E-mail: bdea@buddhanet.netWeb site: www.buddhanet.net

Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc.

Main aspects of

Buddhist Arts of Thailandby Ms Charuwan Chareonla

Preface

I am very pleased to present my thesis-work, for whichI have collected and selected items from various im-portant sources. Greatly contributing to my success inproducing this work has been the kind cooperation ofmany well-respected and highly-regarded persons.

I would first like to mention Dr. Upendra Thakur,Professor & Head of the Department of AncientIndian & Asian Studies, Magadh University, whokindly allowed me to take up this thesis. His scholar-ship — which has resulted in a great knowledgewhich he shares with all of his students — was ofinvaluable assistance to me on many occasions duringmy studies here in India, and I am most grateful forhis kindness.

I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr.P. C. Roy, the Reader of the Department of AncientIndian & Asian Studies, Magadh University, who ismy supervisor, and whose advice and assistanceproved to be of great benefit to my research and to thecorrection and completion of this work. With his help-fulness and professionalism, Dr. P. C. Roy informed allof his students with the force and depth of his learning.Here and now, I would like to take this opportunity toexpress my gratitude and highest regards for him, andsincerely thank him for his kindness.

4

ContentsPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Thailand — Its Location and People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9The People of Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9The Language of the People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11The Religion of Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Culture and Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

The Development of Buddhism in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15The Introduction and The Development of Buddhism in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15The role and development of Buddhism in Thai Monarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

The Introduction and Origin of Buddhist Art in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

The Pre-Thai Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Art of Dvaravati Period (6th or 7th–11th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33The Art of Sri-Vijaya Period (8th–13th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Lopburi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58The Art of Lopburi Period (11th–13th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

The Development of Buddhist Art in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72Development of Architecture the Buddhist art of Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73Architectural Features of Thai Religious Buildings — The Wat or Monastery . . . . . . 74

5

The Uposatha or Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75The Vihara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78The Phra Chedi or Stupa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79The Pra Prong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83The Mondop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84The Pra Sat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86The Ho Trai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87The Sala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Ho Rakhang and Kuti (Sangarama) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89The Development of Sculpture in Buddhist Art of Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90Some aspects of Thai Stucco Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Introduction of Painting in Buddhist Art of Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104The Characteristics and Technique of Thai Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Chiengsaen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

The Nature and Conception of Buddhist Arts of Thailand (in its different periods) 115The Art of Chiengsaen Period (Circa 11th–15th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Sukhothai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126The Classical Art of the Sukhothai Period (13th–14th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Mural Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

U–tong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Art of the U-Tong Period (Circa 12th–15th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

6

Ayudhya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162Art of the Ayudhya Period (14th–18th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631. The Art in First Period (1350–1488 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682. Art in the Second Period (1491–1628 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733. Art in the Third Period (1630–1732 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804. Art of the Fourth or Late Ayudhya Period (1732–1767 A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Ratanakosin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191Art of the Bangkok Period or Ratanakosin Period (Late18th Century to Present Day or Early 20th Century A.D.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192Sculpture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214Thai source materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214English source materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218List of Illustrations (Figures) with page numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

7

Fig. 2

8

Chapter I

Introduction

Thailand — Its Location and People

Siam or Thailand is one of the South-East Asian coun-tries, which is situated right in the middle of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. To the north of Thailand are Chinaand Laos, the latter being adjacent to the north-eastfrontier. It is separated from Thailand by two sectionsof the Mekong River. On the west and north-west, it isbounded by Burma and on the east by Cambodia andVietnam. On the south-east it is surrounded by Cam-bodia, while on the south its border goes deep into theMalay peninsula between the China Sea and the Bay ofBengal touching Malaysia.

The total area of Thailand is roughly 5,13,090 squarekilometres, and the land area approximately 2,00,000square kilometres. The country also has extensive coast-lines on the Gulf of Siam and Strait of Malacca. The gen-eral outline of Thailand resembles in shape an ancientaxe, but some people think that her shape is just like thehead of the symbolic white elephant (Fig. 2).

The People of ThailandThailand is divided into 72 provinces. The presentpopulation of Thailand is over 45 million. About one-

9

half of the population live in the Central Plain andBangkok, the Capital seat of the country, which is thepoint of convergence for all the country’s railroads.Indeed, as the economic locus, cultural and social cen-tre, political seat and hub for administration, Bangkokcompletely dominates the life of the people in Thai-land. The other 71 cities are basically provincial towns.

The people of Thailand are called Thai, the greatmajority (over 80 percent) of them belonging to theThai race, which forms the same ethnic group as theLaotians of Laos. To the North-East of this country andthe Shan territory of Upper Burma, there are also cer-tain Thai minor tribes scattered here and there over alarge area of Southern China, Tangking of North Viet-nam and in Assam, the easternmost province of India.

Ethnologically and anthropologically the Thais areprimarily of Mongoloid stock. Their ethnological andphysical features are of medium stature, slight build,having an olive (somewhat between yellow andbrown) skin complexion and black hair. When theThais came down from Southern China in order tosettle down in the area (modern Thailand) they inter-mixed freely with their several forerunners, the Mon-Khmer linguistic groups — Mon of Lower Burma, theKhmer of Cambodia, the Indonesian linguisticgroups, the Malay and the Chams, the latter survivingin certain parts of South Vietnam and Cambodia. Butthe Thais mainly intermixed with the Chinese with

10

whom they had close contact since the earliest phaseof history.

In our time also we can see the minority ethnicgroups of people in Thailand comprising more than 15million Chinese, 7,00,000 Malays, and also the hilltribes, who live in the mountains of the North. TheMalays in the south inhabit particularly the provincesnear the Malaysian border. The Chinese are to befound in Bangkok and other provincial towns and areusually engaged in commerce or skilled trades.1

The Language of the PeopleThe Thai language as spoken in Thailand forms a sub-division of the linguistic group known as the Thai lan-guage. This language has words in its original form ofa monosyllabic type not unlike that of the Chinese lan-guage. Each word is independent and complete byitself and admits no modifications as do the inflec-tional languages. The arrangement of words in a sen-tence reveals a unity with that of most of the languagesof South-East Asia. Thai words, as spoken in Thailand,have features of words of Pali and Sanskrit, originallyfrom India. This, of course, is due to the contact of cul-tures between the two regions.

Thus in a way the language of the Thais belongs tothe type of language technically called in philology an

1. Jermsawatdi, Promsak, Thai Art with Indian Influence, p. 3.

11

Insolating Language. Each word is free to enter intothe construction of sentences, and does not require, ina sense, any grammar. The Thai alphabet is of Indianorigin. It was instituted on the Sanskrit lanuage, yet itbears the Khmer or Cambodian influence.

The Religion of ThailandBuddhism is the state religion of this country. This reli-gion spread from India to Thailand long before thebeginning of Christian Era. The two important schoolsof Buddhism —the Hinayana (Theravada) and theMahayana sects have flourished in this country fromthe earliest period till the present day.

Thailand is one of the greatest, most importantBuddhist centres of the world. Slightly more than 90percent of the Thai population are Buddhists. Sinceancient times the Thais have subscribed to the Hinay-ana or Theravada sect of Buddhism, which teachesthat salvation can be earned only through individualefforts. This sect of Buddhism became the major creedand religious faith of the Thai people.

Other religions in this country are the religionsfrom China — Taoism and Confucianism. But thepeople in south are the followers of Islam, while thehill-tribesmen are animists, believing in the spirits ofnature or ancestors. Brahmanism (Hinduism) as wellas Christianity also survive in the country.

12

Culture and ArtThe Culture of Thailand has two important sources oforigin — indigenous and foreign. The indigenoussource comes directly from the ideas and inspiration ofthe people while the foreign sources came through itscultural contact with other great civilized nations suchas India and China.

The customs, traditions, ceremonials and festivals ofThailand are derived from those sources. In the field ofart, it mainly deals with religions such as Buddhismand the cultural and artistic relationship with India,and other countries. The Thais are lovers and observersof nature, amiable, mirthful and generous to everyonewith whom they come into contact, due to their naturaland pleasant surroundings. Thai art served religion,which formed the national ideal and conception of life.2

2. Jermsawatdi, Promsak, Thai Art with Indian Influences, p. 6.

Fig. 0

13

Fig. 1

14

Chapter II

The Development of Buddhism in Thailand

The Introduction and The Development of Buddhism in Thailand

Thailand is one of the few countries where Buddhismstill flourishes and exists as a living force. Historiansand archaeologists hold divergent views regarding theexact period when Buddhism is said to have reachedSiam. Some scholars believe that Buddhism was intro-duced in Thailand before the Christian Era during thereign of Emperor Asoka, who is credited with havingsent Buddhist missionaries to various parts of theworld (Fig. 0 & 1). This is proved by archaeologicalfinds at Pong Tuk and Phra Pathom. Remains of alarge number of Buddhist structures, the images of theBuddha, inscribed terracottas and definite symbols ofBuddhism like the Dharmachakra, belonging to thefirst or second century A.D., have been found in theseplaces.3

It is most probable that Siam was the first countrywhere the Indians landed by sea-route before proceed-ing to the neighbouring countries. There is every likeli-hood that the traders who went by sea first landed atthe South of Thailand. While some of them settled

3. Bapat, P. V., 2500 years of Buddhism, p. 79.

15

down there, others might have proceeded to Cambo-dia and Annam in the East and Malay Peninsula in theSouth. Thus, they were able to estaulish their coloniesin the vast region of South-East Asia.4

Regarding the religious movement in this part ofthe world, it may be suggested that the Indians whocame to Thailand and her neighbouring countries,brought the Buddhist faith and spread it in these coun-tries. That Buddhism reached Thailand can be sup-ported on the basis of archaeological evidence and lit-erary and foreign accounts as well as other historicalrecords and traditional beliefs which tend to suggestthat this religion was introduced into Thailand at fourdifferent stages as following:

1. Early Theravada Buddhism (Hinayana sect orSouthern Buddhism) in the 3rd century B.C.

2. Mahayana Buddhism (Northern sect) in the7th century A.D.

3. Pukam (Pagan) Theravada Buddhism in the11th century A.D.

4. Lanka (Lankavamsa or Lankavong) TheravadaBuddhism in the 13th century A.D.

4. Majumdar, R. C., The Indo-Siam Culture (India and Thailand) Quarterley, Vol.2, No.l, July, 1953, p. 103.

16

The role and development of Buddhism in Thai Monarchies

Lankavong Theravada Buddhism has officially occu-pied the highest position as the national religion in thehistory of Thailand. The development of LankavongBuddhism in Thailand began at quite an early date inthis country. The Lankavong monks preferred toreside in the forest hermitages built by the king him-self. They used the Pali (Magadhan script) language inperforming their religious ceremonies, which weredifferent from that of the Sukhodayan monks, as thelatter used the Sanskrit language for the same purpose.These differences kept Lankavong monks aloof fromthe local monks. They did not stay with local Sukhod-ayan monks in the same monastery nor did they per-form Sanghakamma and other religious ceremonieswith them.5

This was the first state of its development. Lateron, unity was brought about among the two divi-sions of the Sangha. Lankavong and local Sukho-dayan monks began to live in peace and harmony bythe wise policy of King Ram Khamhaeng. After theunification of the Sangha, they were divided into twosections called Arannavasi and Gamavasi. The Aran-navasi represented those who were mainly devoted

5. Department of Fine Arts: King Ram Khamhaeng and the Lankavong Buddhism, Silpakon Journal, p. 72.

17

to Vipassanadhura or meditation and who lived inforest hermitages, while the Gamavasis were mainlydevoted to Ganthadhura or the study and teachingof the scriptures, and who lived in towns andvillages.6

King Ram Khamhaeng, for the sake of promotingBuddhism in his kingdom, extended the royal patron-age to the Buddhist Sangha by adopting several meas-ures for better organisation and administration of theOrder.

One important designation of monks at this timewas “the senior-most monk”, who possessed the highestqualifications in matters of discipline and knowledge ofDhamma. He was honoured by the king with the title ofSangharaja or Patriarch. He was the head of BuddhistSangha in the kingdom. This was the first major devel-opment of Buddhism in Thailand since it came to stay inthis country long before the 3rd century B.C.

The next phase of development of the Lankavongsect of Buddhism in Sukhothai kingdom is to be seenin the reign of King Mahadhammaraja Lithai (1347–1376 A.D.), who was the grandson of King Ram Kham-haeng. The two sections of the monks —Arannavasi

6. Arannavasi is the Thai word meaning “anyone who lives in the forest hermitages” — Arana forest and Vasi —householder.Also Gamvasi means the layman, Gama derived from Sanskrit language meaning village. Vasi — householder. (Rahula, W., A History of Buddhism in Ceylon, p. 197).

18

and Gamavasi — had improved their administrationto the best of their capacity. Also this king was the firstThai monarch, who left the throne temporarily andentered the monastic life of a Buddhist monk.

This noble example was followed by the Siamesekings of the Ayudhya and Bangkok periods. Since thenit has become customary for the Thai Youths to acceptmonkhood for at least a short time (of four months;vasa) in their lives.7 The achievement of King Lithairepresents the beginning of Buddhist tradition andcustoms which were not seen before.

The Sukhothai kingdom reached the highest peakof political grandeur during the reing of King RamKhamhaeng and religious glory during the reign ofKing Lithai. But after their death, the successors ofthese two great monarchs were too weak to protect theempire from the rulers of Ayudhya.

All the Ayudhya kings from U-Tong or PrajaTibodi I (who was the founder and first king of thiskingdom) up to kings who ruled in the 14th centuryA.D. were the ardent followers of Lankavong Bud-dhism, during whose times several Buddhist monas-teries were constructed, which gave great impetus tothe spread and development, of Buddhism in Thailand.

During the period 1448–1488 A.D. the historyrecords the glorious days of Lankavong Buddhismunder the patronage of great King Boramatrailokant

7. Spinks, Charles Nelson, Thailand: Past and Present, p. 39.

19

or Trailok. During his reign of 40 years the develop-ment of this sect took place in several respects. KingTrailok became a Buddhist monk for a period of eightmonths and was ordained at Wat Chulamani inPisanalok, his capital and the administrative centre ofhis reign. It is recorded in Siamese Chronicles thatsome 2,388 men were also ordained on this greatmemorable occasion.

King Trailok was the first Siamese king who dedi-cated his own palace to the Buddhist Sangha. More-over, he had constructed monasteries and viharasinside the area of his palace. One of the religious activ-ities of this king was that he adorned the images ofBodhisattva’s 500 incarnation in A.D. 1458. The pro-duction of these images represented his intense faith inBuddhism.

The important event of the Ayudhya period wasthe establishment of a new sect of Buddhism, namedVanaratnavong or the Pa-Kaeo8 sect which differsfrom the original Lankavong. The introduction of thePa-Kaeo sect took place in the reign of King Indraraja I,in 1422 A.D.

The reign of King Boromakot marks another turn-ing point in the history of Buddhism in Thailand. King

8. Pa Kaeo sect is the name of the new sect of Theravada Buddhism, first originated in the Ayudhya period before the reign of King Baromatrailokanath. Pa-Kaeo is a Thai word meaning “the forest of glass”; Pa — forest, and Kaeo — glass.

20

Boromakot ruled over Ayudhya from 1732 A.D. and inhis reign history repeated itself in reverse. It was at thistime that Ceylon received the Buddhist faith and doc-trine from Thailand, although it was the country fromwhere Thailand had received Buddhism in earlieryears.

The Ceylonese King, Kirtisiri (1747–1781) sent hisdelegation to Thailand to invite a group of monks inorder to re-institute higher ordination (Upasampada)in Ceylon. King Boromakot of Ayudhya agreed tosend a group of monks headed by Abbot Phra UpaliMahathera and Phra Ariyamuni Thera. They wentwith the royal envoy to Ceylon and helped in thereintroduction of the higher ordination and the reor-ganisation of the Buddhist Sangha in that island. TheSiamese Buddhist missionaries were successful intheir religious propagation.

A new capital city was constructed on the easternbank of Menam (Chao Phya) river by King Rama I, thefounder of Chakri Dynasty. This new capital of Thai-land came to be known as Bangkok, which is still thecapital city of Thailand.

In the days of King Rama Tibodi I, Lankavong Bud-dhism remained the national religion. The king him-self had taken several important steps to promote thisreligion. First of all he financed, from his own privatepurse, a new and complete edition — written on palm-leaves — of the Buddhist Canon of the Tripitaka. It was

21

soon found that this Tripitaka edition had been madein a hurry from unreliable texts.

A most important event took place in this reign. Itwas the Ninth Buddhist Council, held at Wat Mahad-hatu in Bangkok in 1788 A.D. under King Rama I’s aus-pices. This council worked for five months. The mag-nitude of this Council may be judged by the latestedition of 1925–8, consisting of 45 volumes of an aver-age of 500 octavo pages. The revision on this occasionresulted in what has come to be known as the TripitakaChabab Tongyai — The Great Gilt Edition9 written onpalm-leaves. It is still preserved and kept in theLibrary in the precincts of the Chapel Royal of theEmerald Buddha in the royal palace in Bangkok. ThisCouncil was officially regarded as the ninth of theBuddhist Councils held in all the Buddhist Countriesof the world.

The most important event relating to the develop-ment of Buddhism in Thailand was the establishmentof a new Nikaya or sect of Buddhist Sangha known asDhammayuttika Nikaya. This new sect of Buddhismwas founded by Prince Mongkut, who was a Buddhistmonk for 27 years. The Dhammayuttika system wasofficially recognised and Prince Mongkut began toregularise its practice and to lay down a regular course

9. Tripitaka Chabab Tongyai is the Thai word meaning “The Great Gilt Edition”, Tripitaka-Edition or Buddhist doctrine, Chabab — Volume and Tongyai — great or big gilt.

22

of studies with its nucleus at his seat of Wat Bovo-ranives. He travelled widely in the country to spreadhis doctrine.

In the reign of King Rama IV (or Prince Mongkut,his original name), there were two sects or Nikayas ofthe Buddhist Order in Thailand. One was the Maha-nikaya or the original Lankavong Buddhism, and theother was the Dhammayuttika Nikaya. There are sev-eral different practices between the monks of the twoschools. The Dhammayuttika monks did not receivemoney by hand and did not take milk in the evening.They also did not put on their shoes at the time of theirentrance into their residence. Monks of both theschools also differed in the system of wearing therobes. But, in spite of these differences, they had devel-oped the doctrine and practice to the best possible con-dition. Both of them flourish up to the present day.

In the reign of King Rama V great attention waspaid to Buddhist education of the monks. He was thefounder of the "Buddhist University" in Thailandknown as Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya, nowhoused in Wat Mahadhatu in Bangkok. This Univer-sity provides higher education in Buddhism alongwith modern subjects. The other Buddhist Universityknown today as Mahamakutrarajavidyalaya was alsoestablished during his reign. The latter was foundedby King Rama V’s brother. This University was builtfor the Dhammayuttika monks. Both Universities

23

were maintained through the royal patronage of KingRama V himself.10

Now, we come to the present King of Thailand,King Rama IX or King Bhumibol Adulyadej. He be-came a Buddhist monk in keeping with the noblepractice of his predecessors. The important event inhis reign was the august occasion of the BuddhaJayanti, the 2,500th Anniversary of the Buddha Maha-parinirvana. The Buddhist world celebrated thisgrand day and Thailand also commemorated this daywith great celebration in Bangkok and also thoughoutthe country.11

Besides his patronage for the restoration and con-struction of Buddhist monuments in the country, theking also gave royal patronage to the prosperity andprogressive working of the two Buddhist Universitieswhich were established during the time of King Rama V.During his reign, Thailand sponsored the meeting ofthe Council of world Buddhist Association V inBangkok. Delegates from Buddhist countries of theworld participated in this council in large numbers.This was also one of the important events whichmarked the development of Buddhism — now thenational religion of Thailand.

10. Jermsawatdi, Promsak, Thai Art with Indian Influence, p. 39.11. 2,500 years of the Buddhamahaparinibbana (the year of the

Buddha's death) corresponding to 1957 A.D. according to the Thai Calendar.

24

Chapter III

The Introduction and Origin of Buddhist Art in Thailand

Thai traditional arts have numerous distinctive quali-ties which make them easily distingulishable fromthose of other neighhbouring countries in South-EastAsia. Much of their inspiration and many of their fea-tures have been borrowed or adopted from otherAsian sources, including the Indian, Mon-Khmer,Sinhalese, Chinese and other civilizations.

Thai art mainly deals with Buddhist religion and isknown as Buddhist art, which formed the nationalideal and conception of life. It is said that during thegreater part of the kingdom’s history, religious motifspredominated. Sculpture, metal casting, sacred archi-tecture and the arts were employed for embellishingtemples. They were for many centuries the principalmodes of expression.

Just as the medievil artists of Europe gave outwardform to their religious aspiration by building cathe-drals and beautifying them with sculptures, wood-carvings and so forth; or by labouring to produceexquisitely illuminated manuscripts, so did the Thaisexpress their devotion to the sacred doctrine of theLord Buddha by sculpting or casting glorious images

25

and erecting magnificently adorned buildings inwhich to house them.

The Classical Thai Buddhist Art owes more to Indiathan to any other country, but it seldom drew its inspi-ration directly from there. Indian art and craftsman-ship are no doubt regarded as the prototypes of theBuddhist art in this country. The waves of adaptationand imitation from Indian sources swept the countrysince the first quarter of the beginning of the ChristianEra. It is said that several schools of Indian art came incontact with Thai art at a very early period. Stylisticevidence shows the influence of the Amaravati schoolof Indian art on the Buddhist art in Thailand in theearly centuries of the Christian Era. Later still, theGupta, Paliava and Pala-Sena elements from India arenoticeable in Thai art.

In the field of architecture, it received the modelledstructure of the architectural art from the PeninsulaSouth India, where the three great empires of the Cha-lukyas of Badami in the Deccan, the Pallavas of Kanchion the coast, and the Pandyas of Madurai in the farsouth flourished.

In the field of sculpture and painting also, theIndian school of art played an important part in theSiamese Buddhist artistic workmanship. The imagesand idols along with the wall-paintings in Siam owetheir origin and adaptation to different Indian schoolsof art such as the Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati and

26

the Classical art of the Gupta period which wereresponsible for the introduction, origin and growth ofBuddhist art in Thailand. Especially the Orissan artand architecture as well as art from Bengal in EasternIndia are regarded as the main prototypes of art inThailand and of other South-East Asian countries.

Thailand is the land of many human cultural activ-ities and artistic workmanship. Several human raceshave settled down in this country since remote times,and all of them had their cultural and artistic elements,which contributed at lot to the Buddhist art in thiscountry. The introduction and origin of Buddhist art inThailand, no doubt, represents the close relationshipwith Indian art and most of these influences wereadopted in the primitive art of the early powerful king-dom of Thailand called Dvaravati kingdom.

In the long duration of the Mon's Dvaravati king-dom in central Thailand, there was considerable artis-tic activity and movement in both architecture andsculpture, which is classified by scholars as the Davar-avati school of art. It is regarded as the first and earliestBuddhist school of art in Thailand. From archaeologi-cal excavation and researches, a few objects belongingto this period have been found which consist of theBuddhu Images, bas-reliefs and Dhammachakra(Wheel-like symbols of the sacred doctrine of theBuddha). They reveal a strong Gupta influence and areprobably of Indian workmanship.

27

Next to the Dvaravati period of the early Buddhistart of Thailand is Sri-Vijaya kingdom. This kingdomextended its sway over parts of present Indonesia,Cambodia and areas of South and Central Thailand.This kingdom reached its zenith around the eighthcentury A.D. The surviving examples of Sri-Vijaya artin Thailand strongly resemble the features of thesplendid monuments of that period, which are foundin Java and Sumatra island. They deal with Mahayanaelements, as at that time the Mahayana sect of Bud-dhism flourished in some island countries of South-East Asia such as Java, Sumatra; the Malay Peninsulaand Southern Thailand as well as in Cambodia. Thisschool of art is called the Sri-Vijaya school of art, whichis regarded as the next stage of growth of Buddhist artin Thailand, after the Dvaravati school of art, whichbears strong elements of Hinayana Buddhist art.

The next stage of development can be seen in theart of the Lopburi period (11th–15th century A.D.). Thearea was occupied by the Khmers or Cambodians andas such the art of this period is known locally as Khmerart which deals with Mahayana elements, just like theSri-Vijaya school of art. This school of Buddhist artmarks the last stage of the growth of Buddhist art inThailand before the rise of the Thai people to power inthe land which is now called Thailand.

The school of art from this period onwards hasbeen classified by the archaeologists and scholars as

28

Pure-Thai art, which consisted of different schools ofart. The Pure-Thai art is classified into five artisticstyles such as:

1. Chiengsaen

2. Sukhothai

3. U-Tong

4. Ayudhya

5. Bangkok styles respectively.

It would not be out of place to discuss here the trans-formation and intercourse of Indian art with the firstthree schools of art in Thailand. The question is howdid the Indian art of different schools come in contactand later became the prototype of the early Buddhistart in Thailand?

As we know, when Indians migrated to the variouscountries of South-East Asia they brought with themIndian culture and artistic activity, and began tospread them in such regions in which they had settled.There were several waves of Indian immigration inSouth-East Asian countries, especially in Thailand.

The immigration of Indians in Thailand startedlong before the beginning of the Christian era. It was inthe 2nd and 1st century B.C. that Emperor Asoka senthis Buddhist missionaries to propagate the new Doc-

29

trine of Theravada Hinayana Buddhism in Suvarna-bhumi, with the result that the Indians started settlingdown in this country from that time onwards.

The second and third centuries A.D. represent theGolden Age of artistic immigration from India intoThailand and other South-East Asian countries. TheGupta school of art succeeded the Amaravati school inthose regions. The opening of Takuapa-Chaiya12

trans-peninsula route was responsible for this culturalfusion towards the end of the eighth century A.D. Theculture of the Dvaravati kingdom is to be consideredas a stylised form of this wave of Indian immigrationto Thailand, which seems largely to penetrate viaBurma and the Three Pagodas Pass route in westernThailand.13

The duration of the next wave of Indian settlers inThailand was from the middle of the sixth to the mid-dle of the eighth century A.D., corresponding to thedominance of the Pallavas in South India. This wavefollowed almost exclusively the trans-peninsularoute from Takuapa to the Bay of Bandon, now inSouth Thailand. Later on, from the second half of theeighth century A.D. Thailand witnessed the Maha-

12. Now these two locations are combined and are located within the Thai border. It lies in the South of Thailand, Chaiya, one of the districts of Surathani province of South Thailand.

13. Pandey, C. B.: India's Contribution to World Thought and Culture, Vivekananda Rock, Memorial Committee, p. 455.

30

yana wave which came to the Bay of Bandon by thesame trans-peninsular route and it brought the influ-ence of the Pala-Sena art of Bengal (India) into theSouth of Thailand.

