bromley_the new cambridge modern history, 1970 - the rise of great britain russia 1688-1725

Cambridge Histories Online Cambridge University Press, 2008

THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY

A D V I S O R Y C O M M I T T E E G . N . C L A R K J . R . M . B U T L E R J . P . T . B U R Y

THE L A T E E . A . B E N I A N S

V O L U M E V I

THE RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND RUSSIA

1 6 8 8 - 1 7 1 5 / 2 5


THE NEWCAMBRIDGE MODERN

HISTORY

VOLUME VITHE RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN

AND RUSSIA1688-1715/25

EDITED BYJ.S.BROMLEY

CAMBRIDGEAT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS


Published by the Syndics of the Cambridge University PressBentley House, 200 Euston Road, London NWI 2DB

American Branch: 32 East 57th Street, New York, N.Y. 10022

Cambridge University Press 1970

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 57-14935

ISBN: 0521 075246

First published 1970Reprinted 1971

Printed in Great Britainat the University Printing House, Cambridge

(Brooke Crutchley, University Printer)


PREFACE

For delays in the production of this volume, which has extended overrather more than a decade, the editor takes full responsibility. Its prepara-tion has required more than the straightforward commissioning andwriting of the contents, difficult as these tasks can be: a collective effortof this kind rather resembles a conference in permanent session, exceptthat it never meets. Many of the contributors have been good enough toperuse each other's work, and all have patiently put up with some revision.They should be thanked in this place, as also should Mrs Wendy Blockand Mrs Pauline Kemp, formerly of the Arts Faculty office in the Uni-versity of Southampton, who typed or retyped a large proportion of thechapters. Other personal acknowledgements, as inadequate as these, aremade in the footnotes as they arise.

In accordance with the practice of the series, all dates are given in NewStyleten days, from 1700 eleven days, later than Old Styleunlessotherwise indicated by the letters O.S. In either case the year begins on1 January. The styles peculiar to Sweden and Russia have been ignored.

The spelling of East European place-names has presented some diffi-culty, since frontiers were changing rapidly at the time and many territorieshave since developed a national status of their own. No rigorous con-sistency can be claimed for this volume. While we have usually chosenthe forms most familiar in English-speaking countries, it has sometimesseemed courteous, as well as more realistic, to respect local spellings. Toretain 'Thorn' for the Polish 'Toruri', for example, must now appearplainly unhistorical to anyone who has been there, not least if he is astudent of the Teutonic Knights. In a work like this the opportunity mustsurely be taken to accustom western readers to absorb a modicum of EastEuropean terms in general, even if we are not yet ready to do the same forthe whole wide world, of which this series was never intended to be thehistory. Where any ambiguity might arise in such cases, two forms aregiven on first mention.

Unless otherwise stated, places of publication are London and Parisrespectively for book titles in English and French cited in footnotes.

J.S.B.July 1969


CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTIONBy J. S. BROMLEY, Professor of Modern History in the

University of SouthamptonPeriodization and changes in political geography page 1-2The Baltic and the Levant 2-3Russia and Europe 3The Northern kingdoms and the Western powers 3-4The Habsburgs between East and West 4-6Decline of the Ottoman empire 6-7Hungary and the Habsburg lands . . . 7-8Rivalries in Spain; the Bourbon rule 8-9Rivalries in I t a l y . . . . 9-10The Mediterranean 10-11Rivalries in America 11-12War and peace in North America 12-14The balance of trade; merchants and governments 14-15World trading; the South Sea and Canton 15Britain and the Peace of Utrecht 16-17William Ill's European aims 17-18Strategy in western Europe 18-19Privateering war 19-20The strain on manpower 20Mercenaries and conscripts 20-1Care of soldiers 21Upkeep of navies 21-2The strain on finance 22-3Profiteers and projectors 23-4Tensions in Church and State 24-5Significance of the English Revolution of 1688 25-6Louis XIV: the question of'decline' . 26-8Louis XIV: domestic legacy in European perspective 28-9Economic distress; climate and harvests 29-30Social distress; mobility of populations 30-1Town and country 31Aristocratic and middle-class tastes 31-3The scientific movement 33-5Europe and the world overseas 35-6

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER IITHE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND THE DIFFUSION

OF SCIENTIFIC IDEAS, 1688-1751By A. C. CROMBIE, Senior Lecturer in the History of Science in the

University of Oxfordand MICHAEL HOSKIN, Lecturer in the History of Science in the

