157Exhaust systems:

ductwork control location, 214–215exterior image, 118, 119–123fume hoods, 217–219 (See also Fume

hoods)site planning, 110

Exterior image, architectural design,110–124

Eyewashes, safety, 162–163

Face velocity, static pressure and, fumehoods, 216–217

Facility management, design and, 242–243Feed storage, vivarium facilities, 196Fiber-optic infrastructure, information

technology, 229–230Finances and financing. See also Costs

academic labs, 88–89government labs, 53, 55–56private-sector labs, 38–40science and technology, 2science parks, 34–36trends in, 256undergraduate teaching labs, 68–69

Finishes:audiovisual rooms, 232interiors, 151–152vivarium facilities, 191–192

Fire protection, regulatory environment,165–169

Fisher Hamilton, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 24,25, 39, 135, 137, 217, 218, 239

Fixed casework, 152, 154, 156Fixtures, plumbing, 239–240Flad & Associates, Inc., 9, 48–50, 139, 183Flame-retardant polypropylene, 234Flat-plate (flat-slab) system, structural

systems, 202Flexibility:

design model, 11–26 (See also Designmodel)

lab module, 106lighting, 227–228

private-sector labs, 45undergraduate teaching labs, 69–70

Floor drains, plumbing, 233–234Floors:

finishes, 151vivarium facilities, 191

Food and Drug Administration (FDA),53–54

Fume hoods, 157–159, 216–221. See alsoHVAC

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA),170

biological safety cabinets, 158–159canopy hoods, 159ductwork control location, 215exhaust systems, 217–219face velocity and static pressure, 216–217glove boxes, 158height of, 162–163perchloric acid hoods, 158radioisotope hoods, 158renovation, 242risers, 219–221safety principles, 161–162sash options, 219snorkels, 159

Furnishings. See also Interiorsarchitectural design, 105computer and, 23, 24ergonomics, 156–157undergraduate teaching labs, 68

Future loads, mechanical equipment,212–213

Gases, piped, plumbing, 235–236Generic labs, interiors, 14–15Geology labs, design requirements, 77Georgia Public Health Laboratory

(Atlanta), 64–67, 117Glass, exterior image, 115Glaxo Wellcome, design guidelines, 101Glaxo Wellcome Medicines Research

Center (Stevenage, England), 27,51–53, 115, 124, 156

Glazing:corridors, 132, 141labs, 138safety principles, 161

INDEX

269

sustainable design, 29Globalization. See International perspectiveGlove boxes, 158GMK, architect, 190, 192Government agencies:

design guidelines, 101regulatory environment, 165–169science parks, 33, 34sustainable design, 29, 33

Government labs, 53–67case studies, 57–67

Georgia Public Health Laboratory,64–67

Rodman Materials ResearchLaboratory, 57–60

Walter Reed Army Institute ofResearch (WRAIR), 61–64

funding, 53image, 54replacement facilities, 54–55scheduling, 56strategic and master planning, 55–56

Graphics, design, 174–176Green products, sustainable design, 33Ground-fault interrupters, 223

Haxton, Bruce, 33Hazards. See also Codes; Safety

automated labs, 26biosafety level labs, 177–179chemical storage, 163–164fume hoods, 157–159open versus closed labs, 10, 11, 12regulatory environment, 165–169signage and graphics, 169–176vivarium facilities, 189

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.See HVAC systems

HEPA filters, biosafety level labs, 178Hillier Group, 21, 39, 44–47, 113HLM, architect, 55HLW International, 61–64HOK, Inc., 38, 128, 130, 133Hollins Cancer Center, Medical University

of South Carolina (Charleston),153

Horizontal sash, fume hoods, 219Hot water, plumbing, 235

Hung casework, 154Hutchinson Cancer Center (Seattle,

Washington), 117HVAC systems:

air-supply grill location, 213commissioning, 240ductwork control location, 214–215emergency/standby power, 223exterior image, 118, 119–123fume hoods, 216–221 (See also Fume

hoods)open versus closed labs, 12–14secondary containment, 213–214site planning, 110sustainable design, 30–31sustainable design criteria, 28vacuum systems, specialized spaces, 185ventilation concerns, 214vivarium facilities, 189–190wet and dry labs, 19–20