Scholars suggest that the Indian settlers generallyfollowed three routes for coming to Thailand. All theseroute may have been in use simultaneously or at dif-ferent periods, and they were certainly used to bringinto Siam many different styles of Indian art.

The first route was used by the earliest Indianimmigrants, who came from the region of Amaravatiat the mouth of the Krishna river of South India. Theylanded probably at the port of Martuban, SouthBurma, and then travelled southward through theThree Pagodas pass into south Central Thailand.

But in the days of the Gupta emperors at Magadhain India, the Indian missionaries as well as traderscoming eastward used the ancient port of Tamralipti(Tamluk) on the Hooghly River for their journey start-ing point.14 These emigrants also went to Martaban,unless they were bound for Akyab and Arakan on thewest coast of Burma, since Thaton was the ancient seatof the Mon civilisation in Lower Burma, and Martabanwas an equally useful port either for Thailand or forBurma also.

14. Near modern Calcutta, Capital of west Bengal State, it stands much nearer the sea. (Le May, Reginald, A concise History of Buddhism in Siam).

31

In Pallava times, there was the southern route fromKanchi (Canjeevaram) in Tamil Nadu (India) whichwas the capital of the Palava kings. This route ledeither straight across to Mergui and Tenassarim orslightly southward to Takuapa and Puket Island (JunkCeylon) in the South of Thailand. This route was alsoused by Indian missionaries and traders to reach Thai-land.

Another route to consider there is the entire sea-route round the island of Singapore and up to the Gulfof Siam.15 All these routes facilitated the journey of theIndian immigrants to settle in Thailand and spreadtheir culture and religious art in Thailand.

15. Near modern Calcutta, Capital of West Bengal State, it stands much nearer the sea. (Le May, Reginald, A concise History of Buddhist Art in Siam.) Cf . Department of Fine Arts: Art in Thailand, Bangkok, 1955.

Fig. 25b

32

Chapter IV

The Pre-Thai Art

Art of Dvaravati Period (6th or 7th–11th Century A.D.)

The earliest schools of Buddhist art in Thailand were,of course, pre-Thai schools. The most important ofthese early pre-Thai schools is known by the name ofthe Dvaravati School of Art.

From the architectural and sculptural remains thathave been brought to light during the recent years, itcan be said with some confidence that during thesecond half of the first millennium of the Christian Era,the dominating people inhabiting central Thailandwere of the Mon race, who founded the mighty empireof Dvaravati. Under the leadership of a Mon aristoc-racy, this kingdom was at its height in the 7th and 8thcenturies A.D. and was finally extinguished in the late10th century A.D.16

The name Dvaravati appears in the accounts ofthe Chinese pilgrims — Hiuen-T’sang and I’tsing aswell as the text of other writers, which mention that

16. Boribal Buribhand, Luang Griswold, A. B.: The Royal Monasteries and Their Significance, Thailand Culture Series, No. 2, p. 6.

33

in the part of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, betweenSriksetra, which is the ancient name for Burma(Prome) and Isanapura (Cambodia), there was thekingdom of To-lo-po-ti, a name which George Coedeshas restored as Dvaravati. The Chinese name of thiskingdom of To-lo-po-ti was surmised to be equiva-lent to the Sanskrit Dvaravati which later became partof the official name of two Thai capitals — Ayudhyaand Bangkok.

Rev. E. J. Fitel restores the Chinese name of thiskingdom to Dvara-pati — as the “Lord of the Gate”.17

Other authorities, however, suggested that it is thename of chief place of worship of Lord Vishnu in hisAvatara of Krishna in the town of western India whichis known today as Dwarka.18

But, archaeological evidence throws new lightupon the name of this kingdom and recently twosilver coins were unearthed at Nakon Pathom prov-ince in Central Thailand, bearing a Sanskrit inscrip-tion which might be translated as “the merit of thekings of Dvaravati.” This evidence supports the olderidentification of To-lo-po-ti that this kingdom waslocated most likely in the Central part of modernThailand.

From this evidence as well as the discovery ofarchaeological artifacts and monuments in Central

17. Eitel, E. J. Rev: Chinese Buddhism, p. 18.18. Thomas, E. J.: Life of Buddha, p. 126.

34

Thailand, it is clear that the kingdom called Dvaravatiwas situated between modern Burma and Cambodia.Of this kingdom all that can be said at present is thatits predominate people were of the Mon race under theinfluence of Indian civilisation, and they practised theBuddhist faith and that their sculpture was based onGupta models.

Many of the Theravada Buddhist objects and mon-uments, which have been attributed to the 7th centuryA.D., have been discovered in the central part ofThailand. This style of art is called “Dvaravati schoolof art”. The exact location of the capital city of thiskingdom is, however, still unknown. It might havebeen at the town of Nakon Pathom, at an ancient site atKu-Bua, Ratburi Province or at U-Tong in SupanburiProvince.19

It is said that the Dvaravati period is the later suc-cessor of Suvarnabhumi, because antiquities belong-ing to the Suvarnabhumi or Mauryan style of art havealso been discovered in the previously mentionedlocations in Thailand. Thus, the art of Suvarnabhumior “Land of Gold” has its special relationship with thisart of Dvaravati.

Dvaravati art flourished in the central part of Thai-land, for instance, at Nakon Pathom, U-Tang in theprovince of Supanburi and Ratburi, and at Muang Fa

19. Department of Fine Arts: Architecture in Dvaravati Period, p. 4.

35

Daed Sung Yang in Kalasin in the North. Some Dvara-vati sculptures were also discovered in South Thai-land, and early Buddha images in Cambodia alsobelong to the same style of early Dvaravati. In aboutthe middle of the 7th century A.D. , the inhabitants ofthe town of Lavo (Lopburi) migrated to found anotherkingdom in the north, that is the kingdom of Haripun-jaya. Thus, the Dvaravati school of art was carried bythem to that kingdom also.

According to archaeological research and restora-tion the Buddhist monuments belonged to this schoolof art and represented the contemporary art of theGupta temple architecture. Most of the monumentswere in the form of open-air structures. From theartistic point of view, it can be said that the monu-ments of Dvaravati art represented the earliest Bud-dhist religious buildings in Thailand. Archaeologistshave, however, discovered the pure Indian structurein origin, which fully supports Indian influence in thefield of architecture in Thailand before the beginningof the 7th century A.D. Later Dvaravati religiousbuildings which were erected for commemoration ofTheravada Hinayana Buddhism in Thailand con-sisted of different styles of architecture. The chiefamong the Buddhist building of this period is thestupa architecture of different styles. This stupa-structure of Dvaravati can be divided into four fol-lowing categories:

36

1. The five-storeyed stupa or chedi with terrace ineach storey. The basements of the stupa were deco-ratted with the frieze of stucco and burnt-clay illus-trating the narrative story of Buddhist texts.

2. The stupa with a square base, has a central part inthe form of an inverted alms-bowl and a final partdivided into many superimposed, flat rings termi-nated by a bulb. This style of stupu might belong toart of Mahayana Buddhism.

3. The stupa with a square base, with the central partin a hemispheric shape and a pointed finial.

4. Stupa with square base and five terraces, the lowestbeing the biggest and the smallest terrace at the top.Each terrace has niches, three in number in each ofthe four directions. Inside these three niches stand-ing Buddha Images are housed.

At Baripunjaya, now modern Lamphun, in NorthThailand, one of the outstanding Dvaravati architec-tural buildings is the sanctuary at Wat Kukut in Lam-phun, which has five successive terraces overlappingone another like the sanctuary Sat-Mahal-Praasada inPolonnaruva, Ceylon, both of which had adopted theGupta style of architecture.20

20. Department of Fine Arts: Op. Cit., p. 8.

37

The architecture of Dvaravati art in the North-Eastern part of Thailand consisted of religious build-ings, which bear the strong influence of the templearchitecture of the Gupta period as regards its plan ofa square basement. In each corner of the basementthere was a series of pillars, each pillar having thelotus-shape on the capital.

It is to be noticed here that in this period, the artistsdid not know the use of roof-supporters in the erectionof buildings. So the roofs of architectural buildings inthe Dvaravati period were modelled on the style ofIndian architecture by the use of material overlappingeach other in successive terraces. The materials used inthis period are brick and lime, masonry and stucco.The subject matter directly came from the Gupta art ofIndia by its outstanding feature of decorative stucco atthe base of the religious building, lying in the form ofa spiral flower.

But the most important and prominent monumentof this period is the great stupa or chedi at NakonPathom province. The great temple called by the Thaisas Phra Pattom Chedi, literally meaning the first sanc-tuary of this land. It consists of a vast circular Pra-Chedi or stupa with four viharas grouped round it anda terrace platform. The dome, of circular form, of thisstupa has its shape like an inverted basin or cup. Thebase of this stupa, also square, has a circumambientgallery and enclosure outside (Fig. 3).

38

According to some authorities, this great stupa atNakom Pathom had its original form erected by theMon. With the passage of time, it was completelyruined. In 1860 A.D., King Mongkut or Rama IV of theBangkok period decided to restore it in the form ofPhra Chedi. He ordered four new Viharas to replacethe old ones, as well as the present circular gallerywhich completely encloses the stupa. He also placedmodels of the original monuments in the enclosedgrounds.

Fig. 3

A replica of the Original Chedi of Phra Phathom at Nakon Pathom

Province, Central Thailand

39

The entire work was not completed till the end ofthe reign of King Chulalongkorn or Rama V, who cov-ered the dome of Pra Chedi with the orange, glazedChinese tiles which now add so much to its beauty.This great stupa or Pra Pathom Chedi is the greatestand most perfect example of religious buildings in theDvaravati school of art in Thailand from remote timesup to the present day.

Besides architecture, the real glory of the Dvaravatischool of art is its fine and splendid sculpture as wellas stucco decoration. Sculpture was already in produc-tion in the 6th or 7th century A.D. The style and artisticinspiration, as well as workmanship, were based onthe examples of the art of Amaravati from South India.But it was mainly indebted, both in iconography andsculptured style, to the Gupta and post-Gupta art ofIndia as seen in the cave-temples of Ajanta, Kanheri,Ellora, etc. 21

In iconography, the Dvaravati sculpture inventedhardly anything new. On the whole, they followed theexample of Indian cave-temples faithfully. But theyintroduced a few variations, such as the standingBuddha image. For instance, in Indian art of Amara-vati as well as Gupta art, the right hand alone performsthe gesture while the left hand grasps part of the robe,but Dvaravati art usually makes the left hand perform

21. Boribal, Buribhand, Luang & Griswold, A. B.: Thai Images of the Buddhas, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 18., p. 7.

40

the same gesture as the right. The Dvaravati sculptorswere at their best in stone carving, chief among thisproduction being no doubt the Buddha Images of dif-ferent gestures and character. The modelling followsthe Gupta idiom, but tends towards a greater simplifi-cation of forms which are firmer but less massive.

Sculpture of this period, besides stone carvingregarded as the most skilful production of Dvaravatiartists, are a large number of materials or symbolicproductions such its the stone Wheel of Law andGouching Deer (Fig. 4) also have been discovered incentral Thailand i.e. from Nakon Pathom, Ratburi,U-Tong and other areas. All these are symbolic anti-quities of Suvarnabhumi.

Fig. 4

Stone Wheelof Law found at

Phra Pathom Chedi,Nakon Pathom Province,

Central Thailand, Dvaravati Period

41

The Buddha Image in the Dvaravati school of art is themost outstanding feature. It is said that the DvaravatiBuddha Images clearly display influences of the Guptaand post-Guptu styles, which flourished in Centraland Western India in the 4th–8th centuries. As theDvartavati kingdom lasted a long time, its art was alsoinfluenced by the Pala style. Most of the DvaravatiBuddha images were carved in stone and only smallones were cast in bronze. There are two styles of theBuddha Image in this period:

1. The Early period and

2. The Later period.

The Early style of Buddha Image greatly resemblesthose of the Gupta and post-Gupta prototypes. Thecharacteristics of the Buddha Image of this class con-sists of the small ushnisha or protuberance of theBuddha's skull, the distended ear-lobes, the spiral curlsof the hair and their abnormal size, the elliptical formof the face, the prominent, bulging upper eyelids, thelightly outlined eyebrows in the form of a swallowspringing from the top of the nose-bridge, the long eye-brows, unsmoothed forehead, the broad mouth, bighands and feet, and the modelling of the torso, wherethe limbs appear from under the robe like a nude sex-less body under a fine diaphanous cloth (Fig.5).

42

Thus the general appearance of the early DvaravatiBuddha Image is very similar to that of Indian imagesof the Gupta period, especially to those from Sarnathand the cave-temple of Ajanta.22 Another feature ofthe Buddha Images is the thin robe closely attached to

22. Le May, Reginald: The Culture of South East Asia, p. 65.

Fig. 5

Stone Standing Buddha-Imagein the attitude of benediction,

found at Ayudhya Province, Central Thailand, Dvaravati Period

43

the body. The robe has both the short form which endsover the chest and nipple, and the long form whichspreads up to the navel.

The image pedestal obviously represents an ex-panded lotus-flower and the shape, with the largepetal, in the middle of lotus-petal has the prominentaxis, and it is surrounded by small lotus-petals. Thepedestal consists of both up and down lotus designsof, a row of lotus-petals.

As for the standing Buddha Image, there appearsthe halo behind the Buddha's head. This halo differs inits feature from that of a Gupta image. The latter hasthe circular halo, while the Dvaravati's Buddha imagehas the halo in the form of carving a curved linearound the head of the Buddha, formed to a pointedend on the top of halo itself. The Buddha Image of theearly period is carved in the attitude of benediction.

The Dvaravati Buddha Image of the Later periodhas stronger indigenous features such as large hair-curls, a flat face, curved and connected eyebrows,prominent eyes, a flat nose and thick lips. The ushni-sha or protuberance of the skull, along with the dis-tended ear-lobes, and the supernatural anatomy, is notconspicuous. These features, which are clearly deline-ated, often recall a Mon racial type, and a delicate line,either incised or in relief accents the silhouette of thelips also.23

23. Boribal, Buribhand, Luang & Griswold, A. B.: Op. Cit., p. 7.

44

Another sculptural production which belongs tothis school of art, besides the Buddha Image, has beenfound at Nakon Pathom in the form of many terracottasculptures illustrating the heads of Hindu gods, calledDevatta Heads. On the other hand, many stucco-sculptures were also carved to decorate the base of theDvaravati temple, the ordination hall vihara andstupa. These stucco-sculptures were moulded intomany forms such as Buddha Head dwarfs and DevataGod or divinities and the statues of Bodhisattva Lokes-vara (Fig. 6). It shows that the Buddhism of the Maha-yana sect had also spread its influence into the Dvara-vati period.

Fig. 6

Stucco Limestone: theStatues of Bodhisattva

Lokitesavaras,Dvaravati Period

45

Besides terracotta figurines and stucco-sculpture,Dvaravati art also consists of other religious objectssuch as Buddhist votive tablets, which were found atNakon Pathom, Ratburi, Supanburi, etc, the Buddhistholy sites.24 Later on, they were moulded as icons bypoor Buddhists who could not afford to buy stone orbronze statues.

Thus, this school of art flourished from the 7th cen-tury to the 13th century when it finally disappearedbut its influence became the prototype of later PureThai school of arts, which imitated and adopted them.

The history of origin and introduction of Thaipainting in this country is also an interesting subject.Its history may be traced back to the period of pre-Thai art. But the remains of the paintings still surviv-ing from the earliest period are very few in numberfor the study of its evolution. Scholars believe thatthere are some remains of paintings of the Dvaravatiperiod. They are regarded as the oldest paintings inthis country.

It was the Dvaravati kingdom in Central Thailandwhich undoubtedly had connections with Indiaduring the Gupta period. It is reasonable to expectthat an Indian tradition of paintings such as may beseen at the Ajanta Caves in India or the Sigiriya Hill inCeylon would also be implanted in Thailand. We haveonly a few bits of rather crudely incised stones to

24. Department of Fine Arts: Op. Cit., p. 5.

46

show that the paintings belong to the Dvaravatiperiod, but they are connected to the art of painting inIndia and Ceylon.

The Dvaravati crudely-incised stones representedthe figure of man who is seated in the posture withknees raised with the arm stretched, touching theground. Besides his body, there are the figures of awater-pot, wheel, conch shell and a star. According toarchaeologists these paintings mean the four sacredobjects, which were probably similar to those done bythe Mons in Dvaravati in the Western Mon of Burma atPagan around the 12th century A.D. (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7

A noble man with four auspicious signs: Engraved on stone, Dvaravati Period

47

The Art of Sri-Vijaya Period (8th–13th Century A.D.)

In the South peninsula of Thailand, there arose a pow-erful kingdom between the 8th and 13th century A.D.in the Malay archipelago South of Thailand. This king-dom was called Sri-Vijaya kingdom, which at one timeruled over the island of Sumatra, Malaysia and South-ern Thailand. The Buddhist art that developed inSouthern Thailand during the Sri-Vijaya period hasbeen termed as the Sri-Vijaya school of art, which isregarded by the historians and scholars as a furtherstage of early Buddhist art in Thailand, next to the lateDvaravati school of art.

The Sri-Vijaya kingdom had its capital city situat-ted in Sumatra island, in the east of Palembang. It wasthe most powerful maritime kingdom of South-EastAsia since the 8th century A.D. Its dominion extendedup to Java and the Malay archipelago, as well asNakon Sritammarat (at that time called Tamalinga)and Chaiya (Carahi) in the South of Thailand. The artof Sri-Vijaya kingdom (the Buddhist art) also bor-rowed and imitated workmanship from India, like theDvaravati school of art.

The Buddhist art of this period however belongedto the Mahaykana school as Mahayana or NorthernBuddhism from India flourished in this kingdom fromthe beginning of the 7th century A.D. onwards. We do

48

not know exactly when the art of Sri-Vijaya kingdomborrowed the style of art from India, but scholars gen-erally believe that Indian art spread to this land at thesame time when the people from Southern Indiamigrated to settle down in South-East Asia. TheIndians established an empire called Champa Nagaraor Champa, which was located near the coast of SouthVietnam (in present time). The art of this empire andthe Sri-Vijayan art closly resemble each other. Thusthere is no doubt that both art styles came from India.

The Sri-Vijaya kingdom was established aroundthe Southern Sea in the vicinity of Sumatra, Java, Bali,Borneo and Celebes island. I’tsing calls this kingdomChe-li-fo-che. But in the records of the Arab writers itis called as “the kingdom of Zabag”,25 which was themost powerful maritime power. The capital city wasbelieved to have been located at Palembang in SumatraIsland,26 which is still controversial.

The establishment of this kingdom represents agreat and unique event in the history of South-EastAsia, because this kingdom spread its dominion farand wide. About the eighth century A.D. this kingdominvaded Champa as well as the Water Chen-la empire.According to an Indian inscription of 8th century A.D.

25. For details: (Chatterjee, B. R.: Indian Cultural Influence in Cambodia).

26. This view is confirmed by the accounts of I-Tsing who refers to the capital of Che-li-fo-che kingdom as Foche. Foche may be identified with Palembang in Eastern Sumatra.

49

the Sri-Vijaya army went to invade South India with anaval expedition, but failed.

Some scholars believe that the Sri-Vijaya kingdomwas founded by the members of the Sailendra dynastywhose origin is still obscure. The history of this king-dom is closely connected with Java island, where twoimportant dynasties flourished — the Sanjaya andSailendra dynasties. The Sanjaya dynasty belonged tothe Javanese nationality and worshipped Hinduism —Saivism. The Sailendra dynasty was a new powerfuldynasty whose kings were followers of MahayanaBuddhism. Some scholars suggest that this dynastywas founded by the settlers who had migrated from theKalinga state of India about 3rd century B.C. Others,however, hold that this dynasty was of Javanese origin.

Prof. G. Goedes believes that this dynasty had des-cended from the ancient dynasty of Funan empire. Whenthe Funan empire was destroyed by the Chen-la inva-sion, the people moved towards the South in Java, andconsequently conquered the king of the Sanjaya dynastyof Java. Thus, they established their kingdom and namedtheir dynasty as Sailendra (King of the Mountain).

The members of the Sailendra dynasty also came torule over Sri-Vijaya kingdom of Sumatra till the lastphase of its destruction resulting from three powerfulforeign invasions:

1. King Rajindra Chola I of the Chola Dynasty ofSouth India.

50

2. The Majapahit empire of Java situated to thesouth of Sri-Vijaya and

3. The Sukhothai kingdom of Thailand underKing Ram Khaemhang.

The records of the Arab writers and inscriptions provethat the people of this kingdom were the followers ofthe Mahayana Buddhist sect. In the field of art, the Sri-Vijaya art may be regarded as one of the perfect earlyBuddhist arts in South-East Asia. In Java, Sumatra andother island-countries, many of the Buddhist monu-ments and antiquities bear strong Mahayana character.

The great stupa of Borobudur in Central Java andChandi-stupu in that island are dedicated to the Maha-yana divinities Bodhisattva and Dhyani Buddha, forexample. In South Thailand, Sri-Vijaya art, both inarchitecture and sculpture, had its great impact inChaiya sub-district of Surathani Province, SongkhaProvince, at Ra-Not and Cha-Ting-Pra sub districts ofNakon Sri-Tammarat Province, and at Ta-Kua-Pa. Alsoin other parts of the country, the remains of this schoolof art have been found in U-Tong of Supannaburi Prov-ince and at Sukhothai of North and Central Thailand.27

The Sri-Vijaya school of Buddhist art received itsartistic inspiration and workmanship from the Gupta,post Guptaj Amravati and Pal-Sena schools of art.

27. Department of Fine Arts: The Brief History and Archaeology of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, p. 18.

51

Antiquities of this period, either in stone or bronze thathave been discovered in Southern Thailand are so sim-ilar to those found in Java or Sumatra that sometimes itis very difficult to distinguish them, because most ofthem are of one and the same artistic elementsMahayan Buddhism. But, apart from Buddhist antiqui-ties of this period, Brahmanic objects have also beenfound in some provinces of South Thailand.

It is said that most of Sri-Vijayan architecture wasrepresented at Chaiya, Surathani, which was withoutdoubt a very important centre during the Sri-Vijayaperiod. The monuments of this period were built indedication of Mahayana Buddhism. The type of struc-ture consists of a mondop or cell-chamber to house theBuddha Image while the summit of the structure waserected in the form of stupa with successive, super-imposed terraces. The best example is at Pra BaromThat Chaiya (Fig. 8 on the page following this one).

This type resembles the small Chandi or Stupa inJava island. The monument at Nakon Sri-Tammaratalso has its best style consisting of the body of structuredecorated with arch-niches. The top of structure con-sists of five towers. There is a central and large towerplaced in the middle, while the other four small towersare placed in each of the corners of the structure. Thissignifies the universe having the same architecture asin Java. The sculptural objects of Sri-Vijaya art in thisperiod are the images of Mahayana deities, chief

52

among them being the statue of Bodhisattva Avalok-itesvara. On the other hand the Buddha Images withdifferent gestures were also created during this period.

Fig. 8

Stupa Pra Barom That at Wat Phra Mahathat, Chaiya, Surathani Province, South Thailand, Sri-Vijaya period

53

The Buddha Image belonging to this school of artshows the artistic inspiration and workmanship of artof the Pala-Sena period. The ushnisha or protuberanceof the skull is like that of Dvaravati art and consists ofthe skull with the slight, small curl hair-knot. But, insome Buddha Images, there is an urna between theeyebrow or middle of the forehead. The figure of aBodhi leaf always is attached in front of the ushnishaof the Buddha, the smoothed forehead and the archedand curved eyebrows, flat face like the late Dvaravatistyle of the Buddha Image.

Other features are the unsquare chin-shape typeand soft lips and mouth. The end of the robe consistsof both types as short end over the chest and the long-end hanging down up to the navel. There is a largelotus-petal accompanied by the small one up to threelotus-petals in the pedestal. The hands and feet of theBuddha are gentle and slender along with the body,unlike in Dvaravati art. Thus, the style of the Sri-VijayaBuddha Image represents the advanced stage of the artof Buddha Image in the pre-Thai Buddhist art.

The outstanding sculptural production of thisperiod is the statue of Bodhisattva Avalokitesavara,the supreme divinity of Mahayana Buddhism. AtChaiya, in Surathani Province, and other provinces ofSouth Thailand, the images of that Mahayana deityhave been discovered. Its features bear the strongGupta and Pala-Sena influence. One statue of the

54

Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara from Chiya is regarded asthe masterpiece of sculpture in this period.

One interesting feature of this statue is the cord orsacred thread running from the left shoulder down thebody and reaching below the waist. This is part of thesacred thread of the “twice-born”, of which the remainderon the back of the figure is invisible. It has no connectionwith the similar thread hanging over the right shoulder.

Other features of these statues are the original andattractive form of the crown, and the jewelled orna-ments on the neck and arms as well as the streamers,like strands of hair, falling on both shoulders. There isthe scarf or fold of the robe across the body in additionto the thread already mentioned (Fig. 9).28

Apart from the statue of the Bodhisattva, some Sri-Vijaya art objects were found from a field for instance,the Mahayana figure of Maitreya Bodhisattva. Thisdeity is the “Future” Buddha, it was also found in theNorth-Eastern part of Thailand. The figure was proba-bly imported from the South. But the peculiar featureof sculpture of this period is the Buddha under theNaga image. This image is not in the usual attitude ofmeditation, but in the attitude of subduing Mara theEvil, which is rather rare. On the base of the Naga isinscribed a date equivalent to 1183 A.D. and thus it canbe regarded as late Sri-Vijaya sculpture.

28. Le May, Reginald: Op. Cit., p.p. 81–84. Cf. Kramrisch, Stella: Pala and Sena Sculpture.

55

In the Sri-Vijaya period in Southern Thailand, we havethe remains of paintings belonging to this period. It isthe oldest painting of which some traces are found ontwo walls of Silpa Cave, half-way up a low mountainin a hamlet or tambon named Na Tham of Yala prov-ince. The paintings were defaced by fanatics soon aftertheir discovery at few years ago, but enough remainsto discern rows of Buddha Images with disciples, and

Fig. 9

[Unintelligble information from bad photocopy of

this material]…Surathani

Province, South Thailand, Sri-Vijaya Period

(8th–13th Century A.D.)

56

three standing female figures with leaf-shaped halos,presumably daughters of Mara (Fig.10) and one ofwhich might portray Mekhala (the goddess of light-ning ) and Ramasun (the god of thunder). The pig-ments are a muddy red, black, blue and yellow. Thestyle of this oldest painting seems to be the mixture ofSinhalese and Sri-Vijaya styles of painting. Its datecould be about the end of the 13th century A.D.Though the paintings in Silpa Cave have more or lessgreatly deteriorated, and are of a late period and ratherinexequisite workmaanship, they are still of greatimportance because they are the only example of Sri-Vijaya painting ever found in Thailand.