University of CambridgeChange in scientific movement page yjThe Royal Society and the Academie des Sciences 38The Royal Society at home and abroad 38-40The Acadimie des Sciences and the State 40-2Societies in other countries 42Teaching and research 42-3Science in the universities 43-4The new German universities 44-5Diffusion of scientific knowledge: journals and other publications . . . 45-7Emphasis on measurement; Political Arithmetic 47-8An aggregate of autonomous movements . . . . . . . 48Advances in mechanics and related branches of mathematics . . . . 49The Newtonian-Cartesian debate . . 49-50Newtonian physics attacked by Leibniz and Berkeley 50-1Spread of Newtonian ideas 51-2Astronomy; optics; sound 52-3Chemistry: 'phlogiston' 53-4Improvement in instruments and apparatus 54-5The calculus: Newton and Leibniz 55Biological sciences in search of theoretical principles 55-6Collection and classification in botany and zoology 56-8Ray and Tournefort 58The'sovereign o rder 'o f Linnaeus 58-60Geology: fossils and the Flood 60-1Evolutionary ideas; Maupertuis, Buffon, and the microscope . . . . 62-4Rival theories of reproduction and heredity 64-5Physiological experiment and its competing models: Reaumur, Hales, Boerhaave

and von Haller 65-7Technology 67Problem of longitude at sea 67-8The New Husbandry 68-9Organization of manpower 69Inventions . 69-70Science and society: the'scientific revolution' 70-1

CHAPTER III

CULTURAL CHANGE IN WESTERN EUROPEI. TENDENCIES IN THOUGHT AND LITERATURE

By W. H. BARBER, Professor of French Literature in the University of LondonAnglo-French co-dominance 72Spain and Italy 72-3

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CONTENTSGermany page 73-4The Netherlands 74-5Russia 75The reading public 75-6Academies and journals 76The salon and the coffee-house . . . 76-7International contacts 77-8Publication and distribution of books 78Orthodox literary canons 78Classical standards in England 79French literature: ancients and moderns 79'Reason' 80-1Aristocratic conceptions . . 81-2Effect of rationalist attitude 82-3Effect of scientific thought 83-4The growing prestige of science 84-5The religious motive in popular science 85Science and metaphysics 85-6Historical scholarship 86-7Scepticism 88Biblical criticism 88-9Restoration comedy of manners 89-90The prose portrait 9-iTowards the novel 91-2The philosophical approach 92-3Fenelon . . . . 93The periodical essay 93-4French drama 94-5Contacts with the wider world 95Narratives of travel 95-6Oriental studies 96-7The invented travel narratives 97-8Contacts with non-Christian religions 98-9The Noble Savage 99-100Repercussions on political thought 100-1

2. MUSIC, 1661-1752By FREDERICK W. STERNFELD, Fellow of Exeter College and

Lecturer in Music in the University of OxfordEarly histories of music 101-2Later histories 102-3Absolute and programmatic music . . 103-4Public concerts 104-5Music printing and publishing 105Opera at the court of France; Lully's tragedies lyriques 105-7Handel in London; oratorio 107-8Lully's influence 108-^ 9The opera at Venice and Naples 109The orchestra n oThe libretto: Zeno and Metastasio 110-12Alessandro Scarlatti 112-13

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CONTENTSPufcell page 113-14English attitudes to opera 114-15Purely instrumental compositions: overtures and concertos . . . .115-16Johann Sebastian Bach 116-18

CHAPTER IVRELIGION AND THE RELATIONS OF

CHURCH AND STATEBy THE REVEREND J. MCMANNERS, Professor of History in the

University of LeicesterThe threat of Catholic domination 119-20Growth of the spirit of toleration 120-1Isolation of Geneva . . . . 121-2Religious freedom in Holland 122-3Limits of toleration in England 123'Reasonable'religion 124The right to resist tyranny 124-6The English bishops 126Church and State in England 126-7Missionary enterprise: Protestant, Orthodox, Catholic 128Jesuit, Capuchin and Franciscan in the New World 128-9The Far East; the Jesuits at Peking and the Propaganda in Rome . . . 129-30Relations between the papacy and rulers; papal elections I3-IRegalism in Spain and the Spanish Indies 131Gallican liberties 131-2Jansenism at Port-Royal 132Unigenitus I32~3Political Jansenism 133-4'Jansenists' outside France; the Church of Utrecht 134-6Intellectual tensions 136-7A crisis within Christianity 137-8Reason and revelation: scepticism and fideism 138-9'Natural 'moral i ty 139Biblical criticism 140Oecumenical scholarship . I 4 - IBossuet . . . 141Religion and Science: the Creation . . 141-2Predestination 142-3The problem of evil 143-4Religion and the arts 144-5Ethical stereotypes; the 'Christian hero ' in England 145-6The 'honnete homme ' in France 146-7Madame Guyon and the conference of Issy: the Quietist controversy . . . 147Bossuet and Fdnelon 147-9Quietism and Quakerism 149-50Faith and Works: German Pietism 150-1Pietism and education I5 1The State and moral standards in England 151-2Christian principles in the economic world: Baxter and Steele . . . . 152-3Compromises 153

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN EUROPEBy A N D R E W L O S S K Y , Professor of History in the University of California, Los Angeles