Hydrogen, 236

Illumination levels, lighting, 224–225Infectious agents, biosafety level labs, 180Information technology, engineering

design, 229–230. See alsoComputers

Institute of Biological Studies (La Jolla,California), 1

Insulation, sustainable design, 29, 30Interior image, 125–141

adjacencies, 141–151corridors, 141–148open versus closed plans, 148–149write-up areas, 149–151

corridors, 129–133elevators and stairs, 133, 134–135labs, 135–140lounges and break rooms, 129offices, 139, 140–141reception and lobby, 125–129

Interiors. See also Furnishingsaudiovisual rooms, 232computer and, 23corridors, 132costs, 252finishes, 151–152flexibility in, 14–20

270

INDEX

Interiors (cont.)interior image, 135–140offices, 141team-based research, 4–6undergraduate teaching labs, 68vivarium facilities, 191–192

International Facility ManagementAssociation, 141

International perspective:design shifts, 2private-sector labs, 40–41

Interstitial space:exterior image, 117, 119shafts and ductwork, 208–210

Iowa Advanced Technology Labs Building,117

Jahwa Shanghai Lab (Shanghai, China), 42,43–44

Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard University(Cambridge, Massachusetts), 113,160, 164

Kahn, Louis I., 1, 162Kallman McKinnel & Wood, 116Kling Lindquist, 27, 51–53, 115, 124,

154Kull, Michael D., 83

Labels, safety, 175Lab module, architectural design,

106–110Laboratories:

interior image, 135–140team-based research, 6–9

Laboratories for the 21st Century (Labs21),sustainable design, 33

Laboratory types, 37–99academic labs, 68–99 (See also Academic

labs)government labs, 53–67 (See also

Government labs)private-sector labs, 37–53 (See also

Private-sector labs)Lab safety manuals, 174Laptop computer, academic labs, 87–88Large animal holding room, vivarium

facilities, 196

Lasers, specialized spaces, 184Leadership in Energy and Environmental

Design (LEED), 29Lecture areas, design model, 20–21Levine Center, Duke University (Durham,

North Carolina), 120, 130Lewis Thomas Laboratories, Princeton

University (Princeton, New Jersey),114, 132, 145

Life and safety sign book, 176, 177Lighting. See also Daylighting

academic labs, 86audiovisual rooms, 232–233corridors, 129, 141costs, 228distribution methods, 225–226engineering design, 224–228ergonomics, 157exterior image, 115generally, 224government labs, 58–59illumination levels, 224–225labs, 138, 140luminaire location and orientation,

226–227private-sector labs, 45, 47source options, 228specific spaces, 227–228sustainable design, 28, 31–32uniformity, 225user expectations, 224vivarium facilities, 191

Lobby, interior image, 125–129Lord, Aeck, & Sargent, Inc., 64–67, 117Lounges, interior image, 129LS3P Architects, Ltd., 6, 138

Magnetic resonance imagers (MRIs),specialized spaces, 184

Maintenance, design and, 242–243Manufacturing Related Disciplines Center,

Georgia Institute of Technology(Atlanta), 32, 132, 139, 140, 184

Marist High School (Atlanta, Georgia), 86Massing, of building, architectural design,

124–125Mass spectrometry (MS) suites, specialized

spaces, 185

INDEX

271

Materials:casework, 155–156labs, 138sustainable design, 28, 29–30

Materials safety data sheets (MSDS), 175Mayer, Leonard, 25McDonald Medical Research Center,

University of California at LosAngeles, 8

McDonnell Research Building, WashingtonUniversity School of Medicine (St.Louis, Missouri), 97–99