The art in Sri-Vijaya period flourished from the 8thcentury A.D. without any break till the last part of the13th century A.D. when the kingdom of Sri-Vijayacame to an end due to the invasions of other powerfulkingdoms in both the South and North. With the col-lapse of the kingdom, the art also slowly and graduallydisappeared from the land.

Fig. 10Three females(probably the

daughter of Mara):the Mural painting in

Silpa Cave, Yala,Sri-Vijaya Period

57

� Lopburi�

The Art of Lopburi Period (11th–13th Century A.D.)

The final state of the early or pre-Thai art in Thailandis to be seen in the art of the Lopburi period. It is thepre-Thai art, which bears strong influence of Khmerart. It is said that in the central, Eastern and North-Eastern parts of Thailand a new style of early Bud-dhist art is found, both in architecture and sculpture,which has affinities with the Khmer art of Kambuja orCambodia.

This period is known as the Khmer period in Thai-land. According to Siamese archaeological circles, it isgenerally understood that the period of Khmer domin-ion extended over Central Thailand, including thevalley of the Menam River, with its chief centre at Lop-buri or Lavo.

It is believed that during the occupation of thewhole of Central Thailand and the valley of Menamriver by the Khmers, besides political establishment inthis land, the artistic activities of Khmers also tookplace there, especially at the town of Lavo or Lopburi.The political and cultural domination of the Khmerscovered this area for nearly three centuries.

The close relationship between the Khmers and theprimitive tribes during this period marked the move-ment in the field of cultural and artistic activities inThailand before the migration of the Thai people into

59

Indo-China and in the land which now comprisesThailand.

Besides the Khmer’s dominion over the Menamvalley of Central Thailand, the Khmers had also ruledupon the ancient Mon Kingdom of Dvaravati, andsome principalities in North of present Thailand. TheKhmer King divided the Dvaravati kingdom into twoseparate provinces, which formed the headquarters ofKhmer dominion. It was ruled by a Khmer general orViceroy. The Northern Province had its headquartersat Sukhothai and the Southern Province had Lavo orLopburi as its centre.

After the establishment of the Angkor empire byJayavarman II up to the beginning of the l0th centuryA.D., Hinduism of the Saivite sect became the state reli-gion with the introduction of the Deva-Raja cult by thatking. The Khmer monuments in the form of stone sanc-tuarys or temples, called Prasad Hin (Prasad=Sanctuary,Hin=stone in the Thai language) were found scattered inseveral towns of the present Thailand. All these monu-ments were dedicated to the Brahmanic deities. Theywere mainly Saivite monuments, because the Khmersduring this period of construction, were the followers ofSaivism. The Khmer monuments were in Siamese terri-tory especially at the town of Lopburi, where even nowseveral large and perfect Khmer monuments can beseen. This means that Lopburi was the most importantcentre of Khmer dominion and authority. The style of

60

these monuments closely resembles the style in theKhmer empire itself.

King Jayavarman VII (1181–1220) was a Buddhistking, who spread his political and artistic power in thewhole of the Khmer empire and vassal state, includingthe towns in present Thai territory. He built manymonuments to commemorate the supreme deity ofMahayana school of Buddhism such as the temples ofSayon, Ta-Prohm, Prah-Khan, Banteay Kadai, etc. Hefurther spread his political dominion toward theNorth-Eastern and Central parts of modern Thailandat the beginning of 12th centuryA.D., which is con-firmed by one of the Khmer inscriptions,29 as well asthe remains of the Khmer temples bearing Buddhistelements in several towns in Central and North-Eastern parts of modern Siamese territory.

All these temples were built to shelter the statuesof this King. The name of this statue is Jayabuddha-mahanatha.

After the end of 12th A.D. the Thai people whocame from Southern China for their livelihood, startedentering the Indo-Chinese peninsula, especially thearea now called the present Thailand. There was longwarfare between them and the Khmers, who weredefeated by the Thais. The Thais gained complete con-trol over the Khmers towards the close of 13th centuryA.D. The Thais set up their independent kingdom

29. For details: (Coedes, George.: Angkor, p. 24).

61

named Sukhothui or Sukhodaya. The Thais finallysmashed the Khmer power in the middle of the 15thcentury A.D., and Kambuja or Cambodia became aVassal state of Thailand. Right up to modern times,Angkor itself was in the Siamese territory until it wasceded to France as late as 1907 A.D.

The Lopburi school of art has its chronology basedon the periods of similar Khmer art in Cambodia, forinstance the Angkor Wat style of art (circa 1110–1175A.D.) at the time of King Suryavarman II, who built theAngkor Wat temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu (or Vais-navism), or the Bayon style of art (circa 1177–1230 A.D.)which flourished in the days of King Jayavarman VII,who built the Bayon temple which marked the promi-nent monument of Mahayana elements and work-manship.

But, some of the Lopburi antiquities found in Thai-land are, however, much older than these two Khmerperiods.30 Some of them might date back to the 7thcentury A.D., but most of the objects and monumentsdate only from the 11th century A.D. onwards. TheLopburi objects are carved from stone or cast inbronze. Most of the Buddhist objects belong to theMahayana workmanship.

The architecture of the Lopburi school of art avail-able in Lopburi and other towns in central and North-

30. For details: (Na Faknam, N.: Art of the Buddha Image, pp.154–156).

62

Eastern parts of Thailand are of great significance byvirtue of their peculiar features, which bear the stronginfluence of Khmer art. Both Brahmanical as well asBuddhist Mahayana monuments appeared in Thai-land.

The outstanding monument of this period isPrasad Hin or stone temple at Lopburi. The stonetemple of this period at Pimai, Nakon RatchasimaProvince, is regarded as one of the best examples ofKhmer architecture in Thailand. This temple appearsto be Buddhistic, probably of the Mahayanistic orderjudging from the carved lintels over the doors of themain sanctuary. The stone temple of Pimai is enclosedwithin a rectangular wall.

Archeological researches have shown that theorigin of this temple dates back to the time of Jayavar-man II in the ninth century A.D. Its plan comprises asquare or rectangular form, there being a one-sidedoor-entrance. The other three door-entrances were inthe form of flake door. The main sanctuary has the por-tico in front. Also in some cases, a group of viharasaccompanied the main sanctuary with a verandah orgallery to connect them.31

At Lopburi, there are many large and perfectKhmer monuments, but prominent among them weretwo main Khmer temples. Wat Maha-Tat and PraPrang Sam Yot (the temple of the three stupas or the

31. Department of Fine Arts: The Lopburi Art in Thailand, p. 37.

63

temple of three towers,32 Wat Maha-Tat has its archi-tectural features on the usual plan of a sanctuary-towerwith a mandapa attached to the whole in a walledenclosure and it seems to carry the eye with it as it soarsupward to heaven. The Pra Prang Sam Yot stands onrising ground. The design and conception in the con-struction of this temple are not Buddhistic, but Brah-manic. The three towers of this temple ranged along-side one another inevitably bring to mind the HinduTrinity of Brahma, Siva and Vishnu. Non-Buddhist fig-ures too, have been found on the towers — bearded fig-ures with their hands resting on clubs, which alsopoints to an originally Brahmanic construction.

Three of these towers, called Prang, represent thepeculiar form of Khmer architecture. The Prang for thefirst time appears in Thailand and later on, this style ofarchitecture became one of the developed religiousstructures of Thai Buddhist art. The Prang shape wasclosely similar to Prang or tower of Angkor Wat or aBayon temple and other Khmer towers in the 11th cen-tury A.D.

The Prang was composed of stone or brick along-side from below to top accompanied by the design of ajackfruit petal as its decoration. This style of architec-ture in pyramidal shape, no doubt, bears the strong

32. The Thai word designated the great monument in Lopburi School of Art, located in Lopburi as Pra-Prang-stupa or temple, Sam means three, Yod means towers, summit.

64

influence of Indian architecture of the sikhara of theIndian temple in Indo-Aryan or North Indian style.The Indian sikhara may be regarded as the prototypeof Khmer prang which was borrowed later by the Thaiarchitects (Fig. 11).

Generally speaking, the architecture of this period dif-fers slightly from the Khmer Monuments in Kambujaproper. The architectural buildings of Lopburi usuallyhave a low basement of foundation, not erected on thehigh platform like the Khmer monuments.

One of the important features of this architecture isthat the temple has no window, but there is the wind-

Fig. 11

The temple of Phra Prang Sam Yot: Lopburi Province, Central Thailand, Architecture of Lopburi Period

65

hole instead of the former. In this art also, the stupa (inThai called Chedi) is present in the form of a square inplan. There are five successive superimposed terrace-squares. The fifth terrace is the main and large stupa.In each of the square terraces, there are the niches toshelter the standing Buddha Images. The corner ofeach stupa-terrace is decorated with the miniaturesmall stupa.

The town planning of this period was square inplan. In the geometric centre of town planning, spacewas reserved to erect the main, large temple as thecentre of town. There used to be several temples inBuddhistic as well as Saivite and Vaisnavite character.The town consisted of gate-entrances and the fort withsemi-laterite enclosures. This style of town-planningwas, no doubt, similar to the town-planning of the cityof Angkor Thom, built by King Jayavarman VII inKambuju, of which the Bayon temple was the impor-tant central sanctuary in the geometric Centre ofAngkor Thom. Thus, it may rightly be said that thetown-planning of the Lopburi period is a miniaturereplica of Angkor Thom.

The Lopburi School of art produced perfect sculp-ture in bronze and stone. The sculptures of Mahayanadivinity consist of several styles and gestures such asthe statues of Bodhisattva Lokesvara and Mahayanagoddess Prajnaparamita. For Mahayana propagationthe Lopburi art borrowed its style from the Sri-Vijaya

66

art and Kambuja itself and the Hinayana elementsfrom the art of Dvaravati period. There are severalBuddha Images in different mudras or gestures.

But the most popular style of Buddha Image in thisperiod is the seated Buddha Image under the Nagacalled Pra Nag Prok (in Thai) meaning the Buddhaseated under the hood of the Naga's head. Naga is thegreat serpent which appears in Hindu and Khmermythology. On the other hand, the decorated BuddhaImages with ornaments were also available in thisperiod.

The Lopburi artists also carved the statues of bothBrahmanic deities Siva and Vishnu, whose worshipwas popular in Kambuja and Lopburi. The stylebelonged to the Khmer Angkor Wat style and some ofthem were of typical Bayon style. The materials usedare sandstone and bronze. The style of the BuddhaImages of Lopburi art consisted of a single image seatedor standing on a pedestal, or seated under the Naga.

From the late 12th century A.D., however, the artistcarved a group of Buddhas on the same pedestal forthe first time.33 Sometimes, the Mahayana Triratna(Three Gems) is shown personified by the Buddhaunder the Naga in the middle, flanked by the Bodhi-sattva Avalokitesvara on the right and the Mahayanagoddess Prajnaparamita on the left. For Brahmanic

33. For details: (Department of Religion: Hinayana and Mahayana Sects of Buddhism, p. 65).

67

images, for instance, we have images of Lord Siva,Vishnu and Visvakarma.

The characteristics of the Buddha images of thisschool of art consist of two styles — the Early and LateLopburi style. The early style represented the BuddhaImage, with the ushnisha or protuberance on the skullin the form of a low gland like that of Dvaravati ush-nisha, but the shape assumed different forms as thecoil of a shell or shape of a small cone. The other wasin the shape of a crown and a lotus flower surroundedwith its petals. There are two styles of hair as the par-allel fold hair and the curls of hair. Also the partingline round the top-knot of the Buddha can be seen.The head-dress and low crown of the Buddha's headare available.

The face of the Buddha is broad and square inshape with large, thick mouth and lip, prominent eye-brow, and prominent nose and square chin. TheBuddha's robe is of two forms: the robe covering thewhole of the body in the case of the standing Buddhaand robe with bare right shoulder in the case of theseated Buddha image. The end of the robe is hangingdown up to the navel. The rim of a skirt-like lower robewas in prominent position. The ear is long whichextendeds up to the shoulder. In the case of the deco-rated ornamented Buddha there are neck-bracelets,arm-bracelets and necklaces around the neck and theupper part of the Buddha’s body.

68

The Buddha’s pedestal is in the form of a lotusflower in both forms of up and down lotus-petal. Thepetal of a lotus is in the form of the rim line at the endof each petal.

On the other hand, the Late Lopburi Buddha imageconsists of the following features. The head is not inthe form of square but in oval shape. There is anotherline or rim attached at the mouth of the Buddha. Thedesign of ushnisha is in the form of a long lotus petaland the small halo placed the middle of a lotus ushni-sha. This halo is cone-like. In the case of the Buddhawith the Naga, the peculiar features are the eyes whichare sunk in the face. The beard and moustache also canbe seen. The skirt-like lower rob is illustrated by theprominent rim at the waist and ankle of the Buddha.The end of this robe is in the form of rectangular clothappearing in front of a girdle. The halo of the Buddhais the seven- hooded uncrowned Naga whichstretched over the head of the Buddha.34 The coil of theNaga’s body consisted of three parts. The Buddha’sface is shown in sensitive and benign attitude, smilinglike in the Bayon period in Kambuja. The BuddhaImages of this period have been classified under sevendifferent mudras or gestures the most prominent ofwhich is mudra of the Buddha under the seven-hooded uncrowned Naga as already related above(Fig. 12).

34. Department of Fine Arts: The Siamese Buddha Image; Cf. Bori-bal Buribhand, Luang: The Thai Images of the Buddha, p. 42.

69

The statues of the Bodhisattva during this period con-sist of the figure of small Dhyani Buddha placed infront of the ushnisha of the statue. The head of thestatue is square and the forehead is straight. The jaw issquare and firm and the eyebrows are almost straight.The nose is rather flattened and the mouth is long withfull lips. The eyes look downward and seem almost

Fig. 12

The Stone Seated Buddha under a Naga, found at Wat Na Phra

Meru, Ayudhya Province, Central Thailand — Art of

Lopburi Period

70

closed. The hair is no longer formed of spiral curls butseems like scales divided by partition lines. The wholegives the appearance of a strong, ruthless being, whichis too human to fulfil the conditions necessary for therepresentation of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva.35

Besides this, there is no trace of painting from Lop-buri period in Thailand.

Thus, the Lopburi school of art flourished fornearly two centuries up to the latter part of the 13thcentury A.D. The Thai people who came from South-ern China became now the new powerful leaders ofIndo-Chinese Peninsula replacing the Khmer politicaldominion. But the Lopburi school of art still flourishedand the remains of the monuments and antiquities canbe seen even today.

35. L. Le May, Reginald: Op. Cit., pp. 150–151.

Fig. 25aDrawing

(Bronze?) of the Buddha’s

Footprint from Wat Phra Sadet Khamphaeng-

phet, Sukhothai Period

[Detail is on page 32, Fig. 25b]

71

Chapter V

The Development of Buddhist Art in Thailand

Let us now study the real Thai Buddhist art, producedby Thai artists. The real Thai art flourished in Thailandfrom the beginning of the Siamese history — late 13thcentury A.D., and to the present day. The Thai people,who came to settle in Thailand, had their own artisticactivities and this Thai art is closely connected withSiamese history. They imitated or adopted someaspects of art from the primitive Buddhist art availablein this country. The early Buddhist arts of Mon, Khmeror Sri-Vijayan people served as the prototypes of thenew Thai Buddhist art. But the fact is that the principalprototype of all Buddhist arts (pre-Thai or real Thai) isIndian art, through successive imitations or adapta-tions through the centuries from the original mould.

According to historians and archaeologists the realThai Buddhist art can be classified into five differentschools of art in successive periods:

1. Chiengsaen

2. Sukhothai

3. U-Tong

4. Ayudhya and

5. Bangkok (school of art.)

72

It is to be noted that the trace of the first threePre-Thai schools of art such as Dvaravati, Sri-Vijayaand Lopburi periods still survives in the new Thaiart. But, the Thais did not adopt them in all aspectsof art. Their artistic activities were taken up in theform of individualised and independent art whichcame from the skilful and artistic inspiration of theThai people themselves. The art in Thailand dealswith an independent art with some influence ofIndian art only, not directly taken from the first threeearly Buddhist art schools in this country. The realThai Buddhist art changed the new form of artisticactivities which differ from the early pre-Thai art.Every aspect of art such as architecture, sculpture,etc. of real Thai art is represented independently inconception and production.

Development of Architecture the Buddhist art of Thailand

New forms of architectural buildings came to be cre-ated by the Thai people in dedication to HinayanaBuddhism.36 The style of religious buildings duringthis time became the general architectural feature ofthe early school of Thai art such as Chiengsaen,Sukhothai and U-Tong. The new features of the Thaiarchitecture consisted of several styles:

36. For details: Silpa Bhirasi, Prof.: Thai Buddhist Art (Architecture), Thai Culture, New Series, No. 4, pp. 8–9.

73

Architectural Features of Thai Religious Buildings — The Wat or Monastery

The Wat or monastery refers to a group of religiousbuildings generally enclosed by a wall with gateways.From artistic point of view, the principal religiousbuildings in Thailand are: the Pra Chedi, the Bot andVihara, the Phra Prang, the Mondop and Prasad. Theother structures architecturally not very important are:the Kuti, Ho-trai, Sala Kan Parien, ordinary Salas andHo Rakhang. One Wat or monastery, may containsome of these structures, especially the Bot or all ofthem.37 The general feature of the Wat is the outerenclosure of a temple which was always rectangular,and generally of greater length than width. The enclo-sure walls were as a rule about 3 ft. thick and from 12to 14 ft. high.38

The prominent structure of Wat or monastery is theenclosing wall with its gateways which can be com-pared with Indian architecture, to trace the origin —direct or indirect — of certain features of Thai architec-ture. The Thai gateways have such a variety of designsthat one can say that each Wat has a proper type. Inthese gateways we have reminiscences of Indian forms

37. Cf. Silpa Bhirasi, Prof.: The Arts of Architecture and Painting, p. 9.

38. Fergusson, James: History of Indian Eastern Architecture, Vol. 2, p. 406.

74

of gopuram. As regards the other features it can be saidthat the superstructure of the Thai gateway has its rela-tion to the functional parts of the old Indian Buddhistmonasteries, because the superstructure of many reli-gious and secular Thai buildings maintain, althoughmuch conventionalized, the same elements of old Indianarchitecture.

The Uposatha or TempleThe Uposatha is one form of Thai religious structurecorresponding to an Indian Chaitya hall where monksassemble to pray. Its classic type has a rectangularplan. At its end, it enshrines a large gilded seatedBuddha image modelled whether in stucco or cast inbronze. The image is placed over a high pedestal withrich ornamentation.

The Origin of the Uposatha can be traced to the oldIndonesian-Thai house of thatched material. The styleof that structure has a simple rectangular, plannedbuilding with accentuated sloping roofs covered withglazed tiles in colour. The slight concave of these roofssuggests the abasement of the thatched bamboo roof ofthe prototype common house caused by the heavytropical rains.39 The superimposed layers of roofs area characteristic of wooden structures due to the pro-jecting additions to the main portion of the building,the prominent projection of the eaves being typical of

39. Ferogi, Prof.: The March of Thailand, p. 26.

75

tropical countries to protect the building from sun andrain.

At both ends of the ridge of each roof of the reli-gious or royal building, there is that peculiar hornlikefinial culled Cho-Fa (bunch of sky). We cannot sayanything definitely about the meaning of this ele-ment, but we would like to suggest that it derivesfrom the horned-mask we notice in the same point ofthe buildings, used for magic or animistic purposes,as found in Indonesia and other parts of the PacificIslands.40

The architectural characteristic of the Thai Uposa-tha or temple in other parts, besides its roof, is a raisedstructure over a basement which varies in height fromabout 50 cm. to 1.50 metre. In the lateral sides of theancient Bot there are some gate-like openings akin tothe windows of Khmer temples. The Uposatha mayhave one, two or three doors on both sides, front andrear. It may be a simple rectangular structure withoutany addition of porches or colonnade around it. Or,quite the contrary it may have porches in front andrear or porches and a range of pillars around it like theGreek peristyle temple. The interior may be formed bya simple ample nave or by a nave and two aisles withpillars.

The doors and windows of the Thai Uposatha aredecorated with ornamental frames in stucco, gilded

40. For details: Silpa Bhirasi, Prof.: Op. Cit., p. 12.

76

and windows. Those of the doors are decorated out-side with gilded lacquer ornaments while, in general,the interiors have mythical figures of guardianspainted in vivid colours. Some bots instead of lacquerdecoration have ornaments in inlaid mother of pearl.In this case the design of the ornaments is very elabo-rate.

In Thai architecture, the pillars of the interior andexterior of the Uposatha are actagoval or round, withcapitals in the form of lotus flowers. The lotus capitalof pillar appears in the Sukhothai and Ayudhya artsalso. In the later period, the petals of the lotus floweron the capital were more and more elaborate becom-ming merely ornamental. The interior pillars of theUposatha are generally enriched with painted orna-ments, the shaft pillar painted in red and enrichedwith gilded ornaments.

Other architectural features of the Uposatha are atoutside, around this structure — eight Semas (Sima)having the form of the Indian cell. The Semas may beplaced over some basement or may be contained insome small square temple-like structures. They indi-cate the holiness of the ground over which the Uposa-tha is erected.

The most important aspect of the Uposatha is itsinterior, which like the Chaitya hall of Indian rock-cutarchitecture, contains the worship object in the form ofa stupa. But it is in the form of huge Buddha Image

77

(instead of a stupa) in case of the Thai Uposatha. Theinterior corner-end of the Uposatha contains a largegilded sitting Buddha Image, cast in bronze or mod-elled in stucco. The walls of the Uposatha are eitherplain or decorated with paintings all over the surfacewhile the window-panels are externally decoratedwith lacquer-work, called Lai Rot Nam in Thai lan-guage and internally decorated with mythological fig-ures painted in bright colours. These are the generalarchitectural features of the Uposatha or temple in realThai art.

The ViharaThe Vihara41 is the replica of the Bot and is used tohouse the Buddha Image. It is generally built in thecentre of the courtyard enclosed by a gallery, walledoutside and open inside having generally square pil-lars to support the roof. Along the gallery there aremany Buddha Images, modelled in stucco or inbronze. Other features of the Thai Vihara are moregateways giving access to the courtyard. The roof ofthe galleries and gateways is covered with the univer-sally used glazed tiles in brilliant colours, while thewalls are painted in white.

41. The term Vihara refers to a hall containing images of the Buddha and so the Thai Vihara corresponds to the building. But referring in the history of Indian Buddhist architecture the term Vihara has been generally understood as the resi-dence of the Buddhist monks, the monastery. (Ibid., p. 16).

78

The Phra Chedi or StupaAccording to Buddhist tradition, the most veneratedreligious structure for a Buddhist is the stupa. Thestupa was meant to contain the relics of the LordBuddha, but in later periods this structure was alsoused to contain relics of kings, holy men and othernoble personages.

The stupa is known in Siamese as Chedi, or PhraChedi. In one Wat there may be just one Chedi of afairly large size or there may be several of them ofvarying sizes and decorative schemes. The word Phrais an honorific meaning “exalted” and is derived fromthe Sanskrit Vara. The honorific is usually prefixed toan object of veneration pertaining to religion orroyalty. The second part of this name Chedi is theSiamese equivalent of the Pali Cetiya and the SanskritCaitya. This kind of monument signifies the tumulusraised over the ashes of the dead.42 In Thailand now-adays Phra Chedi just means a sacred monument or areliquary. To understand the development of PhraChedi or Stupa in Thai architecture, one must go backto ancient times.

The origin and introduction of the stupa took place inIndia which is the land of the foundation of Buddhism.The first Buddhist monuments were erected by the Bud-dhists in India in order to worship the commemorative

42. Anumun Rajadhan, Phya,: Phra Chedi, Thailand Culture Series, Vol. 40, Part I, p. 3.

79

objects of the Lord Buddha himself. It is the stupa whoseprototype originated in Central India for the first timeafter the death of the Buddha. The Indian stupa of thattime comprised the drum or basement, the dome (and/or a tumulus) surmounted by a cubical chair symboliz-ing the seat of the Buddha and a Chattra (umbrella) overit, which originally had only one tier but later on becamea slender pinnacle formed by many tiers.

The best specimens of Indian stupas are the greatstupas of Sanchi and Bharhut in India, which wereerected during the days of Emperor Asoka, when Bud-dhism spread outside India, especially in South-EastAsia and Far-East Asia. Buddhist art from India wasalso introduced in those regions. Naturally the Indianstupa became the prototype of the Buddhist stupa inthose regions. Its style bears traces of influence fromthe Indian stupa of Sanchi and other places. On theother hand, the Thai Phra Chedi bears in it features ofsome influence of South Indian architecture of Sikharaform also.

A Thai Phra Chedi may be divided for analyticalpurposes into four parts, namely:

1. The plinth;

2. The dome-shaped structure called the “bell”

3. The platform; and

4. The spire.

80

The bell or dome shaped structure of Thai Chedi cor-responds to the anda or round tumulus which sur-rounded the balustrade in the Indian stupa of Sanchi.

Later, with further development of this part of thestupa in Thailand, the bell or dome-shaped structureoften took a rectangular form, with or without reducedangles or corners and other decorations. Thus, it dif-fers significantly from the original prototype of theIndian stupa. Also the balustrade of an Indian stupa’slowest tier is sometimes widened to form a terrace forcircumambulation.

Above the bell or dome-shaped structure at the“neck of the bell” is a small quadrangular platformcalled in Siamese Banlang (in Pali, pallanka) with anumber of colonnades above it. This platform is char-acteristic of the Sinhalese style. The platform mighthave been a place where a symbol of the relic withinwas deposited. Above the platform we have the slen-der tapering spire. The lower part of this latter sectionconsists of circles diminishing in diameter, super-imposed one upon the other, called in Siamese PlongChanai.43

These circles or plong chanai have no doubt beendeveloped from the idea of terraced parasols dimin-

43. The word Chanai is the name of a musical instrument of the hautboi kind with many circles round its body. It is perhaps the same as the Indian oboe of Seramai, Shenai and Malay Oboe of Suranai, a kind of a hautboi which is again to be found in Persia. (Anuman Rajadhon, Op. Cit., p. 159.)

81

ishing in diameter as they rise to the top of the spire.Sometimes the circles take the shape of lotus flowersknown in Siamese as the Bua Klum meaning lotusclusters. Above the circles is the Pli or plantain bud, socalled on account of its shape. This again may bedivided into the upper and lower pli with a round ballin between. At the culminating point of the upper pliis another round ball, called in Siamese yad-nam-khang or dew-drop.

And the last architectural feature of the Phra Chediis the liem in Siamese designation. It is a number of flatpieces with pointed top arranged round the axis ofspiral structure. Its upper part rises in three diminish-ing tiers of lotus clusters. These flat pieces have pointedtops or hem derived from the Sanskrit word hemameaning gold or hima (meaning snow).

The background of this architectural feature isbased on Indian mythology. It is the Hima, a peakcalled the Kailas or Kailasa, where Lord Siva is sup-posed to dwell. This Himalaya mountain is referred toin Siamese as Hemabanphot (from hemaparbata, thegolden mountain, so called because of the gold-likeglitter of its snow).

Besides, there are other types of Phra Chedi. Oneis the Northern type which is formed by a cubicalsolid mass having four niches at its sides containingimages of the Buddha in high relief or round relief.This cubical mass superimposed by one or more

82

storeys and is crowned by the domed stupa. If thestupa is hollow, then one of the niches serves as theentrance door.

On the other hand, there is another type of PhraChedi resembling the Sat Mahal Prasada at Polon-naruva in Ceylon. Its features constitute many reced-ing cubical storeys enriched with horizontal rows ofstanding Buddha images in high relief. This type ofPhra Chedi is found in the north of Thailand.

The Pra ProngThen there is the second type of Thai stupa called thePra Prong. This architectural structure is a direct des-cendant of the tower of the Khmer temples,44 which aswe know originated from the sikharat of the temples ofNorthern and Southern or Dravidian styles of India.From the artistic point of view the Thai Pra Prang orig-inated from the corner tower of the Khmer temple,which later became a new form of Thai stupa. Contraryto the Phra Chedi which is round in plan, the PhraProng is square reminiscent of its Hindu origin. ThePhra Prang is square in plan and domical in roofing. Itrises elegantly from large base to an elliptical shapewith a very fine outline. As usual, it has three nichesand one entrance door reached by means of a verysteep staircase. The interior contains images of theBuddha.

44. Ferogi, Prof.: Op. Cit., p. 159.

83

The classic Phra Prang has its own architecturalfeatures as it is formed by a very high basement, morethan one third of its total height and a domical super-structure which is the real cell enshrining a Buddhaimage. Like the Phra Chedi of the later period, the PhraPrang has four cells, one giving access to the smallchapel and the other three containing Buddha images.We reach the entrance cell by a very steep and narrowstaircase.45

The development stage of Thai Phra Prang startedfrom about the end of the 17th century A.D. onwards.Its shape started degenerating because of two causes:

1. Due to the inclusion of the structure into tooslender a space in order to give too much prom-inence to the basement, thus reducing sensiblythe space of the cell of the Phra Prong;

2. Due to the replacement of the old architecturalmoulding with "S" shaped lion-leg of the Chineselow table.

The MondopThe Mondop is one of the Thai developed religiousarchitectures. Its architectural feature, strange to say,resembles the Mondopa of the Indian temples. It mayhave received the style directly from the Indian source.

45. Department of Fine Arts: Op. Cit., p. 43.

84

It is the planned square cubical structure, which maybe plain or have a range of pillars around it. Its super-structure is a curved pyramidal mass formed by manylow domical roofs superimposing each other andhaving a slender pinnacle as a finial, called Yot in theSiamese language. Each layer of the roof is decoratedwith the universal ornament, called Song. In BanTaleng we can trace the window of the old Indian Bud-dhist Chaitya or the Indian cell which has the samewindow shape.

In fact, the old Buddhist Indian Vihara with its var-ious stages and cells around it seems to have been thevery prototype of the superstructure of Indian Hindumonuments as well as those of the countries whichadopted Indian culture and art. The Thai Mondop thusoriginated directly from the Mondopa of temples ofNorthern India.

But the special feature of the Mondopa is that itswooden superstructure is decorated with woodencarvings gilded and enriched with glass mosaic. Thismosaic is applied also over the vertical sides of the pil-lars. By combining, two or three different colouredglasses, ornamental designs are composed.46 The func-tion of the Mondop was to enshrine holy Buddhistobjects as in the case of the Mondop of Saraburi Prov-ince enshrining the foot-print of Lord Buddha. Some-

46. Ferogi, Prof.: Op. Cit. p. 32.Cf. Fergusson, James.: Op. Cit. p. 40.

85

times it also served as a kind of library and store-roomfor objects used in religious ceremonies.

The Pra SatThe Pra Sat, or a castle in English, is one of the Thaiatrchitectural buildings meant either for religious orsecular purposes. This structure is the direct descend-ant of the Greek-Cross planned Kmer temple, com-posed of a square sanctuary with its domical sikharaand the four porch-like ante-chambers attached to theside of the cell.

It is interesting to note that these ante-Chambersprojecting from the main body of the building havetwo different elements — one formed by the massattached to the stalls of the cell and the other formedby the portal. If we observe the outline minutely, wecan see that the different heights of these two elementsare designed as a step-like contour. In the timber roofof the Siamese building the stepped outline is stillmore noticeable on account of the addition of project-ing masses and also on account of superimposedlayers of the roof.

The Thai Pra Sat has other architecturcal features,besides the above mentioned element, which is formedin plan by a square central room with three projectinglong wings and one short or the four wings of the samelength.47

47. Department of Fine Arts: Op. Cit., p. 47.

86

There are two distinct forms of timber superstruc-ture of the Thai Pra Sat. One retains the traditionalsikhara of the Hindu temple as the finial of the roofs inthis type are for the sake of tradition. The sikhara,which formerly was structural, has become a meredecorative part of the building. The other superstruc-ture has the same form and same ornaments as that ofthe mondop. It has many superimposed horizontallow storeys, and at about one-third of the total heightof this elaborated roof, a vertical element is formedwhich looks like a conventional stupa ending in a veryhigh, thin pinnacle.

The function of Pra Sat was twofold. It served asthe royal throne hall and contained some veneratedobjects.

The Ho TraiThe Ho Trai is also one of the Thai architectural build-ings. It is the library where the Buddhist sacred booksare kept. The general architectural feature of some ofHo Trai is that it has a basement built with brick andthe room with wood, while others have the groundroom with brick and a wooden room over it. Usuallythe Ho Trai has no interior decoration, but some ofthem have fine paintings on the walls, windows anddoor panels.

The Ho Trai are formed by three parallel attachedrooms, each room having a proper roof. The inner

87

sides of the roofs of the right and left rooms join theslopes of the central one and the water of the fourslopes is received by two gutters. Two or three roomsare sometimes attached to each other with separatedroofs, which seem quite logical because by roofingeach room the Thai artist avoided building a large andhigh roof which hard to span the total breadth. In thiscase the lower part of the building would appear toosmall in comparision with the roof.

The SalaThe Sala is an open pavilion used for resting. UsuaIlyrectangular in plan, it is erected over four wooden orbrick pillars supporting the architrave over whichrests the step roof. From the level of the architraves aneave is applied around the Sala to widen the shade.Some salas have more architectural complexity onaccount of two projecting additions along the longitu-dinal sides of their rectangular plan, forming in thisway a cross plan. In general, this kind of sala have nopyramidal superstructure, but some of them, such asthe salas at the royal summer residence of Bang Pa InPalace near Bangkok, have the universal pyramidalroof. The salas are meant for secular use and are builtalong road or canals, where people used to pass by andrest for a while. In tropical countries where the climateis extremely hot, it is a relief for the passersby to seekshelter in them.

88

Ho Rakhang and Kuti (Sangarama)The belfry in Thai religions architecture has its ordi-nary form and there is no definite type of the Thaibelfry known as the Ho Rakhang in the Siamese lan-guage,48 Ho Rakhang is to be found in every Wat ormonastery in the country. The simplest architecturalfeature of the Thai belfry is constituted by fourwooden pillars on the top of which there is whatlooks like a small temple. Others are built of brick andhave a high platform with steps in one or four sides.Over this platform, there is four-pillared pyramidalroofed small building in which the bell is suspended.The roof of the Ho Rakhang is covered with a coat ofplaster or covered with glazed tiles. Inside, it containsthe bell to announce the time in the morning andevening.

The Kuti or Sangarama, as a religious rule, isattached to the monastery or Wat. There are also manysmall buildings which together are called Kuti for res-idence of Buddhist monks only. The Kuti has no par-ticular architectural attraction. It is a series of buildingscontaining one, two or three cells — or a long buildingwith many cells in a row for the residence of themonks. The kuti is separated from the Wat by a wall ora fence or a canal. Sometimes, it has a verandah in frontof it.

48. The Thai word for the belfry, Ho means structure or building while Rakhang means a bell.

89

In Thai Buddhist art, we can see that this architec-tural feature was for from the old fashioned style of thepre-Thai art. No doubt those architectural features ofThai art were evolved by the Thai people, but they alsoshow the influence of Indian architecture. The art ofNorth Thailand started from the Chiengsaen school ofart and continued up to our period. In the Bangkokschool of art, we can see the appearance of this devel-oped stage of Thai architecture. But this Thai architec-ture with its definite style was clearly visible in a per-fect style during the Ayudhya period, which formedthe second capital of Thailand (A.D. 1350–1767). Itreflourished during the Bangkok period (18th–20thcentury A.D.) and is continuing till the present day.

The Development of Sculpture in Buddhist Art of Thailand

Contrary to other Buddhist people, who representedin sculpture legendary or mythical stories, the Thaipeople confined their sculpture to creating bronze,stucco and stone Buddha Images and other Buddhistdivinities and ornamental works carved in wood ormodelled in stucco for decorating religious structures.The Thais created an extremely beautiful type whichwe consider as one of the most perfect artistic expres-sions of the Eastern art. In respect of Thai ornaments,

90

they seem to convey the very luxuriant character oftheir tropical vegetation. In this the Thais were directlyinspired by the exuberant nature of their country,which seems to vibrate with the joy of eternal life.49

The artists of Thailand have concentrated on makingBuddhist sculpture since the time of their first arrivalin this country up to this day for more than 1,300 years.These sculptures are by now so numerous that they faroutnumber the human population. With such an enor-mous production it is hardly to be expected that allexamples would be worthy to be called works of art.Besides, the motives for making them were quite dif-ferent fron the motives of artists in the west. From anold-fashioned Thai point of view, the sculptures weremade to be worshipped and to give solace and protec-tion, but from the point of view of the Modern Bud-dhists, they are simply “reminders of the Doctrine”.

Artistic considerations were secondary and thetraditional Buddhist image-maker had no desire to beoriginal. When he showed originality it was in spite ofhimself. He always took pride in being a faithfulcopyist though not neccessarily an accurate copyist inthe Western sense. He had to reproduce certainfeatures and attitudes that were deemed essential, butnot neccessarily the outward similarity. The develop-ment of sculpture in Thai Buddhist features which theThai artist reproduced in their sculptural pro-

49. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof.: Thai Buddhist Sculpture, p. 3.

91

ductions, chief among which was the “supernaturalanatomy”.

Generally speaking the main features of the devel-oped stage of Thai sculpture are the dress of theBuddha images and other Buddhist divinities as wellas the monastic robe. The robe may be worn in the“covering” mode, that is, draped over both shouldersor in the “open” mode leaving the right shoulderexposed.

Four postures (iryapatha) were deemed suitable:

1. Walking 3. Sitting; and

2. Standing 4. Reclining.

If in the sitting posture, there are three different waysin which the legs of the Buddha may be placed. One isthe European fashion (pralambanasana) which is theordinary pose of a person sitting in a chair. The otheris the “Hero” posture (virasana) with the legs folded,one lying on top of the other. And, lastly the adaman-tive posture (vajrasana) with the legs crossed in such amanner that each foot rests on the opposite thigh, thesoles turned upward.

As regards the hand-position of Thai Buddhistsculpture in its developed stage, the most commonhand-positions for standing or walking figures of theBuddha are dispelling fear (abhhaya mudra) with the

92

palm of the hand forward and the fingers pointingupward, and “giving instruction” (vitorka) which issimilar but with the thumb and forefinger joined. Forthe seated image, the position of meditation is mostpopular. The meditiation mudra is called samadhi orjhana and its feature is both hands lying in the lap,palms upward.

The other position is “calling the Earth to witness”(bhumisparsa), otherwise known as the “victory overMara” (Maravijaya). This posture is like meditation,except that the right hand of the Buddha Image hasbeen moved over and placed on the right leg at or nearthe knee, with fingers pointing downward.

Thus, these are the essentials of the development inthe field of sculpture in the Buddhist art of Thailandincluding the several styles of representation of Bud-dhist sculpture in different periods.

Some aspects of Thai Stucco DecorationThe stucco decoration on the Buddhist monuments ofThailand has been little studied — undeservedly so,for apart from its beauty, stucco ornament can furnishvaluable chronological clues. If we take a few isolatedexamples of Thai stucco decoration and compare themwith each other, especially examples of similardesigns, we might begin to understand some of theprinciples of their composition and begin to establishsome of the evolutionary trends. That is what has been

93

done in this article, with the hope that some of the sug-gestions might stimulate further research.

Stucco can last a long time; the stucco decoration onPreah Ko at Roluos, for instance, dates from the lateninth century, but it seldom does so intact. Neverthe-less in Thailand human destructiveness has probablybrought more loss than any natural agent. Althoughstucco is an endurable material, monuments aboundin Thailand in which all or part of the decoration con-sists of restoration, so that the ornament is not alwaysa reliable guide to the date of the building. On theother hand, the restoration of a stupa in Thailand hasoften meant enclosing the original in an entirely differ-ent form; in such instances, of course, the stupa and itsdecoration can be considered contemporary.

Some of the examples of decoration discussedhere are representations of a flower, called the breast-clasp flower after the Thai term of “Prachamyam”,which is the name for the clasp on the bands of cloththat diagonally cross the chest in the classical dancecostume and elsewhere; and for this flower designwhenever it appears in ornament. The second Thainame is used when the breastclasp flower is used as acorner bracket (Fig. 46). The breastclasp flower is stillwidely used, often in a form quite close to that of thefirst example here, which is it drawing of such aflower found on the base of the Buddha of Grahi,dated 1183 A.D. In the center is it circular form sur-

94

rounded by rays suggestive of stylized petals. Out-side a border are four major leaves or petals at the car-dinal points, the spaces between being filled by formssuggesting smaller leaves or petals. The leaf petals,which do not have any representational connectionwith the central flower, are intended to consist ofmore than one layer.

Fig. 46

Stucco bracket, Wat Pasak, Chiengsen. First part of the fourteenth century (Photo by Khien Yimsiri)

95

1. Wat Pasak, Chiengsen: This wat is not well-known.It is it “cetiya-prasada” raised high on terraces, and itsstucco decoration ranks among the most beautiful inThailand. It probably dates from the first part of thefourteenth century.

The basic character of the ornament can be ascer-tained by looking at a corner bracket or breastclasp(Fig. 46) In basic form it is similar to the breastclaspon the Buddha of Grahi, but it is less stylized andmore suggestive of natural forms. An outstandingcharacteristic is its suggestion of plumpness. All theparts, the leaves and petals, have a globular quality.The forms are visualized three-dimensionally; thereis undercutting, and incisions bring out the plasticityand three-dimensionality of the parts. The craftsmanwho made this bracket made use of a basic aestheticdevice — the contrast of a non-repeating form suchas a circle, which “concentrates of itself”, with anumber of small, repeating forms. Here the non-repreating forms are the two inner concentric bandsor borders, and the repeating forms are the petals.The circles seem at once to suppress the petals and togive birth to them, and in the tension between thesetwo sorts of matter there is undeniable sensuousappeal. In the floral motif on the right-hand side,plasticity is even more evident, for the stucco makesus remember that it is a substance that has beenrolled and squeezed.

96

The Kala heads, Garudas, Nagas, Makaras andlions still left at Wat Pasak have the same characteris-tics, but in greater degree. In a lion at the base of one ofthe outside jambs on the false cells (Fig. 47), there is ofcourse no question of lack of three dimensionality. Thestylized mane that hangs down on the chest has a func-tion somewhat like that of the petals in the bracket. Themodeling of various parts and the use of incesion inthe eyeball and eyelid, for instance, emphasize theplastic, palpably globular quality of the flesh. The foli-ate frame has tremendous movement and vigor and isintended to contrast with the lion's smooth chest. Itssensuous impact, apart from its vital rhythms, is aresult of the same means employed in the bracket thealternation of long curves with the multible plasticblobs, of petals, terminal foliage or groups of knobs.

Fig. 47

Stucco lion, Wat Pasak, Chiengsen

(Photo by Khien Yimsiri)

97

It may be asked, considering the architecturalsource of Wat Pasak, whether the stucco decorationcan be traced to Sri Vijaya. There is no stucco decora-tion of the Sri Vijaya period now existent in SouthernThailand. There are some Indonesian echoes in someof the designs, however, and it may eventually be pos-sible to trace links and affinities.

2. Wat Nang Phya, Sri Satchanalai; The laterite wallsof the vihara at Wat Nang Phya still stand; on the pilas-ter-shaped balustrades and on adjacent parts of thewall much of the applied stucco decoration stillremains. The vihara, stupa and stucco at Wat NangPhya probably date from the middle of the fifteenthcentury although there is some possibility that the dec-oration is not nearly so old.

A detail of a section of the stucco decoration below thewindow is sufficient for us to grasp the main charac-teristic. The section illustrated here (Fig. 50) is inciden-

Fig. 50

Stucco decoration at

Wat Nang Phya, Sri

Satchanalai, probably

middle of the fifteenth century

Photo by Srisak Vallibhotama

98

tally one that has been vandalized since anotherphotograph was taken a few years ago. This floral andfoliate design is arranged quite differently from thaton the Wat Pasak bracket. In the first place the stuccoat Wat Nang Phya is applied to background; it is a two-dimensional design not one built up in depth withoutneed for a background. The use incision is a goodexample of this. Whereas incisions in the Wat Pasakare intended to suggest the globular mass of the differ-ent parts, the incisions at Wat Nang Phya are intendedto catch the light and to give textural variety. The inci-sions do not seem to curve into the material, they aregouged out, leaving nothing hidden from the eye. TheWat Nang Phya design is composed of lines that moveout of the background and send off leaves of second-ary importance. There is some tension and harmony inthe design as a result of the opposing tendencies ofthese lines — first, to pull in and curve in, second, toseek freedom. Thus we see clasps holding the volute-ended ‘V’s together, and leaves spreading out at thecardinal points from the intertwined vine that sur-rounds the central flower. Whether or not it is histori-cally related, a motif found on one of the engravedslabs in Wat Sri Chum makes an instructive compari-son (Fig. 48). The comparison underscores the Sing-halese character of the engravings, which probablydate from the early Sukhothai period. The forms notonly organically emanate from each other, they also

99

push and pull against each other. The Wat Nan Phyadesign lacks this feeling of growth and, despite themedium does not seem so deep.

3. Wat Culamani, Pitsanulok: According to the LuangPrasert version of the Annals of Ayudhya, King Para-maitraloka-nathi built the vihara of Wat Culamani inC.S. 826 (1465 A.D.) and became a monk there the fol-lowing year. There is a late Khmer or Lopburi lateritestructure at Wat Culamani, and it seems reasonable todate the stucco decoration on it from 1465 also. Thedesigns have a number of points in common withthose on Wat Nang Phya, but Wat Nang Phya proba-bly predates the Wat Culamani stucco decoration by afew years.

If we look at just one example of the stucco decora-tion on Wat Culamani, the idea stikes us that whenKing Paramatrailokanatha restored the laterite shrine,he intended to do so in Khmer style. He asked a local

Detail of engraved slab at Wat Sri Chum, Sukhothai (Drawing by Prungsri Bejrabiruna after Fournereau,

Le Siam ancien. vol II, pl. XXVII

Fig. 48

100

artisan, however, to do the job. The design illustrated(Fig. 51), with the leaf-shaped motifs separated byflowers on stalks, is of Khmer origin it is found, forinstance, on the walls at Pimai — but the execution isthat of an artisan who had been trained in a Wat NangPhya kind of style. At both Sri Satchanalai and Pitsan-ulok there is the same two-dimensional quality, a simi-lar use of incision to define texture, and similar ribbon-like outlines. There is even more background visible atWat Culamani. The design is both looser and morerestrained. An evolutionary trend can be detected inthe foliate frame at Wat Culamani; it is comparable tothe volute ended ‘V’s at Wat Nang Phya and to the out-ermost band on the Wat Pasak bracket. In years to comethe trend from a single curve to multiple, increasinglydeep crenellation was to culminate in the wildly convo-luted frames that can today be found all over the North.

Fig. 51

Stucco on shrine at Wat Culamani, Pitsanulok, 1465 (?)(Photo: Fine Arts Department)

101

On Wat Mahadhatu in Lopburi there are two formsof this decorative motif. One (Fig. 49), presumably partof a restoration carried out during the Ayudhya sphereof influence. Instead of becoming more and more lin-ear, the forms here have broken up into taut vibratingspirals. The forms do exist in space, but no single formis allowed to have much mass. The repetition of thespirals and of the other motifs makes a light nervouspattern. This is the Siamese tradition that has contin-ued into modern times.

4. Phra That Chom Kitti, Chiengsen: This monasteryis one of the most venerable in Chiengsen, and onelegend even states that it was founded in 406 A.D.50

According to the Ginakalamali, it was founded in

50. G. Notton, Annales du Siam, p. 194.

Fig. 49

Stucco at Wat Mahadhatu, Lopburi, Ayudhya period (Photo by author)

102

C.S. 795, 1433 A.D.51 The present structures are not soold as this, however; it might be the structure theSinghanawati Kumara says was built in C.S. 1073(1711 A.D), or it may be even newer. It is a cetuja-prasada in which the spire has been simplified intogeometric, angular shapes, giving the structure a cer-tain grace and lightness.Before looking at a Phra That Chom Kitti bracket, weought to look at a sixteenth century breastclasp floweron the crown of a Buddha image dated 1541.52 Thisimage, now in the National Museum, Bangkok, wasprobably made somewhere in the Sukhothai region.The design, framed by a lozenge, consists of lines andbeads, the parts have become separated, and the fourouter “leaves” have more, and deeper, crenellation.

At Phra That Chom Kitti these trends are contin-ued. The outside lozenge is retained. The design is flat-ter and more linear than ever, and there is a greaterproportion of background visible than ever before. Weare struck at how remote the parts have become fromeach other. At Wat Pasak a single ring separated theinner flower from the outside petals; here there are twodouble bars and a row of knobs that make an inner loz-enge. Although the outside “leaf frames” are not full of

51. G. Coedes, Documents surl Historire politique et religieuse du Laos Occidental, BEFEO, 25, p. 107.

52. M. C. Subhadradis Diskul, “A Dated Crowned Image from Thailand,” 24, 3/4, pp. 409–416.

103

convolutions in this example, some of the larger framesare. The single breaks; moreover, are deep ones.

Introduction of Painting in Buddhist Art of Thailand

There are very few traces of painting in the early Bud-dhist art in this country during he first three pre-Thaiperiods of Dvaravati, Sri-Vijaya and Lopburi. But, inthe real Thai Buddhist art of the period, artistic activi-ties also included the art of painting as the mainbranch of Buddhist art.

The painting of Thailand is an art of great interestand sometimes of remarkable beauty. Thai painting,though it must have been originally derived from theBuddhist painting of India and Ceylon,53 became sowell adopted to local thoughts, needs and materialsthat by the time of its greatest popularity, in the 18thand 19th centuries it must have been considered asoriginal and unique art of this country. Only by subjectmatter and superficial generalities can it be connectedwith the painting of other Buddhist countries.

These paintings, like the early religious art of anyother faith, have a basic purpose to instruct, guide

53. The Buddhist painting of Ajanata Cave is near Arurangabad in India and Srikiriya or Sigiri Hill in Ceylon are the proto-type of wall-paintings in Thailand.

104

and inspire the devout by illustrating scenes of reli-gious history, or of moral value. As a rule, painting inThailand was principally used for religious purposesand particularly to decorate the bots and viharas andtemples.

There are several different forms of traditionalpainting in Thailand. The most important type is thedry fresco mural found in one or more of the buildings.Another type of painting is a long cloth banner and koipaper. One or more of these are displayed in the mon-astery on special occasions. But the paintings on clothor koi paper parallel the style and development of themural paintings although they did not often matchthem in quality.54

Another form of Thai painting is the manuscriptillustrations, which represent an important category ofpainting. The materials of manuscript illustrations arethe long, narrow palm leaf books used for many centu-ries in Thailand. The usual illustrated manuscript iscalled in Thai a Samut Thai which means, Thai book orpaper. This manuscript is not only taken from palm-leaf,but from Koi paper55 in its one continuous sheet foldedlike an accordion. It is read across the length of the page.

54. Lyons, Elizabeth: Thai Traditional Painting, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 20, p. 4.

55. Koi is the name of plant usually grown in Thailand and other tropical countries. It is a plant of the family of Urticaceae.

105

This form of painting, available before the Bangkokperiod, usually has a large illustration in the middle ofthe page, sometimes covering the double unfolded sec-tion. But the manuscripts of koi-paper during theBangkok period generally have one or two smallerillustrations at the ends of the page with the textbetween them. The subject-matter of the manuscriptsillustrating painting is extremely ecclesiastic. Althoughthe majority are devoted clearly to religious works,others are treatises on the real or legendary worlds ofhuman beings and animals and other secular texts.

Thus the mural wall painting, painting on clothand manuscript painting on koi-paper represent thelargest part and most important aspect of Thai paint-ing. The other examples of painting forms play at sub-sidiary role although to class them as merely “decora-tive” is rather arbitrary. This is especially true of theguardian figures painted on the inner side of the doorsand the window shutters of buildings.

The Characteristics and Technique of Thai Paintings

The style and technique of Thai paintings have thebasic elements of all Asian painting — with no shad-ows and timeless. There is no Western perspectivewith its fixed view and vanishing point. Here, the

106

spectator of the painting is allowed to rove through thepainting. They may stand directly in front of an audi-ence hall or he may look down from a height into itscourtyard, and they may do both at the same time if itseems necessary for the story. Distance is an illusionachieved by the relative placement or overlapping offigures and objects.

The composition of painting is a combination ofmass and line. The figures are drawn with an even,flowing contour and then filled in with flat colour. Thedetails and ornaments are added in a manner which issimilar to the Indian and early Islamic technique. Thefigures of buildings, furniture, chariots etc. are done inthe same way but the background is a very generalizedlandscape. Here and there, a group of rocks or a clumpof flowers show the Chinese influence in the style.

The artist prohably copied and adopted those bitsfrom porcelain or decorative screens popular at the time.The artist does not consider landscape as important byitself. It is only incidental setting for the action, and isoften done in a very summary fashion. In some cases, thecontrast between an uninspired or crude backgroundand the sensitive, intricate figures leads one to believethat the former was done by pupils or lesser artists.

In the narrative murals or frescoes there is a type ofcontinuous action although the scenes do not mergeinto one another. The important episodes are sepa-rated in the early examples by an arbitrary zigzag line,

107

and in the later period by more natural means such asa row of trees, a wall or a screen.