Mechanical systems, 204–216air-supply grill location, 213architectural/engineering coordination

study, 210building massing, 124–125corridors, 129costs, 254ductwork control location, 214–215equipment, 210–213fume hoods, 216–221 (See also Fume

hoods)exhaust systems, 217–219face velocity and static pressure,

216–217risers, 219–221sash options, 219

government labs, 60noise control, 215–216open versus closed labs, 12–14plumbing, 233–240 (See also Plumbing)renovation/restoration/adaptive use,

242secondary containment, 213–214shafts and ductwork, 204–210sustainable design, 30–31sustainable design criteria, 28team-based research, 6, 8ventilation, 214vivarium facilities, 189–190wet and dry labs, 19–20

Meeting places, team-based research, 4–6Mergers, private-sector labs, 38Mobile casework, 15–16, 155, 156. See

also CaseworkModernization. See also Renovation

architectural design, 106

government labs, 54–55Molecular Sciences Center, University of

California at Los Angeles, 118

National Fire Protection Association(NFPA), 236

National Institutes of Health (NIH,Bethesda, Maryland), 54, 55, 56

air supply location, 213design guidelines, 101funding, 53open labs, 9

National Neuroscience Research Center,objectives of, 54

Natural gas, 236Necropsy area, vivarium facilities, 194Night image, exterior image, 124Nitrogen, 236Noise criteria, 152North Carolina State Centennial Campus

(Raleigh), 119, 120Northwestern University biomedical facility

(Chicago, Illinois), 112Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

equipment:closed labs, 10specialized spaces, 183

Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA), 175, 236

Odell & Associates, 120, 136Offices, interior image, 139, 140–141Open lab plans:

adjacencies, 148–149design model, 9–11

Operation and maintenance, design and,242–243

Optimum efficiency, mechanicalequipment, 212

Organizational culture, lobby, 126Overhangs, sustainable design, 29Overhead service carriers, design flexibility,

19Oxygen, 236

Panel boxes, electrical systems, 223–224Pan-joist system, structural systems,

201–202

272

INDEX

Partial interstitial space, shafts andductwork, 209–210

Partitions, flexible, 17–19Payette Associates, Inc., 4, 6, 8, 9, 82,

94–97, 114, 122, 130, 131, 132,142, 145

Pelli, Cesar, 4, 5, 134Perchloric acid hoods, 158Perkins & Will, 7, 8, 10, 13, 19, 31, 32,

42, 43–44, 89–93, 97–99, 111,112, 118, 122, 132, 139, 140, 155,156, 184

Photosensing technology:government labs, 58–59sustainable design, 32

Photovoltaic panels, sustainable design,30

Physics Building, University of Washington(Seattle), 126

Physics labs, design requirements, 73–74Piped gases, plumbing, 235–236Piping systems:

plumbing, 234renovation, 242

Plumbing, 233–240. See also Mechanicalsystems

costs, 254drains and sprinklers, 233–234fixtures and controls, 239–240hot water, 235piped gases, 235–236piping systems, 234sustainable design, 30–31vacuum systems, 235vivarium facilities, 190waste and vents, 234–235water supply, 236–239

Point-of-use (POU) water system, centralhigh-purity versus, 238

Presentation spaces:audiovisual rooms, 230–233design model, 20–21

Private-sector labs, 37–53case studies, 43–53

Chiron Life Sciences Building, #4,48–50

DuPont Medicinal ChemistryBuilding, 44–47

Glaxo Group Research, Ltd., 51–53Jahwa Shanghai Lab, 43–44

competition, 37–38international perspective, 40–41mergers and consolidations, 38space guidelines, 41–43startup companies and developer-owned

buildings, 38–40Procedure rooms, vivarium facilities,

193–194Process piping, renovation, 242Program. See also Design model

academic labs, 73–81architectural design, 101–104costs, 245–248, 255–256government labs, 55–56, 57–58interiors, 14, 17private-sector labs, 41–43shifts in, 1–2team-based research, 6, 8undergraduate teaching labs, 68–69value engineering, 248–255vivarium facilities, 189wet and dry labs, 19–20