The technique of Thai painting has some unusualpainting materials. For mural painting, the wall ofthe structure, bot, vihara and other religious build-ings is prepared by washing it several times withwater in which ki-lek leaves have been pounded.56

This is supposed to remove any trace of salt. Then acoating of plaster, white chalk mixed with a binder oftamarind seeds which have been backed, ground andboiled, is applied and carefully smoothed. Cloth andpaper are sized with a thin application of the samemixture.

The paints are of mineral and earth pigments likemalachite and cinnabar. From the beginning of the18th century at least, they have been imported fromChina in powder form. The duller and more limitedcolours of the earliest painting are probably local pig-ments as is the red ochre always used for the paints isa tree gum, named ma-kwit in Thai language.57

Another gum is from ma-due tree (Ficus hispida urti-caceae) used its a glue for the gold leaf. The paint isapplied to the dry plaster. Thus, it is not a true frescotechnique.

56. Ki-lek leaves or tree are a kind of local Thai plant of the genus cassia.

57. Ma-Kwit is also name of a local Thai tree. It is the same as the wood apple or elephant apple, Ma-dua is genus of leaf grass.

108

The implements for the Thai artist consisted ofbrushes made of tree roots and bark, afterwards theyhad elaborate silver handles. The brush of lamjiekroot58 (pandanus tectoriaes) is cut flat across the endand then split several times. This produces a stipplingeffect which is used for trees and shrubbery masses.Another brush is made of gradangngu59 (cunajiumodoratum) flowers which peels off in long flukes. Theends of this are pounded and frayed, and both brushesare well soaked in water to make them pliable beforeuse.

The details of painting are added with brusheswhich are made of cow’s hair, and exceptionally finework may be done with a special brush made of hairtaken from the inner part of a cow’s ear.

Much of the distinctive appearance of Thai paint-ing is due to the wooden brushes. They give an evenwire-line, often of amazing sinuosity, and quite unlikethe modelling line of the flexible Chinese brush.

The colours used in Thai painting, according to theold Thai tradition of painting, are the colours calledNam ya or painted water. These colours are taken fromearth and earth-powder as well as colours from differ-

58. The Thai word applied for local Thai tree. It is the screw pine with beautiful flowers.

59. The Thai word applied for a particular kind of local Thai tree with its smelling flowers. It is a climbing plant or the ilang-ilang.

109

ent plants. Nam Ya or completed colours are mixedwith gum or paste. The utensil used to put the mixtureof gum and colour is the coconut shell or pottery-bowl.

There are several colours used in Thai painting;yellow taken from the gum of rong plant; red colourtaken from the red ochre earth from the cliff or theroad; white taken from white earth-powder; greenfrom green-stone, blue colour taken from the boiledleaves of a green tree and the black colour taken fromthe lampblack.

The subject matter of Thai paintings consisted ofseveral illustrations from many stories and literature.Chief of the subject matter to be painted, no doubt,were the religious subjects and stories, scenes fromLord Buddha’s life and the narrative story of Buddhistdivinity called the Jataka stories (Chadok in Thai). TheJataka is made up of episodes of the Buddha's previousbirths. The illustration of painting of the Jataka stories,no doubt, has the aim to closely resembling the subject-matter of Buddhist painting of Ajanta caves in India.There are 547 Jataka stories, which are a mine ofsubject-matter for the Buddhist painters in Thailand.

These stories recount the previous lives of LordBuddha as man or animal and illustrate his path toEnlightenment. Especially, the last ten Jatakas orChadok stories are used for teaching; and as the mainsubject-matter for Thai painting from remote times upto the present day. These ten Jatakas, known as the

110

Tosachat (the ten Births of the Buddha), illustrate thevirtues by which the future Buddha perfected himselfand thus finally achieved Enlightenment. Tosachatstories from Jataka are offered primarily as a guide tothe subject-matter of Thai paintings. Many of the greatmurals can be enjoyed from the artistic point of viewfor their colour and composition but some knowledgeof the stories would add to a greater dimension ofunderstanding pleasure.60

The subject-matter of Thai painting does not dealonly with the Jataka story but also other religious sub-jects. It also illustrated the scenes or episodes fromfamous Hindu epics and literature particularly theRamayana epic of Rishi Valmiki. Thai paintings, aswell as the Khon or classical Thai dramatic art havetaken their subject-matter from the story of Ramayanaepic. The theme is taken from the part of the epic calledRamakien in Thailand. The fantasy and force of ex-pression of the ancient Thai artist had no limit. Indeedthe painted army of the spirited monkeys of Rama, thehero of the story, and the opposing army of the rakshasor demons of Ravana (or Tasakanth in Thai) fightingeach other are exceptionally alive.61

Other subjects of Thai painting are landscape trees,citadels, palaces and other structures, as also the

60. Lyons, Elizabeth: The Josachat in Thai Painting, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 22, p. 6.

61. For further detail: Yupho, Dhanit: The Khon, p. 4.

111

scenes of celestial and other mythological beings —Yakshas, Yakshini, devas, goddesses, kinnara and oth-ers. These illustrations are similar to the paintings atAjanata Cave in India and the latter seem to be theprototype of Thai painting.

The paintings also deal with groups of architec-tural structures, human and animal figures wanderingamidst forests, fields and groves which seem to conveythe very Thai life in its natural order. To harmonize thescale between vegetation and living beings, the humanfigures were painted on a small scale, about 25–30 cen-timetres in height. Of course the subject of these paint-ings was related to Buddhism.

One important factor of Thai painting is that, likethe theatrical arts, painted human figures suggest themeaning of their action. In Thai painting there arethree kinds of style in representing human figuresaccording to their rank.

The first style includes the illustrations of royal andcelestial beings all of which are painted in classic style,wherein the artists have focused all their talent. Indeedthese figures could not be more refined in lines, col-ours and expression. The dresses, crowns and jewel-lery of these figures are the same as those worn by theroyalty of the past.

The second type includes the dignitaries and otherroyal attendants. These figures bear a distinctivenessproper to their ranks. Thirdly, the common people are

112

painted realistically and also their facial expressionsare realistic. The artistic rendering of the figures of thecommon people did not show any improvement fromthe specimens painted on the books so far. Thai artistspictured their compositions according to the real sur-roundings. So besides being worthy of a high artisticvalue, these paintings are also a precious resource tolearn the history of Thailand. Like architecture andsculpture, the traditional Thai painting belongs to thepast and this makes more valuable the few specimensthat still remain in the north of Thailand — theAyudhya, Sukhothai and Bangkok periods which areunfortunately fading away day by day on account ofthe tropical dampness. Fig. 15

The Original Sukhothai Stupa “Phum Khao Bin”, Wat Chedi Chet Thaew, Sisatchamalai, Sukhothai Province, Architecture of Sukhothai Period

113

� Chiengsaen �

Chapter VI

The Nature and Conception of Buddhist Arts of Thailand (in its different periods)

The Art of Chiengsaen Period (Circa 11th–15th Century A.D.

The real Thai Buddhist art originated for the first timein the areas now comprising the present Thailandknown as the Chiengsaen school of art which flour-ished from the latter part of the 11th century A.D., inthe present Northern Thailand.

It is said that parallel with the Mon-Khmer king-dom in what are now Central and South Thailand, theThai people, who had increasingly been moving south-wards from their ancient home in South China, estab-lished their own kingdom in an area which forms partof the Northern region of this country. It was known asChiengsaen and also as the Lan-na-thai kingdoms. Themonuments and antiquities belonging to this periodare known as Chiengsaen school of art.

Chiengsaen is the name of an ancient town of Thai-land. It is situated on the right bank of the Mekongriver in the vicinity of modern Chiengsaen Province ofNorth Thailand.62 Nowadays, Chiengsaen is one of the

62. The city of Chiengsaen was built by King Saenphu in the year 1328 A.D.

115

sub-districts of Chiengrai Province. However, theBuddhist art which originated in this ancient town hadlater spread over the whole area in the old kingdom ofLan-na-thai or Yonok.

This new school was not only confined to theancient town of Chiengsaen, but included many otherNorthern Thai towns such as Chiengmai, Chiengrai,Lamphun and Lamphang. This art especially took itsdeep root in Northern part of this country in the Lan-na-thai kingdom at the city of Chiengmai which wasthe late capital of that kingdom. In the course of time,the Chiengsaen school spread far and wide, andspread downwards along the valley of the Mekongriver up to the area which is now the modern Laoskingdom,63 and to the north-eastern part of Thailand;this is supported by the Buddha Images of Chiengsaenperiod which bear the style of Laotian art.

Since the first centuries of the Christian Era, andmaybe earlier, the Thai people migrated in successivewaves into the Valley of the Menam river, intermin-gling with and absorbing the culture of the Mon-Khmer races, at that time sharing the dominion ofmodern Thailand. Later on the Thais consolidatedthemselves into several Thai principalities and allthese states had their own chieftains.

63. At that time, the area of modern Laos was called the Lanchang kingdom (meaning the kingdom of the million elephants) or the other name, Srisattanakanahut.

116

Later on, a new Thai chief re-consolidated the Thaidominion and established the independent Thai king-dom of Lan-na-thai or Yonok. This was King Prohm ofthe Singhanavat dynasty, the youngest son of KingPunjaraj who became the first powerful Thai monarch.He destroyed the dominion and suzerainty of theKmers in North Thailand. The king extended his king-dom's border as far as the area now located in presentLaos kingdom — to Luang Prabang and other places.He built his new capital at Chaiprakarn. This king wasfollowed by King Mengrai (1258–1317 A.D.) underwhose reign the famous Chiengsaen school of artflourished.

The Chiengsaen school of art represents the realfirst Thai art having influence of Burmese art as well asIndian art of the Pala school. On the one hand, the Bur-mese Culture and artistic influences had mixed withthe elements of Thai artistic activities and workman-ship and on the other, the influence of Indian Buddhistart of the Pala period also played an important part inthe Chiengsaen school of art.

It seems that both artistic productions owed theirorigin to one and the same style. Pala art and culturespread in Upper Burma in the 11th century A.D.through the activities of the Buddhist missionariesunder the patronage of the Pala kings from theNalanda University. King Aniruddha invaded NorthThailand and took with him religious and artistic ele-

117

ments to that land. Thus, it is that the Mahayana faithand Burmese art, which in its essence bears the stronginfluence of the Pala school of art, spread to theseareas. Geographically also it can be said that the Palaart in its new forms of Burmese artistic productionscould easily reach north of Thailand through ancientland-routes. These were followed by the Indian set-tlers for going over to the various countries of South-East Asia.

ArchitectureThe architecture of Chiengsaen period has its peculiarfeatures. It is said that. the Chiengsaen style of archi-tecture belongs mainly to the time after King Maengraiwho founded the town of Chiengmai in 1297 A.D.There is one greatly disputed monument of Chieng-saen style. It is Wat Chet Yot at Chiengmai (Seven-spired Temple). This temple was built in imitation ofthe Maha Vihara or Mahabodhi Temple at Pagan,Upper Burma, which was built in the early Atilominlo,a successor of King Aniruddha. This temple itself is animitation of the famous Buddhist monument, Maha-bodhi Vihara at Bodh-gaya in the state of Bihar inIndia. Thus we can see the close relationship betweenIndia (during the time of the Palas) and Burma as wellas Thailand of Chiengsaen period in architecture.

118

Generally speaking Chiengsaen style of architec-ture in the form of Chedi or stupa has its self-characteristic in construction. Its architectural featureconsisted of a large, high dome or body of structure.There are square-shaped corners above the body oftemple decorated by bell-shaped dome of a stupa, infront of the stucture having the arch at the basement.The body of the structutre is like the body of a Bot orVihara in Chiengsaen style. There are the two or threestoreyed roofs of structure super-imposing eachother. The successive superimposed storey-roofs, sep-arated in two parts the body of Bot or Vihara. There isno window.

The uppermost roof is decorated by the Cho-Fa.These Cho-Fa or decorative designs of superstructure,are made of stucco in the form of the Naga head. Thelower part of the Cho-Fa is also atttatched on the top-most of the roof. This lower part is called Bai Raka inThai. The pediment of the monument is in the form ofundecorated design. On the roof of the structure again,there are timber tiles and no gallery or covered roof infront of the building. The staircase of the temple or bothas the design of coiling body and raised hood of theNaga head. Inside the body of structure, there is noceiling. When we enter it we can see clearly the innerwooden structure. The row of pillars on both sides ofthe structure can also be seen. This was necessary inorder to support the beam (Fig. 13).

119

The Mondop of Chiengsaen style of architecture iscalled in Northern Thai language as Ku. The architec-tural features of Ku consist of successive super-imposed storeyroofs. The Ku or Mondop was used tohouse a Buddha Image. The trace of Burmese art on the

Fig. 13Temple of Wat Chet Yod: Chiengmai Province, Nothern Thailand, Architecture of Chiengsaen Period

120

architecture is seen in Chiengsaen’s architecturalbuildings at Wat Pra Yuen in Chiengmai province.This chedi or stupa is an imitation of the structure ofAnanda chedi in Pagan, Lower Burma. It is a stupa offour niches in four directions with the standingBuddha Images inside the niches.

SculptureSculptures of this period contain the Buddhist elementand conception. Chief among the sculpture is the pro-duction of Buddha Images carved by the artists on thebasis of Hinayana and Mahayana elements. The sculp-ture of Buddha Images during this period can bedivided into two classes according to its characteristics:

1. The early Buddha Image.

2. The Late Chiengsaen or Chiengmai Style.

The Early period shows the influence of Pata schoolof sculpture from India and the Late period shows thestrong influence of Sukhothai art on sculpture, whichflourished in North and Central Thailand in contem-poraneity with the Chiengsaen style.

The Buddha Images of Early Chiengsaen style havethe sculptural features derived from the image of thePala school. The sculptural features of the BuddhaImage in Early Chiengsaen style are as follows: TheBuddhta’s body is fat and round-shaped, along with a

121

round-shaped head and a round, short face. The Ketu-mala or protuberance on the head is in the form of alotus-bud (ushnisha). The eyes are rather bulging andhalf-closed, looking downwards, with rather prominentlips, a small sharply-defined mouth and a highly sensi-tive nose or hooked-nose, the knotted-chin, arched andprominent eyebrows springing from the bridge in twolong upward curves. There is no parting line round thetopknot on the head and the prominent chest.

The pedestal of the Buddha image is in the form ofa conventionalized lotus-pedestal. The petals of thelotus are large and flat, accompanied by small lotus-petals among the main large petal. The robe is lightlydefined, leaving the right nipple bare, the short upperfold of robe coming down over the left shoulderending above the left nipple in a sharp-pointed fork.The hair is composed of pronounced spired curls orshell-shaped, while the ketumala rises knob-like fromthe centre of the head, a lotus-bud covered with simi-lar curls. The legs of the Buddha are crossed, with bothsoles of the feet upturned.

The general pose of the Buddha image in EarlyChiengsaen style and later school of Thai art is theBhumisparsa Mudra — the Buddha in the act of touch-ing the Earth with his right hand, soliciting the EarthGoddess to witness the truth of his Enlightenment.64

The Thais refer to such a posture as Sa dung Mara or64. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof.: Thai Buddhist Sculpture, p. 26.

122

also as Mara Vijaya Mudra depicting the right handtouching over the foreleg the finger pointing down-ward to the earth, the left hand lying on the lap ofcrossed legs (Fig. 14)

Some of the Early Chiengsaen Buddha images have anelaborate ornamentation serving as a background tothe image and in many instances figures of conven-tionalized lions or other animals intermingled with the

Fig. 14

The Bronze Seated

Buddha Image of

Chiengsaen Style

123

ornamental decoration appear on the pedestal of theBuddha image. This is typical, reminding us of itsIndian origin (Pala art).

The Later Chiengsaen Buddha images show theinfluence of Sukhothai art and not the Pala influencelike the Early group. The Late Chiengsaen group ofsculpture is contemporary with the Sukhothai artduring the latter part of the 13th century A.D. up to themiddle of the 13th century. This was the peak periodof Later Chiengsaen style of sculpture, which waslargely influenced by the Sukhothai source which isclassical Thai art.

The Buddha Image of the Late Northern group ischaracterised by smaller spiral curls of hair, with theparting line round the topknot. Other features on thebody are the same as in the early group. But the robeof the Buddha, leaving the right nipple bare, comesdown over the left shoulder and hangs down muchlower than in the early group. Apart from this, theLater Chiengsaen type is to be recognised by the pos-ture of the legs, which are, in this case, not crossed likethat of the early group. The right foreleg, rests on theleft one, which in Thai is called Samadhi Rab — a clearinfluence of the Sukhothai art.

The Late Chiengsaen style of sculpture spread tothe towns of Luang Prabang, Vientiens and Champa-sak (Bassak) in Laos, but the workmanship of sculpturein these places cannot equal that in Northern Thailand.

124

PaintingPaintings of Chiengsaen period are also quite a few innumber. The painting of Northern Thailand in thisperiod usually bear a strong Burmese influence. Thedrawing of Northern murals is somewhat less sensi-tive. The colour is much colder in tone and the generaleffect is dry and crisp, the murals are much less luxu-rious than those of the later school of painting.

The earliest painting on cloth was discovered in1960 A.D. at Amphur or sub-district Hod, nearChiengmai. This painting is a long banner of cloth,about 7 inches by 4½ inches, folded into a clay jar andplaced in the crypt of the Chedi of Wat Dokngoen(Silver Flower). This painting cloth illustrates theBuddha descending from Heaven (named Tava-timsa) in a shower of flower jewelry and silver nug-gets, accompanied on either side by heavenly musi-cians, a group of disciples, royal personages andothers. This style of painting on cloth contains ele-ments from all the influences that must have pene-trated Northern Thailand —Chiengsaen, Sukhothaiand Sinhalese school. The date of the painting may beassigned to circa 15th century A.D.65

65. Lyons, Elizabeth: The Tosachat in Thai Painting, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 22, pp. 13–14.

125

� Sukhothai�

The Classical Art of the Sukhothai Period

(13th–14th Century A.D.)

It is said that every important civilisation of the worldhas a Golden Age or a Classical Age when material,intellectual and spiritual progress simultaneouslyreaches a high level. Thus, the Sukhothai period wasthe Golden Age of Thailand and the determining fac-tors were national independence and religion. The cul-ture and artistic activities with regard to Buddhismreached their zenith during this period. Buddhist art inthe Sukhothai period is regarded as the most beautiful.Original Thai art expression was especially in the fieldof sculpture. The Sukhothai period, in this respect, rep-resents the Golden Age in the history of Thailand asthe Gupta period was in the history of India.

Sukhothai is the name of the first historical power-ful Thai kingdom whose capital was of the same nameSukhothai or Sukhothai (literally meaning ”Happinessof the Thais”).66 Nowadays, Sukhothai is an importantProvince of the upper, central part of modern Thai-land. The religion as well as the religious art of thiskingdom reached its zenith in the time of theSukhothai kingdom which came to be known in thehistory of Siamese art as “Sukhothai” art.

66. For details: Dumrong Rajanubhab., H. H. Prince,: Letters of Princes, Part 49, P. 57.

127

The period of the Sukhothai kingdom (1238–1439A.D.) represents the great evolution of religion in thiscountry. It witnessed the introduction of the new sectof Hinayana Buddhism. It was the pure TheravadaHinayana sect from Ceylon, also called the Sinhalesesect of Hinayana Buddhism. In Thai it is called Lanka-vong Nikaya (Nikaya meaning sect).

The Lankavong or Sinhalese Hinayana sect of Bud-dhism from Ceylon was first introduced in the Sukho-thai kingdom, it still survives as the state religion ofthis country. The strong influence of Sinhalese art wasimbibed by the Thai artists of the Sukhothai period intheir artistic production and workmanship. Thearchaeological objects, however, point to the existenceof some Brahmanic deities also during this period.

ArchitectureThe Lankavong Theravada Hinayana sect of Buddhismconstitutes the main source of Buddhist monummentsin the Sukhothai period. There is a long series of con-structions of Buddhist religious buildings with theirperfect style, which became the prototype of later mon-uments in Thai art. Several forms of Buddhist monu-ments were erected during this period. They were wator monastery, viharas, temple, stupa or Chedi, PhraPrang, bot, etc. All of them bear the influence of Sin-halese architecture, as well as the architectural featuresof early Thai Buddhist art such as the Khmer art of Lop-

128

buri and the Sri-Vijaya art of Southern Thailand.Chief among the Sukhothai architectural achieve-

ments is the stupa or chedi. According to Thai scholarsand archaeologists, the Chedi architecture of thisperiod may be divided into three main types as follows:

1. The Original Sukhothai Chedi. It has three super-imposed rectangular pedestals supporting and smalland redented central part on the top of which is a finialin the form of a lotus-bud (called Phum-Khao-Bin inThai language (Fig. 15). Such a Chedi exists at WatMahatat in the centre of the old town of Sukhothai, andat Wat Chedi Chet Thaew (the seven rows of stupa) inthe town of Sisatchanalai.

There is controversy among scholars regarding theorigin and introduction of this style of Sukhothaistupa. Some scholars believe that it is the pure Thaiworkmanship, while others think that its style bearsthe influence of other nations. But recent research aswell as the identification suggested by Prince Dam-rong Rajanubhab, a great Thai scholar, on the basis ofthe figure of an ancient Chinese stupa67 indicate thatthis ancient Chinese stupa closely resembles in stylethe original Sukhothai Chedi. In other words, theSukhothati stupa is an imitation or copy of ancientChinese stupa, which was probably introduced by

67. Boribal Buribhand, Luang: The Thai Images of the Buddha, p. 216.

129

King Ramkhamhaeng, who in the course of his visits toChina brought back with him the style of Chinesestupa along with the art of ceramic ware and its Chi-nese style to his empire. The original style of the stupa,first imitated from an original Chinese source, waslater perfected by Siamese artists.

2. The Round Ceylonese Stupa. This stupa bears thestrong influence of Sinhalese art of architecture, whichoriginated in this period at about the same time when theLankavong Theravada Buddhist sect came to flourish inthe Sukhothai empire. This stupa, no doubt, is the bestexample of Sinhalese art and workmanship in this land.The architectural features of the round Sinhalese stupaare a square or rectangular basement, the alms-bowl-shaped dome or anda, the square base or Banlang (inThai corresponding to the Harmika of the typical Indianstupa. Above the square base is the successive superim-posed spire. This style closely follows the style of theThuparama stupa of the ancient city of Anuradhapura inCeylon, which in turn also derived its style of the Thupi-aruma stupa at the ancient city of Anuradhapura in Cey-lon, which in turn also derived its style from the IndianHinayana stupa of the time of Emperor Asoka.

The further developed stupa of this period, whichalso belongs to this category, is the stupa at Chedi WatChang Lom. It is round in plan with the decorativedesign at the basement in the form of a basement sur-

130

rounded by rows of the half-body and head of elephantcaryatids. It is no doubt a true imitation of the stupa inCeylon, which was built by King Duttagamini theGreat. Other architectural characteristics of Chedi WatChang Lom are the rectangular basements, lotus ped-estal, bell-shaped dome, the platform or banlang abovethe dome; the Plang Chanai or circles diminishing indiameter, superimposed one upon the other, and thespire of the stupa or the Pli (plantain-bud) (Fig. 16).This stupa was built by King Ramkhamhaeng in orderto show the preservation of Ceylonese art in his empire.

Fig. 16

Chedi of Wat Chang Lom at Sawankalok,

Sukhothai Province — The Second Group of

Sukhothai Stupa (Chedi), Architecture of

Sukhothai Period

131

3. The Sri-Vijaya Stupa. It is the last style of stupa inthe Sukhothai period. Its features bear a strong influ-ence of Mahayana Sri Vijaya architecture from theSouth of the country mixed with the influence of theround stupa of Ceylonese style. It is characterized by atall rectangular basement which is sometimes deco-rated by the niches to house the Buddha Image withthe upper portion of tall rectangular basementcrowned with a round stupa of Sinhalese style, sur-rounded at the four corners by the smaller stupa of thesame type.

Apart from the chedi or stupa, the Prang or anothertype of Siamese stupa also appears in this period. ThePhra Prang is the further developed architecturalbuilding from the corner tower of Khmer temples.There is further development of the Phra Pang fromthe original Khmer style. The best example of PhraPrang is the large one at Wat Pra Sri Ratana Mahathat-Chalieng in the city of Sisatchanalai. This Prang wasrestored in later time in the Ayudhya period. But itsoriginal date of construction is attributed to KingMaha Tammaraja I or Lithai.

The architectural feature of this sanctuary is thehigh plan and the whole structure was not erected onthe rectangular superimposed terrace-basement likethe corner-tower or Khmer temple, but was erected onthe single basement. The portico or front porch wasattached to the side of structure, but only the front por-

132

tico is more bulging in a prominent way than otherporticos. The Sukhothai Prang has no lintel or door-jambs like the Khmer Prang, but there are the niches tohouse the walking Buddha image (Fig.17). Thus thisstyle of architecture represents the specialized form ofthe Phra Prang having its characteristics as those ofwestern architectutre.68

The bot and vihara of Sukhothai style also have theirpeculiar features. Usually the vihara of this period islarger than the bot or Ubosoth, and the walls are

68. Department of Fine Arts: The Siamese Buddha Images, p. 5.

Fig. 17

Phra Prang of Wat Sri-Sawai, at old Sukhothai City, Architecture of Sukhothai Period

133

pierced by small rectangular cavities instead of largewindows. Some of the viharas of this period show theinfluence of the monuments of the Polonnaruva periodin Ceylon (11th–12th century A.D.).

Regarding the roof and superstructure of both botand viharas in this period, it can be said that the roof isarched in outline for beauty. Usually there are two orthree rows of pillars and next to the third pillar-row isthe wall of the structure. As already stated, there areno windows but small cavities instead of the former.Also in front of either bot or vihara, the large door-entrance was added along with the wind-cavity. Thisform corresponds with the frontal system in the fieldof architecture, because when we just open the door-entrance of building or enter inside it, the light touchesthe main Buddha inage, which is installed at eye-level.

Other architectural features are the absence of theceiling which lines the inclined parts of the roof. Thereare two kinds of tiles on the roof: One is up and down-tiles and other is cut-end tiles bathed with green gum-colour. The Cho-Fa and decorative extension of theapex of the gable69 as well as Bai Raka are also on theroof of building.

The town-planning in the Sukhothai period is alsoquite interesting. All the religious buildings of theempire were located in the centre of the town. The

69. In Thai called Panlom. It is one of the specialized local Thai terms of architecture.

134

town was surrounded by three large and high rangingwalls, which included the fort or citadel between them.The planning of the bot in the Sukhothai period wascharacterized by the presence of galleries surroundingthe Phra Prang or Chedi. This temple-planning later onbecame the prototype of Ayudhya architecture.Thepillars were made from laterite. The capital of the pil-lars was designed in the form of Bua Klum or lotusclusters having no abacus of pillar. But, there is thehole in order to make it strong.