Projection screens, 230–232Project process and management:

architectural design, 104commissioning, 240costs, 245–248, 255–256

P&W, architect, 86

Quarantine room, vivarium facilities, 194,197

Radioisotope hoods, 158Receiving room, vivarium facilities, 194Reception, interior image, 125–129Redundancy:

electrical systems, 222mechanical equipment, 212

Regulatory environment, 165–169Renovation, 240–242. See also

Modernizationcosts, 240–241electrical systems, 242government labs, 54–55mechanical systems, 242process piping, 242

INDEX

273

rationale for, 241structural systems, 241–242

Research labs, undergraduate teaching labsintegrated with, 70–73

Research Triangle Park (North Carolina), 33Resilient tile (vinyl composite tile) floors,

151Restoration. See RenovationRobots, design model, 24–25Rodman Materials Research Laboratory

(Aberdeen, Maryland), 57–60Roof(s):

costs, 252exterior image, 117sustainable design, 30

Roof drains, plumbing, 233–234

Safety, 161–165. See also Codes; Hazardsbiosafety level labs, 177–179chemical storage, 163–164chemical wastes, 165fume hoods, 157–159, 162–163mechanical equipment, 212principles, 161–162regulatory environment, 165–169showers and eyewashes, 162–163signage and graphics, 169–176

Safety manuals, 174Salk, Jonas, 119Salk Institute (La Jolla, California), 1, 119,

162, 199Sam Yang Research Center (Seoul, South

Korea), 121, 122Sash options, fume hoods, 219Scheduling, government labs, 56Schematic design, architectural design,

102Science and technology, investment in, 2Science and Technology Center, Tufts

University (Medford,Massachusetts), 125, 127

Science parks, design model, 33–36Screen walls, exterior image, 119Seating, corridors, 131Secondary containment, mechanical

systems, 213–214Security:

academic labs, 88

architectural design, 165lobby, 126systems design, 165

Service corridors, shafts and ductwork,207–208

Shafts, mechanical systems, 204–210Showers, safety, 162–163Sigma Coating Laboratory (England), 39Signage:

design, 169–174safety principles, 161

Single corridor arrangement, adjacencies,141–144

Site planning and context:architectural design, 110, 111costs, 255electrical systems, 221–222

Size considerations, specialized equipment,185, 186–188

Skylighting, government labs, 58–59. Seealso Daylighting; Lighting

Small animal holding room, vivariumfacilities, 194, 197

SMBW Architects, 34, 35Smith Kline Beecham facility (Stevenage,

U.K.), 113Snorkels, 159Social building, team-based research, 3–9Space guidelines:

academic labs, 78–81offices, 141private-sector labs, 41–43

Specialized equipment and equipmentspaces, 182–198. See also Equipment

electron microscope suite, 183–184lasers, 184magnetic resonance imagers (MRIs), 184mass spectrometry (MS) suites, 185nuclear magnetic resonance apparatus,

183size considerations, 185, 186–188vacuum systems, 185vivarium facilities, 185, 188–198

acoustical concerns, 191air equipment, 189animal housing systems, 192–193finishes, 191–192generally, 185, 188–189

274

INDEX

Specialized equipment and equipmentspaces (cont.)

lighting, 191mechanical systems, 189–190planning issues, 189plumbing, 190room design, 193–198transgenic facility systems, 193waste management, 192

Specialized lab areas, 177–182biosafety level labs, 177–179, 180clean rooms, 179–180darkrooms, 180–181environmental (cold and warm) rooms,

181–182tissue culture suites, 182

Spelman College science building (Atlanta,Georgia), 111

Sprinklers, plumbing, 233–234Stairs:

costs, 254interior image, 133, 134–135

Standby capability:electrical systems, 222–223mechanical equipment, 212

Stanford Research Park (Menlo Park,California), 33

Startup companies, private-sector labs,38–40

Static pressure, face velocity and, fumehoods, 216–217

Steel, structural systems, 200Stevenson Center Complex Chemistry

Building, Vanderbilt University(Nashville, Tennessee), 4, 6, 9, 82,120, 122, 131, 142, 251