Before we conclude, it is necessary to refer to onespecialized vihara. It is the vihara of Wat Sri Chum inSukhothai city. This building is extraordinary in itsarchitecture constructed of a double wall. It has a smalltunnel inside through which one can walk up steps,around the back of main large Buddha image, to theroof. This peculiarity of construction might have beenborrowed from the vihara in the city Polonnaruva inCeylon, where a narrow passage is found inside thedouble wall of some vihara so that the people couldwalk around the main Buddha Image by way of wor-ship. This technique was modified by the Thai artistsat Wat Sri Chum, which can still be seen.

SculptureThe sculpture of the Sukhothai period represents thereal glory of this school of art. It is generally held thatClassical Thai sculpture reached its peak during this

135

period. In the field of sculpture the influence of the ear-liest Thai art of the Dvaravati period can be noticed inSukhothai workmanship. From the Mon of Dvaravati,the Thai adopted Theravada Buddhism and their basicconception of image-making too. They seem to haveborrowed their iconography and plastic manner. Thus,the Sukhothai sculpture is closely linked with theDvaravati which derived its model from the Gupta artof India; as well as, the influence of Dvaravati shadowart.

The conception of Sukhothai school of sculpturerepresents the image of the Buddha after his Enlight-enment. The body of the Buddha, is in complete rest,the muscles are relaxed and the face is serene with afaint smile reflecting a state of deep inward content-ment. After his Enlightenment, the Buddha belongedmore to the sphere of Nirvana than to the Earth, andtherefore, the Thai artists conceived the image inwhich this ethereal quality is perfectly realized.70

The Sukhothai Buddha Images, whether sitting,walking or reclining, have a particular undulating andsoaring character which seems to render immaterialthe heavy bronze of which they are made. Yet, thisspirituality does not destroy the sculptural qualities ofthe images. The human forms, simplified and ideal-ized, are exquisitely modelled and there is no dishar-

70. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof.: An Appreciation of Sukhothai Art, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 17, p. 5.

136

mony between the abstract idea and its material realiz-ation. This had not always been the case in the past . Insome images of the Gupta period, the sculptural vol-umes appear too heavy to convincingly portray a tran-scendental and sacred figure.

The representation of the Buddha image is, in fact,to complex problem, mere techniques and artisticqualities are not sufficient because it is the essence ofthe Buddhist doctrine that the sculptural forms mustconvey the true expression. Indeed, it is the Doctrinethat the sculptural forms must convey the true expres-sion. Indeed, it is the Doctrine that it is not the physicalform of the Teacher which inspires the image. Thus, inconceiving the Buddha image, Thai artists sought toportray through the use of human forms, a being whowas removed from earthly affairs.

The sculptors of Sukhothai did solve this dilemma.Their creations seem to master the tumult of humanpassions, and the faint smile of the images tells us ofhappiness and peace gained by subduing the earthlyand primordial instincts. One may note, technicallythat the parallel, delicate, undulating lines of themouth and the base of the nose and eyes emphasizethis spirituality.71

According to scholars, the masterpiece of Sukho-thai sculpture is the fine Buddha Image. The Sukhothai

71. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof.: An Appreciation of Sukhothai Art, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 17, p. 6.

137

Buddha Images can be divided into four general cate-gories as follows:

1. General Group: To this group most of the SukhothaiBuddha Images belong. The Buddha has a tall flicker-ing flame-like motif of the halo on the ushnisha of thehead, small hair-curls or the size of hair-curls well pro-portioned, an oval face with arched eyebrows, ahooked nose and a smiling expression, no parting lineround the topknot of the head, pointed or tapered chinand prominent nipples. The shoulders are bare but thewaist is small. The lobes of the ears are curved out-ward to break the angle formed by the attachment ofthe neck with the shoulders. The stretched right fore-arm is delicately bent outwards to harmonize with thecontrasting mass of the trunk with that of the legs,while the lower line of the legs slightly curved servesto complete the flowing character of the whole unity.The hanging flap of the robe on the left shoulder isquite long, drawn up to the navel and terminating in aknotched design. Or the ends of the robe are in twopieces in the form of a centipede fang.

The Buddha is usually seated in a folded-leg fash-ion (samadhi Rob in Thai), in the posture of subduingMara (Mara Vijaya Mudra). The pedestal of the imageis always plain. The middle of the pedestal is a concaveshape which differs from that of Chiengsaen pedestals— the convex form. There are very few of lotus-petal

138

pedestals (Fig. 18). We also notice that from the gentlecurve of the mass of the legs to the flickering flame ofthe halo, the soaring undulating sense follows its har-monious development. There are five different pos-tures or mudras of the Buddha Image in this group.

The Bronze Seated Buddha Image “Mara Vijaya Mudra” Sculpture of the Sukhothai Period

Fig. 18

139

2. Buddha Image of Kampaengpet group:72 TheSukhothai Buddha image which belongs to this groupis characterized by a long face, broad forehead and apointed Chin (Fig.19).

72. Kampaengpet is the name of the Province in Upper Central Thailand, near the Province of Sukhothai of modern times.

Fig. 19

The Bronze Head(s) of Buddha Images, Khampaengpet GroupSculpture of the Sukhothai Period

140

3. Buddha Image of Pra Puttha Chinarat Group: Thisgroup is attributed to the reign period of King Lithai(Circa 1347–1368 A. D.) and later. The sculptural fea-tures of the images of this group are characterised bythe round face (unlike the oval shape of the first group)— like the form of fruit of the bel tree — or a copy ofthe Gupta face of Buddhat image, having round,plumb cheeks, a corpulent body and four equal fin-gers.73 The high flickering flame of the halo on the pro-tuberance of the Buddha's head is longer and higherthan that of the general group. The best specimen ofthis group is the image of Pra Puttha Chinarat in WatPra Sri Ratana Mahatat in the Pisanulok province ofThailand.

4. Buddha Image of Wat Trakuan Group: The Buddhaimage of this group was first discovered at Wat Trad-kuan in the old city of Sukhothai, and hence the nameof the Buddha image after that temple. The Sukhothaiimage of this group displays strong early Chiengsaeninfluence. Its sculptural features mark the halo on theushnisha on the head of Buddha in the form of a lotus-bud, the short end of the robe over the left nipple and anarrow forehead shows early Chiengsaen characteris-tics. The seated Buddha image of this group is withcrossed legs, with the sole of the feet upwards, clearlyvisible. The Buddha also has broad, flat face and short

73. Department of Fine Arts: The Sukhothai Art, p. 127.

141

nose (Fig. 20, In this group we have also some imageswhich display Sinhalese influence, and they might wellbe older than the images of the General Group.

One of the most venerated Buddha images in Thailandis Pra Puttha Sihing, which is said to have been ob-tained from Ceylon either in the reign of King Sri

Fig. 20

Sukhothai Buddha Image of

“Wat Trakuan Group”

Sculpture of Sukhothai

Period

142

Indraditya, the founder of Sukhothai empire or hisgreat son, King Ramkhamhaeng in the second half ofthe 13th century A.D. However the workmanship ofthis image is purely Thai, though Sinhalese character-istics can be seen here and there.

During the Sukhothai period the Buddha imagesare in four postures: seated, reclining, standing andwalking. But one specialized posture of Buddha Imageoriginated in this period for the first time in the historyof Thai Buddhist art, which is one of the finest speci-mens. The walking Buddha called the Lila (in Thai andYatra in Sanskrit), posture is the masterpiece ofSukhothai sculpture. One heel of the Buddha is raisedwhile the other foot is planted firmly on the ground,and one hand is lifted in the gesture of giving instruc-tion to dispel fear, while the other arm swings natu-rally at the side of body.74

The figures are in the graceful gesture symbolizingthe turning of the Wheel of the Law. The body has agraceful undulation. The head is shaped like a lotus-bud, with the neck spreading at its base merging har-moniously into the shoulder. The delicate outline of thelobes of ears curve a little outwards serving to empha-size the harmony of the whole composition. The toes onthe walking images are also of equal length, the solestyre flat and the heels protrude markedly (Fig. 21).

74. Boribal Buribhand, Luang & Griswald, A. B.: Thai Image of the Buddha, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 18, p. 12.

143

Besides the Buddha Inmages, statues of Hindu godswere also cast in Sukhothai. This does not imply anycompromise of religious beliefs in that period. It hasalways been the custom in the Buddhist kingdoms ofSouth-East Asia from remote time to the present day toattach Brahmins to their courts to perform royal andcivil ceremonies. It was for this reason that statues ofHindu gods were cast in this period and also later such

Fig. 21

The Bronze Walking Buddha-Image

or Lila Posture —

Art of Sukhothai Period

144

as in the Ayudhya and Bangkok periods. For instance,there are statues of Siva, Uma, Vishnu and Harihara(Siva and Vishnu mixed together) and Brahman. Theirfaces resemble those of the bronze Buddha Images inthe General Group. The only difference lies in thedress and ornaments.

Apart from the bronze and metal Buddha Images,the stucco images are also found. Many stucco bas-reliefs were used to decorate religious architecture.The stucco decoration in this period consisted of therepresentation of human, animal and mythical figuresor ornaments.

As stucco, composed of lime, sand and the juice ofsugarcane, hardens in a few hours, the artist must pos-sess skill to execute the work quickly. Although thework may be corrected by the addition of more stucco,the beauty of the decoration depends on the sensitivetouch of the artist. If the ornaments were done by a tal-ented man they have a striking vitality, otherwise,they may be mechanical and unexpressive.

The most beautiful stucco bas-relief is the represen-tation of the Buddha descending from TavatimsaHeaven, at Wat Prapang Tong Lang outside the Oldtown of Sukhothai. It is very similar to a mural paint-ing in the Northern Temple of Polonnaruva, Ceylon,which was painted in the middle of the 12th centuryA.D. This stucco might have been influenced by theCeylonese mural.

145

Mural PaintingThe final phase of the Golden Age of Thai Buddhist artis painting. But unfortunately except for some orna-mental designs, the painting of the Sukhothai periodhas been completely obliterated. However, the style ofpainting in this period was two dimensional art, incontrast to the three dimensions of Western painting.Much of its beauty depended on the expressiveness ofthe line.

Mural paintings are at the ceiling of a narrow stair-way at Wat Sri Chum, Sukhothai. There are severalstone slabs incised with Jataka scenes and identifyinginscriptions in the Sukhothai script. These muralpaintings show the influence of the Indian style in theform of Indianized figures. The linear style and thedetailed representation of jewellery and ornaments(Fig. 22, 23), lead one to believe that they were derivedfrom illuminated manuscripts brought by the Sin-halese monks, who had settled down at Sukhothai.

Fig. 22

Stone-Slab-Engraving: At Wat Sri Jum,

Sukhothai Province,Sukhothai

Period

146

But, the other example of painting is a little differentfrom that of Indian origin. It is the fragments of muralsat Sat Chedi Chet Thaew, in the town of Sawankalok.The murals represent the Buddha seated among hisdisciples and adoring devotees. Its date begins fromthe 14th century.

Detail of one stone-engraving at Wat Sri Jum of Sukhothai showing the characteristics of Indian artFig. 23

147

In the middle of the 14th century A.D. the politicalpower of Sukhothai was on the decline. The new Thaichief subdued the Sukhothai king and established thenew kingdom of Ayudhya as the capital city of thecountry. Sukhothai now became one of the vassal citiesof the new powerful kingdom of Thailand. But, theSukhothai school of art did not come to an end with theloss of independence. It continued to flourish well upto the 16th century A.D. Apart from that, wheneverone side or the other seized one of the cities of oldSukhothai kingdom, the conqueror brought Sukhothaiartists to his own capital so that they could work andimpart their skill to new apprentices. Thus the artisticinfluence of Sukhothai was more pronounced andwidespread after the loss of its political independencethan ever before.

The Figure of the Buddha subduing Mara (above) and in meditation (below) flanked by angels: The

Mural painting in the Stupa of Wat Chedi-Chet-Thaew, Sri Satchanalai,

Sukhothai, Sukhothai Period

Fig. 24

148

� U–tong�

Art of the U-Tong Period

(Circa 12th–15th Century A.D. )

The Chiengsaen school of Buddhist art flourished inthe extreme North of Thailand from the 11th cen-tury A.D. and onwards, and the Sukhothai styleflourished in the North and uppermost Central partof the country. But in the Central part of Thailand,there was another developed Buddhist art, the U-Tong school. As noted earlier, Central Thailand wasoriginally the site of the Dvaravati kingdom, whichwas later occupied by the Khmers.

The U-Tong art that flourished in this Central partis, therefore, a composite art. Khmer art existed in Lop-buri up to the 13th century A.D. U-Tong was a centreof Khmer culture in this country, which later lost directcontact with the Khmer empire. U-Tong did not re-ceive any other cultural influence from outside peo-ples. So, the art followed the Khmer style.

But, this does not mean that the U-Tong style isa mere imitation of the Khmer one. The new spiritof Hinayana Buddhism, united with the peculiarsensitiveness of the Thai people gave birth to a new

150

type of Thai sculpture having proper characteristicsin this art. However, the art of the Hinayana ele-ment and conception of this school bear the influ-ence of the art of Dvaravati and Sukhothai period.

Thus the U-Tong school represents composite artof different artistic influences: the Hinayana elementfrom Dvaravati art, the Mahayana element from Lop-buri art (Khmer conception and workmanship) andHinayana Theravada element bearing Ceyloneseinfluence from Sukhothai art respectively. U-Tongrepresents the period from 13th century up to 15th cen-tury A.D. Scholars designated this school of art as theart of Early Ayudhya period.

The name U-Tong is still obscure, but recent re-searches suggest its area corresponding to the capitalof the Thai principality before the rise to power of Ay-udhya, the second capital of Thailand. U-Tong was thename of a Thai prince, who belonged to the royal lineof Chiengsaen dynasty or the old Eastern Chiengraifamily of King Prohm of Chaiprakarn in ancient Lan-na-tai empire in the extreme North of Thailand. ThisThai prince later on became the founder of the Ayud-hya kingdom under the name, King Rama Ibodi I. Onthe other hand, the name U-Tong is also attributed tothe ancient city located in lower part of the MenamValley in central Thailand.

Its other name is Supannapham. The name U-Tong literally means “a Golden Cradle”, because the

151

Thai prince, according to Siamese traditions and leg-ends was given at cradle of gold by his father. Thename Supannapham or Suvarnahbhumi, in Pali,means Land of gold or source of gold also. Nowa-days the old city of U-Tong or Supannapham is inruins which lie to the west of the modern province ofSupanburi.75

U-Tong is now one of the sub-districts in thatprovince. The border of the city U-Tong spreadsnorthward up to Sarnburi and eastward up to themouth of Chao Pya or Menam river. In the South itextended up to the province of Ratburi and in the Westup to Pegu in Lower Burma. This city represents themeeting ground of several cultures and civilizationssuch as the ancient Mon culture, Dvaravati kingdom,Khmer culture from Lopburi region, and lastly theThai Hinayana Buddhistic culture from the old capitalof Sukhothai kingdom.

ArchitectureThe religious architecture which belongs to the U-Tong period represents the mixed style of architecturefrom other cultures, such as the style of Sukhothai and

75. Supanburi (Town of Gold) is situated in the North of Bangkok. U-Tong at present is the name of the sub-district of this province (Damrong Rajanubhab, H. H. Prince,: Tales of Ancient Times, p. 32).

152

Sri-Vijaya architecture as well as Khmer style of archi-tecture from Lopburi art. One example of architecturein this period is the Pra Mahathat of Chinat, in theChainat province. It is the stupa of Wat Prat BaromThat which is characterized by the mixture of influ-ences of Sukhothai and Sri-Vijaya styles. Its architec-tural characteristics are: the two superimposed rectan-gular basements shortened at four corners (called YorMum in Thai) or the bent rectangular plan. The bodyof structure is in the style of Sri-Vijaya architecture,which is similar to that of the 4th group of Sukhothaistupa.

Both of them derived their inspiration from thesame sources. There are four porticos or nichesattached to the body of structure in four directions.The porticos are decorated with pediment and door-jambs. On the pediment is represented the design ofSeated Buddha image in high relief. The body of struc-ture was crowned by a round stupa of Sukhothai style.Surrounding the main round stupa are the smallstupas in replica or in imitation of the central one(Fig. 26). Another religious building of this period isthe Pra-Prang of Wat Pra Sri Ratana Maha Thai in Lop-buri Province. It is the Prang architecture which isquite different from the Khmer prototype of Prang atLopburi as it is much more indented at the corners,and the decoration on the base of the wall is quitehigh.

153

Fig. 26Stupa Pra Mahatat of Wat Borom-tat, at Chainat province,

Thailand — Architecture of the U-Tong Period

154

SculptureThe sculpture in this period played an important partin the history of Buddhist art in Thailand. The sensitivedesign and elements and of the U-Tong sculpture,especially of the Buddha Image, seems to suggest thepensive, intense meditation of Lord Buddha (in orderto find out the reason of the causes and effects inhuman life). Although tense and thoughtful, theseimages appear illumined by a mystic light. Theirimmobile rigidity is far more touching and far moresuggestive than any realistic gesture and expression.Indeed this immobility of form enlivens the spirit.

The outstanding feature and essence of the U-Tongschool of art is its fine sculpture, especially the BuddhaImage cast in bronze and metal. The style of theBuddha Image shows the strong inter-combinationwith other artistic influences such as the influence ofDvaravati, Lopburi, Khmer art and Sukhothai artrespectively. The sculpture of this period has one ofthe important elements — it is the human anatomy,though stylized and simplified but far less amendedby supernatural consideration than in Sukhothaisculpture. The forms of human anatomy in this art arestrong and decisive, though frequently softened by arichly variegated patina which it is worthwhile toexamine with it powerful glass.76

76. Department of Fine Arts: Art of U-Tong, Ayuddya and Ratatna Kosin, p. 24.

155

The Buddha Images of this period are rigid, aus-tere and pensive. From the images of this period it isclear that the artists wanted to convey the imagina-tion of Lord Buddha sitting immobile under the Bo-tree in his last meditative effort prior to his Enlighten-ment. This element very much differs from the sculp-ture of Sukhothai art, where the artists wanted toshow their skill in the representation of GautamaBuddha or the Enlightened One, who although livingin a physical body belonged to the abstract world ofNirvana.77

The general sculptural characteristics of the BuddhaImage of this period are as follows:

The Buddha image of the U-Tong school has the erecttrunk and the perpendicularity of a stretched rightarm in sharp contrast with the horizontal mass of thesuperposed legs. The shape of the head is cubical andthe curls of the hair are so small as to appear as meredots. A filet running from the attachment of one ear tothe other separates the hair from the forehead. Theeyebrows are well marked, the nose is rather flat, andthe mouth is ample — in the old specimens it does notbear the peculiar smile of the Sukhothai images. Theprominent chin is divided by a medial depressionwhich in most specimens is emphasized from the chinup to the base of the nose. But, there is one constant

77. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof.,: Op. Cit., p. 10.

156

characteristic of the U-Tong Buddha image, which isa small band dividing the hair from the forehead or aparting line round the topknot (called Raiprasok inThai). The other features are the long robe fallingfrom the left shoulder and terminating in a straightline; a folded leg posture is the attitude of the Buddhawhile subduing Mara, and the pedestal concave inoutline.

There is a controversy among the Thai and foreignscholars who have classified the U-Tong BuddhaImages in different styles based on their character.Recent researches and archaeological studies in thiscountry have brought to light the exact style of BuddhaImage in this period. There are three different styles ofU-Tong Buddha Image, according to its artistic inspi-ration and imitation of other artistic schools of art. Thewell-known French scholars, George Goedes andP. Dupont, have classified the images into two groups.The three different groups of U-Tong Buddha Images,according to Thai scholars, are as follows:

1. The First Group: The Buddha Images belonging tothis group represent the result of the mixture of Dvar-avati art with the Khmer or Lopburi art. This group isprobably the earliest of the three and dates from the12th–13th century A.D. (Fig. 27) which we have dis-cussed in the preceding pages.

157

2. The Second Group: The Buddha Image in thisgroup shows more prominant Khmer or Lopburi influ-ence in its style. This second group is probably laterthan the first group which is assigned to 13th–14th cen-tury A.D. The characteristic of the image in this groupis the great transformation of the halo or skull-protu-berance. It changes from the small knot or flower-budlike of the first group into a flame-like motif. This inno-vation might have occurred first in the image of the

The Buddha Image of the First Group of U-Tong Period

Fig. 27

158

second group of U-Tong art before it was handed on tothe Sukhothai style of the third group of image in thesame period. Other features show the Khmer influencelike the square face and jaw, the long mouth curling upat the ends, which leads one to believe that the artistmust have been strongly imbued with Khmer feeling.78

The almost straight forehead, thick lips and mouth, halfclosed eyes and the long end of the robe over the navelafter, falling down from the left shoulder (Fig. 28).

78. Le, May, Reginald: The culture of South East Asia, p. 194.

Fig. 28

The Bronze Seated Buddha

Image: The Second Group

of U-Tong Period

159

3. The Third Group: There are strong Sukhothaiinfluences in the Buddha Image of the third group.This groups probably existed in the 14th–15th centuryA.D. The sculptural features of the image in this groupshow traces of Sukhothai art, but it still conveys thetrace of Lopburi or Khmer art as the mouth is large andthe nose tends to be flat with the dot-like curl of hair onthe head.

That the Sukhothai element in the face of theBuddha is oval in shape, not rectangular or square likethe first two groups, is clearly visible. The eyebrowsare now arched and sharply marked by incised lines.The hair is in the form of dot-like curls or we may sayin the form of pin-points. On the tall ketumala or skull-protuberance, there is clear Sukhothai influence thehalo having the form of flickering flame-like motif.

Other features are like those of second group, butwe come across more slender and slight outline ofthe body than the second group, small waist, largeshoulders, slender fingers and the long end of therobe over the naval (Fig. 29), indicating the Sukho-thai influence.

In the U-Tong period, only the Buddha Images rep-resent the essence of this school of art and we havevery few paintings. It appears that there is no trace ofU-Tong painting extant.

160

Fig. 29

The Bronze Seated

Buddha Image: The

Third Group of U-Tong

Period

161

� Ayudhya�

Art of the Ayudhya Period (14th–18th Century A.D.)

The new kingdom of Ayudhya came to be establishedby King U-Tong in 1350 A.D. King U-Tong proclaimedhimself as King Rama Tibodi. The full name of the citywas Dvaravati Sri Ayudhya where the influence of theVishnu cult was also prominent. This kingdom playedan important part in Siamese history for more thanfour centuries.

The Ayudhya school of art is regarded as thenational art of Thailand. It is the most developed artis-tic creation which flourished during the long period ofthe establishment of the Ayudhya kingdom in Siamesehistory. Its capital, Ayudhya, was the second capital ofThailand. During the four centuries of its existence itwitnessed tremendous growth and development of artwhich began in 1350 A.D. and flourished up to 1767A.D. till the destruction of the Ayudhya kingdom bythe Burmese.

The development of religious art during thisperiod was splendid from 1350 A.D. up to 1767 A.D.Ayudhya had 33 monarchs, who belonged to sevendifferent dynasties. During more than four centuries ofthe existence of this kingdom, Buddhist art developedextremely well. Scholars have divided this era intofour sub-periods according to the cultural and artistictransformation in different reigns:

163

1. The Art of the First Period, corresponds to theperiod when King U-Tong founded the capital ofAyudhya as an independent kingdom in 1350 A.D.This period ended with the reign of King BoromaTrailokanath or King Trailok in 1488 A.D., a period of138 years.

2. The Art of the Second Period, corresponds to thelast part of the reign of King Baroma Trailokanth (1491A.D.) down to the end of reign of King Tong Dham(1628 A.D.) a period of artistic activity for 137 years.

3. The Art of the Third Period, corresponds to thereign of King Prasat Thong in 1630 A.D. down to theend of the reign of King Trai Sra in 1732 A.D. covering-a period of 102 years.

4. The Art of the Fourth or Last Period, corresponds tothe reign of King Boromakot in 1732 A.D. to the end ofAyudhaya kingdom in the reign of its last King Ekatat,who lost his Kingdom due to the Burmese invasion in1767 A.D., an artistic period of only 35 years.

The Buddhist art in the Ayudhya period representsthe imitation art of the former Thai art. The art ofSukhothai, U-Tong, Lopburi or Khmer period becamethe prototype of Ayudhya art. We can trace the artisticinfluence of those schools of art. But a new artistic con-ception or element was also introduced during thislong period of artistic activity.

164

1. The Art in First Period (1350–1488 A.D.)

The Buddhist art of this period may be called the earlyAyudhya art. During the art of Early Ayudhyu periodthe Lopburi (Khmer) and U-Tong schools of art playeda prominent role through their strong influence on theworkmanship of the Ayudhaya art.

ArchitectureIt is said that the Lopburi or U-Tong style of architec-ture was very popular in this period. The central mon-uments of various Buddhist monasteries foundedduring this period were constructed in the form of Pra-Prang following the Lopburi or U-Tong style. But thereare some characteristics which differ from the Khmerprototype, though the Prang of this period representsthe imitation structure of the former art.

First, the Prang is higher than Khmer Prang of Lop-buri or U-Tong, the higher basement being nearly thesame level with the body of the structure. Anotherarchitectural feature of the Prang in this period is theporch, attached to the body of the Prang. The mostprominent porch of the Prang is in front. The space ofthe whole structure of the Prang consists of the sur-rounding gallery. Besides, the Prang consists of the Botor Temple. The decoration design on the spire of thePrang has disappeared but the design of the super-

165

structure remains at the door-entrance and door-jambs leading to inner part of the structure only.79

Apart from the Prang, in the first Period of Ayud-hya style of architecture, we can see the stupa orChedi. The round chedi which bears the influence ofSukhothai style appears in this period. Up to the laterpart of this period we can see the introduction ofsquare or rectangular plan reduced at four corners ofChedi.

The body of this structure is accompanied by thefour porches facing towards the four directions. Asregards the style of bot or vihara in this period it can besaid that the structure has no window but there is thehole for wind on the upper part of its wall. This wasused in the structures in place of the window. There isthe porch or portico attached in the front side of the bot(named in Thai — Mukhasan). The interior part con-tains rows of pillars (called in Thai — Saewharn). Thewall of the structure was not decorated with narrativefrieze of painting. Only the simple outline of a lotus-line decorates the four sides.

SculptureDuring the First Period of Ayudhya art, sculpture pro-duction followed the style of U-Tong sculpture. Fromthe beginning, the Second and Third U-Tong periodstyles of sculpture were popular at Ayudhya. Most of

79. Amatayakul, T. The Art of Ayudhya Period, p. 45.

166

the sculptures in this period are Buddhist Images. Thestyle of the Second Period of U-Tong Buddha Imageflourished in Ayudhya even before King U-Tongfounded his capital and was current at the time of thefoundation of the Ayudhya kingdom. Side by sidewith it, the Third Style of U-Tong school of BuddhaImages continued to flourish till the reign of KingBorom Trailokanath (1448–1488 A.D.).

The sculpture characteristics of the Buddha Imagein this period are: The halo on the skull-protuberanceor ushnisha in the form of lotus-bud or flame-likemotif influenced by the Second group of U-TongBuddha Images; the small spiral curl hair on the head;the Raiprasok or parting line round the topknot; thesquare chin in the shape of human chin; the long endof robe falling down from the left shoulder, square-shaped folded legs and a pedestal with concave out-line.

But in 1458 A.D. a great transformation of sculp-ture production took place in Ayudhya. King BoromTrailokanath had a set of bronze Buddha images cast,representing various previous lives of the Buddha (inThai, called Pra Bodhisattva Haroi Prachot of 500Incarnations). All these bronze Buddha images exem-plify the transition from the U-Tong style to that oftypical Ayudhya sculpture. One can, therefore, saythat the real Ayudhya style began about the middle ofthe 15th century A.D.

167

PaintingThai painting, for religious purposes, had existed sincethe Sukhothai period, but the evolution in the tech-nique of painting took place in the Ayudhya periodand later. In the first period or early artistic period ofthis kingdom, the style of painting (1350–1488 A.D.)shows strong Khmer and Sukhothai influences.

The characteristics of figures are rather stiff andheavy, and the colours used are black, white andred with only a few spots covered in gold. Thecolour of painting, according to artist, belongs tothe family of monochrome colour or single colourwhich was used in the first and second period ofAyudhya art in the composition of figures. In thethird period, however, we see the use of poly-chrome composition in the mural paintings. Poly-chrome colour means mixed colour composition.80

One of the best examples of mural painting in EarlyAyudhya period is the mural painting in the crypt ofthe main Prang of Wat Ratburana in Ayudhya built in1424 A.D. The paintings are of two types. In the lowerpart of the crypt are hieratic rows of seated Buddhasand standing disciples and in four niches are the Jatakascenes. The mural paintings from the crypt in thePrang of this monastery show the new stage in the evo-lution of Siamese painting, because for the first time

80. Department of Fine Arts: The Evolution of Wall Painting of Thailand, p. 176.

168

the artist painted the figure on the Fresco surface,which looks fresh and bright (Fig. 30) . The style of theuse of monochrome composition and sketching of out-line in the form of independent work is not to imitatean old mural example. An old mural example usuallyrepresented the repeated figure in narrative story ofthe parallel line, but the opposite is so in the muralpainting at Wat Ratburana. The composition of figuresis done by the artist in the form of small groups of fig-ures, without caring for the balance, harmony andrhythm of representation. Thus, this mural paintingimpresses the eyes as there is no repeated representa-tion like the painting of old.

Assembly of angels: Fresco in the crypt inside the big Pra Prang of Wat Pat Durana,

Ayudhya, Ayudhya Period

Fig. 30

169

2. Art in the Second Period (1491–1628 A.D.)

The art of Ayudhya in the Second Period corresponds tothe last part of the reign of King Borom Trailokanathdown to the end of the reign of King Thong Dham in 1628A.D. The climax of this art is to be seen in the time of KingBorom Trailokanath, who went to rule Pisanulok inNorthern Thailand in 1463 A.D. The art bears stronginfluence of the Sukhothai style which reached Ayudhya.

ArchitectureThe principal monument of Buddhist monasteriesduring this period is the round stupa or chedi of theSinhalese style which was prevalent at Sukhothai. Thepopular construction of the Prang has been changedinto the construction of a round stupa having bell-shaped dome of the Sukhothai style. The general archi-tectural characteristics of the stupa were imitated fromSukhothai chedi but the new pattern of architecturealso existed which is the adaptation of bell-shapeddome or body of Chedi higher than that of theSukhothai dome, and between the banlang or harmikain the Indian style of stupa and the Plong Chanai or cir-cles diminishing in diameter, superimposed one uponthe other, rising to the top of the stupa’s spire.

Between these two portions of the stupa a newform of low rows of pillars are placed. These rows of

170

pillars are called in Thai as Saewharn. One best exam-ple of the stupa of this period is the great stupa at WatYai Chaimonkol built by King Naresuan the Great andthree large Chedi at Wat Phra Sri Sanpet in Ayudhyaprovince. Its architectural features consisted of a bell-shaped dome, and all the four directions of the domeare attached with the porches (Fig. 31).

We also notice the decorative designs of Chedi in thisperiod. It is only plain masonry of the whole structurefrom the basement up to the spire, with few decorativedesigns on the lion style basement. The lion basementis the lowest part of the structure carved by the artistin the shape of Goruda or demon (Yaksha). In the caseof the bot and vihara, there are no decorative designson the walls.

Fig. 31

The Chedi of Bell-shaped

style at Wat Pra

Sri-Sampet, Ayudhya province,

Architecture of Second Period of Ayudhya

Art

171

SculptureThe real Ayudhya sculpture had its clear characteris-tics in the reign of King Rama Tibodi II and onwards(1491–1529 A.D.) which are chiefly marked by the pro-duction of the Buddha Image. The essence of theBuddha Image of this period lies in the imitation styleof Sukhothai Buddha Image. The sculptural character-istics of the Buddha Image were influenced by theSukhothai type as regards the halo and outline ofBuddha’s face. There is a small parting line round thetopknot on the head, the big end of the robe fallingdown front the left shoulder. The end of the robe doesnot terminate in a centipede fang line like that ofSukhothai style, but in the form of a straight line orfalling as two pointed ends of the robe.

Other features followed the style of Sukhothaiimage, but most of them cannot be compared to realSukhothai images. The facial expression is usually life-less, though the pedestal of the image is much moredecorative. Lots of the Buddha images in this periodhave the gesture of the Mara Vijaya Mudra. In somecases, however, we have the seated Buddha Image,both sides flanked by the two disciples (Fig. 32) and insome images the pedestal is decorated with the figuresof Yakshas or Demons. Very few of the images are ofthe Walking Buddha and in meditation mudra areavailable in this period.

172

PaintingThe second Period of Ayudhya painting may be stud-ied from illustrations on some manuscripts. These reli-gious documents were probably produced in the 16thcentury A.D., and most of them deal with Buddhistcosmology. They show the gradual development ofthe Sukhothai influence in Ayudhya pictorial art. Theuse of monochrome colour in the composition of paint-ing as well as many colours was popular. The illustra-tions are still following the old idea by the representa-tion of repeated story in parallel line, heavy and rather

The Seated Buddha Image

in middle flanked by

two disciples:Sculpture of

Second Period of Ayudhya

Art

Fig. 32

173

stiff with lifeless figures. They do not impress the eyes.The main colours are red ochre, black and yellow. Themanuscripts of the second Ayudhya period representa stage that shows the continuity and slow develop-ment of Thai painting (Fig. 33).

Detail of the mural at Wat Maha That in 15th Century Ayudhya showing the universal theme of composition of the Thai painting up to the 16th

Century. To our knowledge only the murals of Wat Rat Burana in Ayudhya of the 15th Century differed from the universal composition

Fig. 33

174

One of the most treasured manuscripts is Triphoum,devoted to Buddhist cosmology, containing illustra-tions of the ten Jatakas and the thirteen chapters of theVesantara story. The figures of gods and goddesses inthe Himavanta forest go back in stylistic conceptionthrough the Sukhothai stone engravings to the Ajantatype of painting in India (Fig. 34). Thus, the Indian pic-torial art still influenced the manuscript paintings ofthis period.

The Painting of Traiphum Manuscript:

of Ayudhya Period

Fig. 34

175

3. Art in the Third Period (1630–1732 A.D.)

The art of Ayudhya in this period covers the reignof King Prasat Tong in 1630 A.D. up to the end ofreign of King Trai Sra in 1732 A.D. covering a periodof 102 years. It represents the mixture of severalartistic influences on Thai art – especially the Lop-buri or Khmer style as well as the Chinese art andnewly Western or European art. The latter artbecame fashionable during the reign period of KingNarai the Great. During the days of King Narai, theinfluence of French art came to Ayudhya, in thewake of close diplomatic relationship between theAyudhya king and France under the dictatorial ruleof King Louis XIV.

ArchitectureIn the field of architecture, the Prang and Khmer archi-tecture began to be popular again at Ayudhya in thesecond quarter of the 17th century following the sub-jugation of the Khmer by King Prasat Tong. The Prangin Khmer style of this period is the Prang at Wat ChaiWatana Ram in Ayudhya. It is the imitation of AngkorWat temple in Kambuja, but the style shows real Thaiartistic inspiration and workmanship. Its architecturalfeatures consist of main central Prang accompanied byfour small plan Chedi, the four corners of which are

176

linked together by the row of galleries (Fig. 35). It wasthe only commemorative monument in the reign ofKing Prasat Tong and this style of construction latercompletely disappeared.

Apart from the Prang in Khmer style, the redentedChedi also began to appear during this period. Theredented Chedi is the Chedi with reduced corner fromthe basement up to the portion of neck of the bell-

The Pra Prang at Wat Chaiwatanaram, Ayudhya province — Architecture of the

Third Period of Ayudhya Art

Fig. 35

177

shaped dome. This style of Chedi differs from theChedi of the first and second period of Ayudhya art.The inspiration for this new peculiar style of Chedicame from the Ceylonese stupa and also the SukhothaiChedi and Sri Vijaya architecture.81

The new style of religious structure was popularin the reign of King Narai the Great, whose close rela-tionship with Western Countries, especially France,influenced the construction of religious buildings inthis period. At the city of Lopburi which was the cap-ital and residence of this great Ayudhya king, we cansee the structure bearing the style of western art,especially the use of the pointed arch in roof con-struction and the introduction of western style land-scape gardening.82

The royal palace of King Narai in Lopburi showsthis style of Western architecture. In the field of art,this pointed arch in the roof construction is called theGothic style. Its architectural features are the use of apile of brick placed in the shape of a semi-circulararched door or superstucture of the monument. Thissemi-circular group of bricks face each other at themiddle of the construction in the form of a pointedarch roof. In Thai, this western style is called the“Gothic Porch”. The interior wall of the royal palace inthis period is decorated with Western decorative

81. Department of Fine Art: Op. Cit., p. 52.82. Organization of Tourism: An Appreciation of Thai Arts, p. 47.

178

designs. There is also the decoration of the ceiling fol-lowing the style of Roccoco art in Europe.

The planning of the bot or vihara in this period ofAyudhya art was most impressive. Some bots ormonasteries did not contain the porch and gallerysurrounding it like that in the former Thai architecture.The windows appear again instead of the hole forwind. The windows are decorated by porches.

SculptureIn the reign of King Prasat Tong (1629–1656 A.D.) andhis famous son, King Narai (1656–1688 A.D.), thesandstone Buddha Image became fashionable. WhenCambodia or Kambuja became once more a vassalstate of Thailand in the reign of King Prasat Tong, theThai artists tried to imitate the Khmer works of art andthese sandstone images became even more popular. Itis said that during this period the red sandstoneBuddha Images were also made in the Middle andSouthern parts of Thailand, for instance, at the town ofChaiya, sub-district of Surathani province, SouthernThailand.

The important characteristics of these sandstoneBuddha Images are double lips or a faint moustacheover the mouth and sometimes a double line aroundthe eyes of the Buddha. It is said that towards the endof the 16th century, the crowned Buddha images werevery popular. The crowned Buddha images are called

179

in Thai Pra Song Khrueng meaning ‘the crowned anddecorated’, they are clearly visible in the late Ayudhyaperiod or the Fourth Period.

PaintingPainting had reached a far-advanced stage in thisperiod. This pictorial art is represented by a style typi-cally Thai. Many colours were used as well as goldapplied on figures and ornamental designs. It con-sisted of both portraits in the style of Western paintingand illustrations of landscape, trees, mountains andwater showing the Chinese style.

During this period, painting was polychrome or amixture of different colours. Besides black, red andyellow colours the use of green, blue and violet coloursin the painting of this period also became popular. Theintroduction of polychrome composition makes itmore impressive. Mural paintings on the walls of reli-gious structures, Lai Rod Nam designs of book-casesand the box containing Buddhist scripture, as well asthe painting in manuscripts originated during thisperiod.

The paintings in manuscripts in this period are thestylized landscape forms and the groups of neatlydetailed plants and flowers which seem to be derivedfrom Chinese porcelain. A type of floral ornament wasno doubt present earlier, but not in such a naturalisticstyle.

180

4. Art of the Fourth or Late Ayudhya Period (1732–1767 A.D.)

The art of Ayudhya in this last period covers the reignof King Boromakot in 1732 A.D. down to the end of theAyudhya Kingdom at the hands of the Burmese in1767 A.D. The Buddhist art of the Late Ayudhyaperiod, though covering the period of only 35 to 40years, witnessed the new surge of evolution of realAyudhya art. It is said that the Late Ayudhya art wasclosely connected with the art in the Third periodwhich continued up to the Late period similar to thefield of sculpture and minor arts.

It is on this basis that some Thai scholars hold thatthe art of the Ayudhya period consisted of the threesub-periods only. According to them, 35 or 40 years ofLate or Fourth period of Ayudhya art is the period ofrestoration and preservation of the old fine styles ofmonuments and antiquities and no new artistic activi-ties actually took place during this period. The art inthis period represents the continued art from the ThirdAyudhya period. This Theory is quite convincing, andtherefore, the period has been termed as an independ-ent period which covers very few years of its existence,but is full of progressive and peculiar characteristics.

ArchitectureFrom the start of King Boromacot’s reign in 1732 A.D. tothe collapse of the Ayudhya capital in 1767 A.D. many

181

ancient Buddhist monasteries were restored but veryfew monuments were erected. But, the old monumentshave been restored and preserved in their best condition.A new style of monument, the redented stupa or Chediflourished from the Third Period and became more pop-ular in the Late Ayudhya period. The best example ofredented Chedi is the large Chedi Wat Phukhao Tong(meaning the Chedi of Golden Mountain) (Fig. 36).

The redented Chedi at Wat Phukhaotong: Architecture of the Fourth or Late Period of Ayudhya Art

Fig. 36

182

Architecture of the bot and vihara of the Late Ayudhyaperiod was very interesting. Their architectural fea-tures usually have a curved basement and roofs. Theyalso use the brick pillars in the inner part of the struc-ture. The capitals of those brick pillars are in the formof lotus buds, that are probably derived from theSukhothai style. Some of the Ayudhya’s capital pillars,however, are in the form of a stylized blooming lotusthat points toward the Bangkok style of a later time. Itis said that the piercing of brick walls by narrow rec-tangular cavities instead of large windows also figuresin the Late Ayudhya style.

The religious buildings in this period were proba-bly at first roofed by plain terracotta tiles. The glazedtiles presumably commenced in the reign of KingPetracha (1688–1702 A.D.) His monastery and bot arecovered by glazed tiles. Hence, its popular name isWat Krabuang Khluab (in Thai it means Glazed TileMonastery).

SculptureThe outstanding sculpture of this period is the produc-tion of Buddha Images with the most peculiar charac-teristics. They were the crowned or decorated BuddhaImages, called Pra Song Khrueng in Thai. The CrownedBuddha Images were very popular during this period.They are either profusely decorated (called in Thai —

183

Pra Song Khrueng Yai) (Fig. 37) or else they are adornedwith only a diadem and ear-rings called Song KhruengNoi. In the latter type, lateral protrusions of diademabove the ears mark the main characteristic (Fig. 38)

Fig. 37The Crowned Buddha Image: “Song Khruen Yai” Sculpture of the Fourth or Late Period of Ayudhya Art

184

Fig. 38

The Crowned Buddha-Image,

Song Khrueng Noi — Sculpture of the

Late or Fourth Period of Ayudhya

Art

185

The general characteristics of the crowned BuddhaImage of this period are the long, shaped headadorned in front with an ornamental diadem. Thehead is crowned by a high conical mass formed bytwo, three or more plain rings having at the top the tra-ditional lotus-bud. The lobes of the ears are enrichedwith pointed earrings, in the best tradition of Khmerart. Also the girth is enriched with ornaments, reminis-cent of Lopburi art. The facial lineaments as well as thetotal form of the figure are inspired by the specimensof Sukhothai art.

Thus, the figures of the Ayudhya type are stiff, andthey lack proper understanding of the plastic formsparticularly the beautiful serenity of expression properto the Classic Thai specimens. The other features of theimage are the thin projecting masses of the robe of theBuddha at the sides of the legs formed by the robehanging down from the arms, giving the statues a bell-shaped outline.

The gestures of these Standing Crowned BuddhaImages are more impressive than all the former speci-mens of Thai Buddha Images. Most of the images haveeither one or two hands raised. In the first case, it meansthe Lord Buddha was forbidding his relatives fromfighting for the water of the Rohini River. The Thaisrefer to this gesture of Buddha as Pra Ram Yat or RamYat Mudra. If the Buddha image had both hands raised,it meant that the Buddha was subduing the violence of

186

the ocean (symbolizing the mastery of mortal passions).This gesture was referred to by the Thais as the RamSamudra Mudra. Thus were the new evolutions of thecrowned Buddha Image in the late Ayudhya period.

This is the last period of the sculptural productionof Ayudhya which represents an art in its full deca-dence. During this time the taste of the Thais for orna-mental effects had reached its summit. Lacquer andother metal works, stucco ornaments, wood carvingand pottery were of a richness never before attained.However the taste for rich details had its detrimentaleffect upon sculpture, because this too started to betreated as an ornamental art.

In fact, the Buddha Images of this time are shape-less, covered all over with ornaments. It is true thatthese richly jewelled images were meant to represent aphase of the 1egendary life of the Lord Buddha himselfin relation to the whimsical idea of a king or emperorwho would not offer his homage to the holiness of thesimple robe of the Buddha, and in order to abash thekings vanity, the Buddha appeared to the king radi-antly jewelled. This was the conception of the BuddhaImages in the Late Ayudhya period.

PaintingThe Late Ayudhya painting is represented by a styletypically Thai. As regards the technique and generalcharacteristics of painting, the Late Ayudhya Period

187

was closely related to the painting in the Third Period.The extant specimens of the mural painting of thisperiod belong to the reign of King Boromakot. Thecharacteristic of the paintings differ from the previouspaintings in composition and the use of colour. Thoughthe use of colour is still polychrome, the sketched out-line of figures is done skilfully by the painter. There isa background colour in mural painting, which differsfrom the colour in the representation of figures bothhuman and animal, as well as celestial beings. If thebackground colour was black, the colour used in orderto paint the ornament and costumes of human figuresare a high tone colour or darker colours. Fig. 39a

The Mural inside Somdet Phra Buddhakhosachan’s Pavilion: Wat Buddhaisawan, Ayudhya, Ayudhya Period

188

The best example of painting in fourth or late Ayud-hya period is the mural painting in Somdet PhraBuddhakhosachan’s pavilion, at Wat Buddhaisawan,Ayudhya. The inner walls and inner window-panelsare all covered by paintings. The west wall representsscenes from the last ten lives of the Buddha or Jataka,many of which are still in good condition. Those onthe eastern wall depict various stories, for examplethe legend of when Phra Buddhakosachan voyagedby a junk to Ceylon and found Phra BuddhathattaThera's boat in the middle of the sea (Fig.39a); thefigure of the Buddha's Footprint on an island; thescene of the Thai King going on his elephant to wor-ship the Buddha's Footprint. On the inner panels ofthe window are painted figures of men of twelveraces, garudas, demons, kinaras (half human and halfbird beings), angels in adoration and standing onpedestals. On the lower section of the southern wallare scenes from the Ramayana, while the middleparts represent figures of Buddhist disciples in vari-ous postures. The upper section of this wall portraysthe scene of the Buddha's Enlightenment in true real-istic style. The northern wall represents the story ofthe Three Worlds, here shown by heaven and hell,but the most interesting scene on this wall is thelower part, a figure of Prince Maha Janaka is sleepingunder the tree surrounded by the royal musicians(Fig. 39b).

189

The paintings in this pavilion show no signs of restora-tion. Their age is, therefore, about 260 years, but unfor-tunately rain can leak into the pavilion and the wallsare falling off, thus destroying these valuable and ex-quisite masterpieces of art from this period.

�

Fig. 39bThe Mural inside Somdet Phra Buddhakhosachan’s Pavilion:

Wat Buddhaisawan, Ayudhya, Ayudhya Period

190

� Ratanakosin�

Art of the Bangkok Period or Ratanakosin Period

(Late 18th Century to Present Day or Early 20th Century A.D.)

The Ratanakosin art of present Bangkok is from thetime of the foundation of Bangkok as the capital ofThailand by King Rama Tibodi I.

Regarding the style and essence of artistic inspira-tion and workmanship of the Bangkok Period, thescholars believe that the brief art in Dhonburi period of15 years and the reign of the first three Chakri kings ofthe Bangkok period can be considered as a continuationof traditions established centuries earlier in Ayudhyaor Sukhothai.83 The second phase of Bangkok art beginsin the middle of 19th century A.D. under the leadershipof King Mongkut or Rama IV. In the field of arts duringthis period many changes were introduced which grad-ually led to the modern and international style of thepresent day architects, sculptors and painters.

ArchitectureBangkok religious architecture can be characterized asfollows: the Prang and redented Chedi were quitepopular during the first reigns (1782–1851). Importantexamples are the prang at Wat Rakhang, at Thonburi.And the best example of Prang at Wat Arun or theTemple of Dawn which was begun in the reign of

83. Lyons, Elizabeth: Art of the Bangkok, p. 2.

192

King Rama II, but was completed in the reign of KingRama III (Fig. 40). The architectural features of PraPrang in the first three reigns of the Chakri kings arethe body of Prang built on the lotus-basement andlion-basement, the body of structure attached with thefour porches facing in four directions. There is nofront porch while the spire of the Prang is decoratedwith the motif of petal of jack-fruit.

The round stupa of Sinhalese origin came to be pop-ular in the reign of King Rama III when king Mongkut,who was still a monk, went on a pilgrimage to North-ern Thailand. He was interested in Sukhothai art andbrought to Bangkok the form of the Sukhothai roundstupa. The famous round stupa of this period is the PraPathom Chedi at Nakon Pathom province (Fig. 41)which was also begun in the reign of King Mongkutand was completed in the reign of King Rama V.

The early Bangkok period ubosoth and vihara con-tinued the late Ayudhya style; the ubosoth of theTemple of (the) Emerald Buddha for example, with itscurved base, followed the Ayudhya formula. Thiscurved line later on disappeared from Thai architecture.Apart from this, Ho Trai or the library which usually isa small scale model of form and is frequently built onstilts over a pond to prevent rats, white ants and insectsfrom destroying the manuscripts, following the tradi-tion of Ayudhya. The mandapa (square structure with atapering roof) enshrining the Buddha’s footprint at

193

Suraburi, which was built by King Rama I as a replace-ment for the old structure, also resembles the mandapa(used as a library) in the Temple of the Emerald Buddha.

Fig. 40The Pra Prang at Wat Arun or the Temple of Dawn —

Architecture of the Bangkok Period

194

Fig. 41[The caption text is missing from the bad photocopy of this figure] Phra Pathom Chedi, in the Nakon Pathom

Province — Architecture of the Bangkok Period

195

During the reign of King Rama III Chinese art wascherished and some Buddhist monasteries were con-structed in imitation of Chinese buildings withoutThai-style roof decoration; the Ubosath and “vihara” ofWat Racha Orot and Theptida are the best example.The pillar is square and without any capital. KingRama III was a pious king who built many monaster-ies. For the later period, Wat Nivet Thamprawat atBang-pa-in was built by King Rama V in Gothic style.It is said that the best example of a monastery in Bang-kok is the Marble Temple or Wat Benchamabopit alsoconstructed in the reign of King Rama V. This temple isa happier blend between Eastern and Western cul-tures. And it was duplicated, to be constructed again atWat Thai Bodhgaya, Bodh-Gaya in Bihar State of India.

SculptureSculpture during this period represents a very inter-esting feature. During the days of King Rama I, fewBuddha statues were made. Instead, he commandedthat about 1,200 bronze Buddha Images from war-devastated areas in central and northern Thailand bebrought to Bangkok. These images were then restoredand distributed to many Buddhist monasteries in andaround Bangkok; some became the principal BuddhaImages in the Ubosath and Vihara, some were in-stalled in galleries. Most of them belong to theSukhothai, U-Tong and Ayudhya styles and the most

196

important of them are now in the galleries of Wat Po.Buddha images that were produced in the reigns of

King Rama II and King Rama III are more or less thesame. Crowned Buddha images were popular duringthese two reigns with the artists usually paying moreattention to decoration than to the facial expression ofthe Master. Examples are the two large crowned, stand-ing Buddha Images in the temple of Emerald Buddha.

King Rama IV had a new type of Buddha image cre-ated. The Buddha became more human in appearancewithout a skull-protuberance and wearing a monasticrobe covered with folds. But this type of Buddha imagewas not popular. In the reign of King Rama V, Thaiartists returned to the old forms with the skull-protu-berance, the transparent robe and the folded leg pos-ture. During this period many contacts were madewith foreign countries and the artist tried to humanizethe Buddha image as much as possible by trying tofollow the Gandharan Buddha image in India. Exam-ples can be seen in the Buddha calling down the rain.Sometimes a famous old Buddha Image was also cop-ied; the main Buddha image of the Marble Temple is acopy of the Pra Puttha Chinarat at Pisnulok.

From the reign of King Rama VI onwards the Buddhaimages were more and more humanized though theystill kept some important characteristics such as theflame-like halo on the skull-protuberance, the ushnisha,long ear-lobes and the monastic dress. The best example

197

is the large Standing Buddha Image created in 1957 A.D.by Professor Silpa Bhirasri, an Italian man, one of thegreatest contemporary Thai artists, in order to celebratethe 2,500th anniversary of Buddhism (Fig. 42).

Apart from the Buddha Image of the Bangkok period,the statues of Pra Malai, a Buddhist disciple who wentdown to preach the Buddhist doctrine to all sufferingcreatures in hell, were also made. A few Hindu imageswere also cast.

Fig. 42

Standing Buddha-Image, Sculpture of Late Bangkok Period (20th Century A.D.)

198

PaintingPainting in the school of the Bangkok Period synthe-sizes all other Thai schools and as such we may reckonthis period as classic for the painting. It has risen to animpressive style. Indeed in the murals of the Buddhai-sawan Chapel, Wat Suthat, Wat Suwannaram, etc. wemay appreciate five different styles differing fromeach other according to the subject treated; namely:

1. Classic style treating divine and mythological sub-jects and royal personages. Here the faces remainexpressionless, the meaning of the action beingshown by the peculiar postures and gestures.