Storage:of chemicals, safety, 163–164corridors, 131gases and cryogenic liquids, 236labs, 138, 139safety principles, 161–162vivarium facilities, 196

Storm Eye Institute, Medical University ofSouth Carolina (Charleston), 6, 138

Structural systems, 199–204building massing, 124–125cast-in-place concrete, 201–202

flat-plate (flat-slab) system, 202pan-joist system, 201–202post-and-beam blank system, 202

columns, 203costs, 252generally, 199–200renovation, 241–242steel, 200vibration control, 203–204

Surgical suites, vivarium facilities, 194, 195Sustainable design, 27–33

architecture, 29–30criteria for, 28engineering considerations, 30–33

Tables, architectural design, 105Team-based research, 3–9

academic labs, 82–83laboratories, 6–9meeting places, 4–6science and technology, 2

Technology:academic labs, 82–89costs, 255design model, 20–26 (See also Design

model)information technology, 229–230 (See

also Computers)sustainable design, 33

Technology Enhanced Learning Center,State University of West Georgia(Carrolton), 10, 19, 87, 117, 118,132, 155, 156

Teleconferencing, design model, 20–21Telephone/data system, 228–229. See also

Communication systemsThomas Laboratories. See Lewis Thomas

Laboratories, Princeton University(Princeton, New Jersey)

Three corridor arrangement, adjacencies,145–148

Three-directional lab module, 107,109–110

3M Research Complex (Austin, Texas), 11,38, 129, 130, 133

Tissue culture suites, 182Transgenic facility systems, vivarium

facilities, 193

INDEX

275

Troweled epoxy floors, 151Two corridor arrangement, adjacencies,

144–145Two-directional lab module, 107

Undergraduate teaching labs, 68–73Uninterruptible power supply, 223Unique design concerns, open versus closed

labs, 9–11University of California at Los Angeles,

117

Vacuum systems:plumbing, 235specialized spaces, 185

Value engineering, 248–255. See also CostsVanderbilt University Chemistry Building

(Nashville, Tennessee), 120, 122Variable air volume (VAV) system, fume

hood exhaust, 217–219Ventilation. See HVAC systemsVents, wastes and, plumbing, 234–235Venturi Scott Brown, 8, 111, 114, 132,

145Vernal G. Riffe, Jr., Building, Ohio State

University (Columbus), 7Vertical sash, fume hoods, 219Vertical transportation. See Elevators; StairsVeterans Administration (VA), 101Vibration control, structural systems,

203–204. See also Acousticalconcerns

Vinyl composite tile floors, 151Virginia Tech Corporate Research Center

EDC (Blacksburg, Virginia), 34Virtual labs, design model, 26Vivarium facilities, 185, 188–198

acoustical concerns, 191air equipment, 189animal housing systems, 192–193finishes, 191–192generally, 185, 188–189

lighting, 191mechanical systems, 189–190planning issues, 189plumbing, 190room design, 193–198transgenic facility systems, 193waste management, 192

Walls:finishes, 151sustainable design, 30vivarium facilities, 191

Walls, Earl, 119Walter Reed Army Institute of Research

(WRAIR, Forest Glen, Maryland),61–64

Warm rooms, 181–182Warning signs, safety principles, 161Waste(s):

chemical:biosafety level labs, 178safety, 165

vents and, plumbing, 234–235vivarium facilities, 192

Water supply, plumbing, 236–239Water systems, plumbing, 235Wayfinding:

corridors, 129, 141design, 172–174

Wet labs, design flexibility, 19–20, 21Windows:

corridors, 132, 141labs, 138safety principles, 161sustainable design, 29

Winds, site planning, 110Wireless technology, design model, 24Workstations:

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA),170–171

undergraduate teaching labs, 70Write-up areas, adjacencies, 149–151