2. Classic style treating characters of the Ramayanaepic. The faces of these characters express the feel-ing of the action.

3. Musicians and dancers, courtiers and persons ofthe upper class bearing a distinctiveness proper totheir rank treated either in classic or realistic style.

4. Common people rendered in a realism proper toThai art. In this type of painting we note a sense ofhumour which corresponds perfectly to the joyfulcharacter of the Thai people.

5. Scenes of Hell. Realistic type also. Here the artistconcieved the most fantastic punishment and dis-tortions of the human figures imaginable.84

199

At the beginning of the Bangkok period, Chinese influ-ence began to disappear. Mural painting on the lateralwall of Buddhist monasteries executed between thereigns of King Rama I and King Rama III were dividedinto two registers. The upper section represents theassembly of celestial beings who come to worship themain image of the Buddha. The lower register, whichis on the same level as the windows, shows scenesfrom the Buddha’s life or from his previous incarna-tion. Behind the main Buddha image is a representa-tion of Buddhist Cosmology and in front, the episodeof the enlightenment of the Buddha is depicted. Thesepaintings are executed in many colours and alwayshave gold leaf applied.

The Bangkok mural painting school probablyreached its zenith in the reign of King Rama III as canbe seen from the Ubosoth and Vihara of Wat Sutat. Thevast interior is totally decorated with paintings, fromthe height of about one metre from the floor up to theceiling. The massive pillars are also entirely enrichedwith murals. It is a lofty veritable museum of Thai art.Composition after composition illustrating the previ-ous lives of the Bodhisattvas, scenes of fantastic fairylands with beautiful kinnaras and kinaris (half humanand half bird beings) (Fig. 43), visions of a heavenlyland with all sorts of animals and plants, scenes from

84. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof.: The Origin and Evolution of Thai Murals, p. 18.

200

the Ramayana stories, popular life; the real worldintermingled with the fantastic imaginary one. Ourastonished eyes move around and up until the paint-ing vanish in a mystic dark atmosphere.

In this time a Chinese influence again reappeared. In thereign of King Rama IV the western painting had theireffect on Thai artists. Examples can be seen in the muralpainting in the Ubosoth of Wat Bowornniwet wherethere are figures of Europeans as well as western per-

Figures of Kinnara

and Kinaris (half-

human/half-bird beings):

The MuralPainting inthe ViharaLuang of

Wat Suthat,

Bangkok, Bangkok Period

Fig. 43

201

spective and technique. The most famous painter in thisreign was Khroa-In-Khong, a Buddhist monk.

The period of Bangkok includes also the contemporaryNorthern school which present charcicteristics differ-ent from those of Central Thailand. The northern paint-ers cherished to paint mundane subjects as a dailychronicle giving them an importance, which in centralThailand was given to religious subjects treated in clas-sic style, because the northern painters were not boundto a strict conventionalism. At Wat Phumin of Nan isthe best example rendered in that realistic style, whichis both charming and amusing. The group of the girlgoing to the market followed by naughty suitors wasmade by a real master (Fig. 44a & b).

Fig. 44a

202

Finally, the latest Bangkok mural painting is veryinteresting to discuss. The mural painting on the wallof the winding gallery of Wat Pra Kaew (where theEmerald Buddha is) are all the long paintings of theRamayana divided into 180 panels covering the entirelength of the wall. These mural painting scenes wererepainted by the command of King Rama III. Therepainting has been done in reign after reign throughthe reign of King Rama VII up till today. In the present

Fig. 44b

The Mural painting of Young Group: In the Ubosothra-Veharn of

Wat Phumin, Nan, Northern School of

Art, Bangkok Period

203

day, the former Bangkok Classical style of the begin-ning has been absent. Roughly, instead by the moderntechnique mixed with the old tradition (Fig. 45a & b).

A careful study of these murals reveals the fact that atthe time of repairs all former wall surface had been

Fig. 45aThe Long Story of Ramayana: The Mural painting on the gallery of the Emerald Buddha Temple, Bangkok Period

204

hammered out and new plaster surface put in, so thatall the murals are consequently new repaints. Theseentirely new murals bear no evidence that the artistsconcerned had adhered to the techniques as the play oflight and shadow, shading of lines and western per-spective were put into the picture. But this imitation ofwestern practice was technically crude and imperfect,so that the resulting murals become poor examples ofour traditional art, which is most regrettable. It mayindicate that it is the decline of the artistic technicalpainting of Bangkok Mural painting.

The Long Story of Ramayana: The Mural painting on the gallery of the Emerald Buddha Temple, Bangkok Period

Fig. 45b

205

Conclusion

Before we give a general impression of our subject (ofBuddhist art of Thailand) we would like to raise a fewpoints about Buddhism and Indian Culture. Bud-dhism was born in India. From the moment we start totalk about Buddhism and the Buddhist art of Thailandwe must immediately look to India. Whenever we con-sider any cultural aspect of Thai life — particularlyreligious, social, educational, literary or artistic — ourattention goes to that great country of India.

Nobody would deny that India is one of the cradlesof world civilisation because of her outstanding contri-butions in diverse fields. In the history of humanthought and culture, India has played an importantpart and her contributions are second to none. It is thebirthplace of important religions of the world such asBrahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism, which influ-enced the culture and civilisation of the many parts ofthe world that accepted India as their “motherland”.They are indebted to India in many respects.

Indians who came to settle in different countries ofSouth-East Asia and the Far-East had their first con-tacts with the primitive tribes of those regions. Byvirtue of their superior military campaigns, culturalheritage and advanced civilisation, they graduallyoccupied the regions and converted them into theircolonies. The Indians spread their own culture and tra-

206

ditions in all of these territories, and this marked thegreat beginning of the progressive stage of their cul-tural expansion.

Once Buddhism had a strong footing in Thailand,Buddhist art was strongly influenced and greatly stim-ulated by the creative genius of many people withwhom it came in contact, and this led to great complex-ity and diversity. It never possessed an underlyingunity. This unity is illustrated by the fact that the prob-lems it was to solve, and the forms it developed have acertain constancy and continuity.

In the field of Buddhist art we have religious build-ings, edifices for ritualistic purposes and for monasticlife and the creation of impressive images to conveythe idea of the Buddha. Bodhisattvas, monks and othersacred personages and the treasury of stories and leg-ends together with their abundance of narrativemotifs, set up a vocabulary of symbols to convey themain religious idea. The art of Buddhism devised con-vincing visual images of the world’s metaphysicalstructure, especially the structure of the spheres lyingbeyond the limits of the empirical, terrestrial world.

In Buddhist art, the artistic treatment of the humanbody is performed in such a way that it conveys certainreligious ideas — that of the Buddha and also certainother principles, of arrangement and construction inarchitecture as well as in pictorial compositions capa-ble of representing the Buddhist view of the terrestrial

207

and supernatural world, which at the same time givesa spiritual quality.

Buddhist art in Thailand was a composite art. Thevarious influences of the art forms of different nationswere imbibed by the Thai artists into their own artisticwork. The Thai artists introduced new elements of artside by side with the adoptation of the old style, whichmakes Thai art one of the most interesting Buddhistarts of south-East Asia or of Eastern art generally.

The original prototype of Buddhist art in Thailandwas no doubt Indian art, but when the Thais came intocontact with other nations on the Indo-Chinese penin-sula of South-East Asia, they adopted the concepts andelements of the cultural and artistic activities of thosecountries. The Mons of Dvaravati, the Malays or Indo-nesians of Sri-Vijaya as well as the Khmers of the Lop-buri period contributed much towards the develop-ment of Thai art, but while the process of borrowingwas going on, the Thai artists introduced new ele-ments, which were ultimately responsible for the birthof many schools of Thai arts in this land, having anindependent style of their own which is best seen inthe well known arts of Sukhothai, U-Tong, Ayudhyaand Bangkok periods.

India and Thailand have had a connection sincelong ago. At the present moment many prehistoricexcavations have been carried out in South-East Asiaand the result seems to prove that the people there had

208

techological abilities, such as in growing rice andbronze metallurgy since the most ancient times, andnot just recently as was previously believed. This prob-ably leaves no doubt that during that period the rela-tionship between the Indians and the South-EastAsians was on an equal basis. Exchange of ideas andtechnology would have gone on between the two areaswith sharing of the benefits on both sides.

During the historical period, Buddhism and Hindu-ism gave an impetus to South-East Asian people. Thesetwo great religions, which originated in India, modifiedtheir thought as well as giving them forces to developtheir culture and their own way of life. Through thisprocess it is really quite difficult to separate both reli-gions from each other in South-East Asia. We owe thebase of our culture to India but at the same time manyof our indigenous elements have been mixed with thisfoundation. In Thailand, where Buddhism has alwaysbeen the most venerated religion, Hindu priests are stillretained to perform important ceremonies such as cele-brating the birth of a royal child, the coronation and theanniversary of the regnal day of the king.

So, it can be concluded that Indian art served as theprototype of art in Thailand. Thai art, in the course ofthe centuries, developed its independent character andstyle, combining local artistic talents and inspiration.Thai art forms one of the glorious chapters in the his-tory of Thailand. The Thai people still remember with

209

gratitude the unique contributions of India to their cul-ture and civilization. The Thai artists never lost theindividuality and sense of national integrity in theirworks of art, clearly indicating the real independentcharacter and artistic workmanship of the Thai peopleall through the ages.

Now, there are some problems regarding the preser-vation of the ancient ruins of Thailand and of theirfuture. The heritage of ancient property continuouslypreserved by Thai ancestors as valuable heirlooms to thelater generations has become valuable property to allThai people because of its importance in tracing the Thaihistory of the Thai nation, and throwing light on the pastto show that Thais have progressed much in technicalknowledge. The ancient ruins and monuments havecome to be under the protection and control of theDepartment of Fine Arts and repair works have beenundertaken from time to time. Laws have even beenissued for the protection of antiquities. If any new dis-covery is made, the authorities will immediately registerit under the protection and care of the Dept. of Fine Arts.But as there are a number of ancient places all over Thai-land it becomes a difficult task for the Department totake care of them thoroughly, especially in a farawaydistrict. At the same time the financial budget andnumber of people of the authority for protecting andrenovating the ancient ruins are limited. Therefore,resources are not sufficient for the number of the ancient

210

monuments and antiquities which need to be protectedand controlled. It is regrettable that many ancient placesare going to fall into disrepair as time goes by.

Also, there are many thieves awaiting their chanceto unearth the ancient places and steal valuable articlesenshrined in the stupas. There are a number of robbersof such antiques as the heads of Buddha Images andBuddha Images from different temples and monaster-ies. This poses a great danger to the antiques, necessitat-ing their removal or transfer from their original sitesinto the hands of antique collectors who seek their ownadvantage. These antiques —Buddha Images, heads ofthe Buddha, decorative artifacts and articles of ancientarchitecture, etc. —are later sent abroad into the handsof the foreign collectors.

In a few temples and monasteries, some Abbotsmake it their aim to develop their temples without anyof the profound sense of beauty or value of the ancientruins that are located in their temples. They order theruins to be demolished and construct new buildingson the old location. As a result, this causes the ancientruins to disappear before they can come to the know-ledge of the Dept. of Fine Arts authority.

The matter to be concerned about is the future ofantiquities conservation. Western civilization is chang-ing Thailand continuously, influencing the young gen-eration, who are not being inculcated with the idea ofconserving the antiques and old Thai customs and tra-

211

ditions. Perhaps these valuable properties will be lostas a result.

Under the government, in the period of the ex-Prime Minister Marshall, I. Piboonsanggrahm, Thai-land had a cultural revolution. The Prime Ministerordered demolished some old Thai traditions. Therewas an acceptance of Western civilization, for exam-ple, wearing shoes with socks, wearing suits, notwearing Jongkrabain (threading the rolled wearingcloth between the legs and bringing it up to rise at theback), prohibiting the chewing of betel-nut, etc.; at thesame time he ordered the restoration of ancient mon-uments all over Thailand. Even though this was ofsome benefit to the remaining ancient sites, the resto-ration workers lacked technical skills and a profoundknowledge of the arts, having little regard or respectfor the ancient ruins. As a result, much damage wascaused to the original structures regarding their aes-thetic appearance.

His Majesty the present King Rama IX of ChakriDynasty felt concerned as he sincerely respected theancient Thai ruins and was always interested ininspecting them himself. He visited the ancient placesin different parts of Thailand; Ayudhya, Sukhothai,Chaengsaen province, etc. Expressing his concernabout the future of the ancient ruins he commentedthat “the broken bricks and the remaining debris of thepast are the foundation of the present and will succeed

212

to promote the glorious future”. This made his peoplefeel much appreciation for his kindness and concernfor the nation in all its respects. The king is the exem-plar who keeps and protects the old customs and tra-ditions in the present, also he is the Royal patron ofBuddhism in Thailand.

While the antiques and the ancient ruins are goingto deteriorate, either directly by the effect of time orindirectly being damaged by those not respecting theancient places for their own sake, there should be somerules for the protection of the ancient sites, such as theissuing of strict laws with punishment to those whodestroy the archaeological property of the nation andpassing the laws and giving notice to those who havearcheological articles in their possession to surenderthem to the Dept. of Fine Arts. Public education isrequired so that people are aware of their responsibil-ity to the national properties. Fundamentally, the sub-jects of archaeology, history and the fine arts should bemade available in the curriculum for pupils to learn ata young age and to exhort them to love and protect thearcheological heritage of their nation.

Some rules are important tools in motivating thepublic to take part in their responsibility for the valu-able heritage from our ancestors. These ancient art-works give an indication of the prosperity and techni-cal advances over historical time. By maintaining thisheritage we will benefit future generations.

213

Bibliography

Thai source materials

1. Amatayakul, T., Pra Rajpongsawadan Krung Sayam (The Siamese Chronicle), Klangvidya Press, Bangkok, 1952.

2. Amatayakul, T., The Art of Ayudhya Period, Bangkok, 1967.

3. Anuman Rajadhon, Phya, Phra Chedi, Thailand Culture, New Series, Vol.40, Part-I, Bangkok, 1952.

4. Archaeology, Division of, History in Transition, Bangkok, 1965.

5. Banobul, J., The School of Art of Buddha Image in Thailand, Bangkok, 1960.

6. Boribal Buribhand, Luang, Archaeology, Bannakarn Press, Bangkok, 1968.

7. Damrong Rajanubhab, History of the Buddhist Monuments, Bangkok, 1968.

8. Damrong Rajanubhab, Letters of Princes, Part 49, Bangkok, 1959.

9. Damrong Rajanubhab, Tales of Ancient Times, Bangkok, 1954.

10. Fine Arts, Department of, Sasanvong; or History of Religion, Ruangrungdham Press, Bangkok, 1933.

11. Fine Arts, Department of, The Buddhist Architecture of Thailand, Bangkok, 1958.

12. Fine Arts, Department of, History of Indian Art and Buddhist Art, Bangkok, 1953.

13. Fine Arts, Department of, TheRelationship of Foreign Arts and the SiameseArts, Bangkok, 1950.

& Bidyalabh Kromamum,

H.R.H. Prince,

H.R.H. Prince,

H.R.H. Prince,

214

14. Fine Arts, Department of, Art in Thailand, Bangkok, 1955.

15. Fine Arts, Department of, Architecture in Dvaravati Period, Bangkok, 1950

16. Fine Arts, Department of, The Dvaratvati Art in Thailand, Bangkok, 1968.

17. Fine Arts, Department of, The Lohburi art in Thailand, Bangkok, 1950.

18. Fine Arts, Department of, The Sukhothai Art andCrafts- manship, Bangkok, 1957.

19. Fine Arts, Department of, Art of U-Tong, Ayudhya and Ratanakosin Period, Bangkok, 1968.

20. Fine Arts, Department of, The Evolution of Wall-Painting of Thailand, Bangkok, 1969.

21. Fine Arts, Department of, The Development of Thai Art, Bangkok, 1960.

22. Monavitoon, Saeng, Prof., Sasanawongsa or History of Religion, Bangkok, 1963.

23. Na Paknam, N., Art of Buddha Image, Bangkok, 1970.

24. Religion, Department of, Hinayana and Mahayana Sects of Buddhism, Bangkok, 1952.

25. Sanich, Pravat Kana Song Thai (History of Thai Buddhist Samgha), Sophon Press, Bangkok, 1949.

26. Siriwatananankorn, Khun, Suvarnabhumi or Golden City, [?]aksonnsampan Press, Bangkok, 1972.

27. Subhasobhon, S., Praputasasana Kub Phra Maha Kasatthai (Buddhist and the Thai Kings), Bangkok, 1962.

28. Tourist, Organisation of, An Appreciation of Thai Art, Bangkok, 1960.

29. Yupho, Dhanit, Suvaranabhumi,Bangkok, 1967.

D. Litt.,

215

English source materials

30. Anman Rajadhon, Phya, Thet Maha — Chat,Thai Culture series, No. 21, Bangkok, 1970.

31. Bapat, P. V. , 2500 years of Buddhism, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Delhi, 1971.

32. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, The Banerjee Press, Calcutta, 1924.

33. Bhattacharya, S. R., TheStory of Indian Art, Atma Ram & Sons Delhl, 1966.

34. Doribal Buribthand, Luang Thai Images of the Buddha, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 18, Bangkok, 1969.

35. Coedes, George, The Indianized States of South-East Asia, East-West Centre Press, Honolulu, U.S.A. 1968.

36. Coedes, George, Art of Sukhothai Period, Fine Arts Department Publication, Bangkok, 1964.

37. Dhaninivat H.R.H. Prince, The Excursion to Nakon Pathom and Phra Pathom Chedi, The Siam Society, Bangkok, 1967.

38. Dhaninivat H.R.H. Prince, A History of Buddhism in Siam, 39. The Siam Society, Bangkok,1965.

39. Dhanapala, D. B., Buddhist Painting from Shrines and Temples in Ceylon, The New American Library of World Literature, New York, 1964.

40. Ferogi, Prof., The March of Thailand, Fine Arts Department, Government Tourist Bureau Publication, Bangkok.

216

41. Irwin, John., Indian Art, Sidgwick & Jackson, London, 1966.

42. Jermsawatdi, Promsak, Thai art with Indian Influences Abhihav Publication, New Delhi, 1979.

43. Le May, Reginald, The Culture of South-East Asia (The Heritage of India), George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1964.

44. Lyons, Elizabeth, Art of to Bangkok Period, Bangkok, 1968.

45. Lyons, Elizabeth, Thai Tradition Painting, Thai Culture, New series, No. 20, Bangkok, 1967.

46. Lyons, Elizabeth, The Tosachat in Thai Painting, Thai Cul-ture, new series, No. 22, Bangkok, 1971.

47. Mahajan, V. D., Ancient India, Delhi, 1970.

48. Majumdar, R. C., The Indo-Asian Culture (lndia & Thailand), Vol. 2, No, 1, I. C. C. R. Publishing House, Calcutta 1953.

49. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof., Thai Buddhist Art (Achitecture,) Thai Culture, New Series, No. 4, Bangkok, 1970.

50. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof., Thai Architecture and Painting, Bangkok, 1969.

51. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof., Thai Buddhist Sculpture, Bangkok, 1945.

52. Silpa Bhirasri, Prof., An Appreciation of Sukhothai Art, Thai Culture, New Series, No. 17, Bangkok, 1968.

53. Syamananda, R.,) A History of Thailand, Bangkok, 1971.

54. Thailand, Government of, Thailand Official Yearbook A.D. 1965, Bangkok, 1965.

55. Thakur, Upendra, Some Aspects of Ancient Indian History and Culture, Delhi, 1974.

D. Litt.,

217

Journals56. Archaeology, Division of, The Sukhothai Art, Silpakorn Journal,

Bangkok, 1963.

57. Fine Arts, Department of, King Ramkkhamhaeng and the Lankavong Buddhism, Silpakorn Journal, Bangkok, 1962.

58. Trinarong, Prapot, Essays on the Introduction of Buddhism in Thailand, The Silpakorn Journal, Vol. 8, Year 8, Bangkok, 1955.

List of Figures with captions and page numbers on the following pages.

218

List of Illustrations with captions & page numbersFig. 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13&Fig. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Map of Asia: Showing the spread and progress of Buddhism from the Buddha’s time to the present day (6th Century B.C. to 20th Century A.D.).

Fig. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Map of Thailand.

Fig. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39A replica of the Original Chedi of Phra Phathom at Nakon Pathom Province, Central Thailand.

Fig. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Stone Wheel of Law found at Phra Pathom Chedi, Nakon Pathom Province, Central Thailand, Dvaravati Period.

Fig. 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Stone Standing Buddha-Image in the attitude of benediction, found at Ayudhya Province, Central Thailand, Dvaravati Period.

Fig. 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Stucco Limestone: the Statues of Bodhisattva Lokitesavaras, Dvaravati Period.

Fig. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47A noble man with four auspicious signs: Engraved on stone, Dvaravati Period.

Fig. 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Stupa Pra Barom That at Wat Phra Mahathat, Chaiya, Surathani Province, South Thailand, Sri-Vijaya period.

Fig. 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56[Unintelligble information from bad photocopy of this material]……Surathani Province, South Thailand, Sri-Vijaya Period (8th–13th Century A.D.).

Fig. 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Three females (probably the daughter of Mara):the Mural painting in Silpa Cave, Yala, Sri-Vijaya Period.

Fig. 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65The temple of Phra Prang Sam Yot: Lopburi Province, Central Thailand, Architecture of Lopburi Period.

Fig. 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70The Stone Seated Buddha under a Naga, found at Wat Na Phra Meru, Ayudhya Province, Central Thailand — Art of Lopburi Period.

Fig. 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120Temple of Wat Chet Yod: Chiengmai Province, Nothern Thailand, Architecture of Chiengsaen Period.

219

Fig. 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123The Bronze Seated Buddha Image of Chiengsaen Style.

Fig. 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 The Original Sukhothai Stupa “Phum Khao Bin”, Wat Chedi Chet Thaew, Sisatchamalai, Sukhotha Province, Architecture of Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Chedi of Wat Chang Lom at Sawankalok, Sukhothai Province — The Second Group of Sukhothai Stupa (Chedi), Architecture of Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133Phra Prang of Wat Sri-Sawai, at old Sukhothai City, Architecture of Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139The Bronze Seated Buddha Image “Mara Vijaya Mudra” Sculpture of the Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140The Bronze Head(s) of Buddha Images, Khampaengpet GroupSculpture of the Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142Sukhothai Buddha Image of “Wat Trakuan Group” Sculpture of Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144The Bronze Walking Buddha-Image or Lila Posture — Art of Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146Stone-Slab-Engraving: At Wat Sri Jum, Sukhothai Province, Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Detail of one stone-engraving at Wat Sri Jum of Sukhothai showing the characteristics of Indian art.

Fig. 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148The Figure of the Buddha subduing Mara (above) and in meditation (below) flanked by angels: The Mural painting in the Stupa of Wat Chedi-Chet-Thaew, Sri Satchanalai, Sukhothai, Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 25a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Detail of Figure 25b&Fig. 25b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Drawing (Bronze?) of the Buddha’s Footprint from Wat Phra Sadet Khamphaengphet, Sukhothai Period.

Fig. 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154Stupa Pra Mahatat of Wat Borom-tat, at Chainat province, Thailand - Architecture of the U-Tong Period.

220

Fig. 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158The Buddha Image of the First Group of U-Tong Period.

Fig. 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159The Bronze Seated Buddha Image: The Second Group of U-Tong Period.

Fig. 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161The Bronze Seated Buddha Image: The Third Group of U-Tong Period.

Fig. 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169Assembly of angels: Fresco in the crypt inside the big Pra Prang of Wat Pat Durana, Ayudhya, Ayudhya Period.

Fig. 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171The Chedi of Bell-shaped style at Wat Pra Sri-Sampet, Ayudhya province, Architecture of Second Period of Ayudhya Art.

Fig. 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173The Seated Buddha Image in middle flanked by two disciples:Sculpture of Second Period of Ayudhya Art.

Fig. 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174Detail of the mural at Wat Maha That in 15th Century Ayudhya. Fig. 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175The Painting of Traiphum Manuscript: of Ayudhya Period.

Fig. 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177The Pra Prang at Wat Chaiwatanaram, Ayudhya province — Architecture of the Third Period of Ayudhya Art.

Fig. 36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182The redented Chedi at Wat Phukhaotong: Architecture of the Fourth or Late Period of Ayudhya Art.

Fig. 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184The Crowned Buddha Image: “Song Khruen Yai” Sculpture of the Fourth or Late Period of Ayudhya Art.

Fig. 38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185The Crowned Buddha-Image, Song Khrueng Noi — Sculpture of the Late or Fourth Period of Ayudhya Art.

Fig. 39a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188The Mural inside Somdet Phra Buddhakhosachan’s Pavilion: Wat Buddhaisawan, Ayudhya, Ayudhya Period.

Fig. 39b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190The Mural inside Somdet Phra Buddhakhosachan’s Pavilion: Wat Buddhaisawan, Ayudhya, Ayudhya Period.

221

Fig. 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194The Pra Prang at Wat Arun or the Temple of Dawn — Architecture of the Bangkok Period.

Fig. 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195[The caption text is missing from the bad photocopy of this figure] Phra Pathom Chedi, in Nakon Pathom Province — Architecture of Bangkok Period.

Fig. 42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198Standing Buddha-Image, Sculpture of Late Bangkok Period (20th Century A.D.).

Fig. 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201Figures of Kinnara and Kinaris (half-human / half-bird beings): The Mural Painting in the Vihara Luang of Wat Suthat, Bangkok, Bangkok Period.

Fig. 44a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202&Fig. 44b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203The Mural painting of Young Group: In the Ubosothra-Veharn of Wat Phumin, Nan, Northern School of Art, Bangkok Period.

Fig. 45a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204&Fig. 45b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205The Long Story of Ramayana: The Mural painting on the gallery of the Emerald Buddha Temple, Bangkok Period.

Fig. 46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Stucco bracket, Wat Pasak, Chiengsen. First part of the fourteenth century. (Photo by Khien Yimsiri.).

Fig. 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Stucco lion, Wat Pasak, Chiengsen.

Fig. 48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Detail of engraved slab at Wat Sri Chum, Sukhothai. (Drawing by Prungsri Bejrabiruna after Fournereau, Le Siam ancien. vol II, pl. XXVII.

Fig. 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Stucco at Wat Mahadhatu, Lopburi, Ayudhya period. (Photo by author).

Fig. 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98Stucco decoration at Wat Nang Phya, Sri Satchanalai, probably middle of the fifteenth century.

Fig. 51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101Stucco on shrine at Wat Culamani, Pitsanulok, 1465 (?).

222