Tripartite division of Europe page 154-5Britain in Europe 155The principle of 'balance of power ' and its origins 155-7Applications of the principle; the northern balance 157-8South-eastern Europe 158-9Equilibrium in Italy: the place of Savoy in 1713 159The problem of the Spanish monarchy 159France and Spain 159-60France and the Italian States . . 160France and the Netherlands 160-1Louis XIV and the papacy 161-2William III and the Mediterranean 162The Austrian Habsburgs in Italy 162-3Diplomatic rivalries at Turin and Lisbon 163-4Humiliations of the papacy 164Consequences of Italian disequilibrium 165The western powers and the German princes 165-6The Emperor's influence 166Bavaria and Cologne: the Wittelsbachs 167Effects on the structure of the Empire . . . . . . . . . 167'Europe ' and 'Christendom'. 167-8Influence of dynastic ties 168-9Legitimist sentiment and aid to rebels 169The hierarchy of States; diplomatic etiquette 169-70Methods of negotiation 170-1Difficulties of coalitions and of mediation 171-2The art of diplomacy . 1723International law and diplomatic procedure 173Contraband and neutral rights 174-5Conventions between belligerents 175William Il l ' s control of foreign policy; Heinsius and Marlborough . . . 176-7Vienna's delays 177Louis XIV's methods and the development of the Affaires Etrangeres. . . 177-8Communications, codes and ciphers 178-9Ambassadors, envoys and residents 179-80The cost of being an ambassador 180-2Collecting information: secret agents 182-3'Gratifications* and subsidies . . . 183-4The efficacy of gifts and pensions much exaggerated 184-5The protection of nationals: consuls 185-6Increasing importance of commerce in diplomacy 186-7Economic motives not decisive 187William III and commercial interests 187-8Religious motives in international affairs 188-9Louis XIV as defender of the Catholic faith 189Louis XIV and William III compared: basic assumptions and views of the world 190-1William a n d ' t h e liberty of all Europe' 192

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

T H E E N G L I S H R E V O L U T I O NBy E. S. D E BEER, C.B.E., D.IJTT., F.B.A.

Significance of English constitutional dispute in European politics . . page 193Charles II and the House of Commons; the borough charters . . . . 193-4Character of James II 194-5Changes of ministers 195James n and Louis XTV 195-6The Parliament of 1685; situation of the English Catholics 196Army commissions granted to Catholics 196The standing army enlarged 197James II and the Church of England 197-8James II and William of Orange 198Dijkvelt's embassy to England, 1687 198-9The Declaration of Indulgence of April 1687 199Preparations for a new parliament 199William's predicament and decision to invade 200The Seven Bishops acquitted . 201The invitation to William, July 1688 201Birth of an heir to the throne 201-2William perfects his invasion plans; German princes, Dutch provinces . . 202Louis XIV and the Cologne election 202-3William's declaration of 10 October 203-4James IPs attempts to reverse his policy 204The landing at Torbay on 15 November 204James leaves England 205-6The Convention Parliament 206The constitutional problems . 206-7William and Mary as joint sovereigns 207The Declaration of Rights: William UJ and English institutions . . . . 208William Ill 's character 208-9The Nonjurors 209The Toleration Act 210Freedom of the press by default 210-11The state of Scotland: William and Mary accepted 211-12Church and State in Scotland; growth of Scottish separatism . . . . 2 1 2 - 1 3The state of Ireland 213The battle of Ireland; Treaty of Limerick (October 1691) 213-14William III and the English parties 214-15Discontent in England: the Whigs in power 215-16The Revolution in political thought; theories of kingship 216-18French absolutism attacked and defended: Jurieu 218Locke's Two Treatises ofGovernment 219-20A conservative revolution 220Increasing influence of English thought 220-2

XJl


CONTENTS

CHAPTER VIITHE N I N E YEARS WAR, 1688-1697

By SIR GEORGE CLARK, D.LITT., F.B.A., Fellow of All Souls College, OxfordA question of nomenclature page 223Strategic advance and military growth of France since treaties of Nymegen. . 223-4Importance of Cologne and Liege: a disputed election 224-5The French invade the Rhineland . 225French diplomatic calculations: fall of Belgrade; James II 225-6William of Orange in England 226War declared against the United Provinces: the alignment of forces in the Empire 226-7Bearings of the Turkish war on the West 227-8The Austrian army 228The Dutch and British armed forces 228-9Characteristics of the fighting and war aims 229-30Restraints on operations; war casualties 230-1Differences between the belligerents in discipline, training and equipment . . 231-2Operations in the Rhineland, autumn 1688 232The importance of the Spanish Netherlands; war declared on Spain, April 1689 232-3Devastation of the Palatinate 233The Emperor, the Turks and the Maritime Powers in 1689 233-4British and Dutch co-operation: naval agreements 234Extension of belligerent rights at sea 234-5British and Dutch attitudes to conquests in America 235The French in Catalonia, May 1689 235King James in Ireland, March 1689 235-6French naval initiative; William III and sea power 236Opening of the Irish campaign; the siege of Londonderry 236-7French reverses in the Rhineland 237William Ill's 'congress' at The Hague; Habsburg influence in Germany . . 237-8Savoy: Victor Amadeus II between France and the Allies 238The prospects for 1690; William III goes to Ireland in June . . . . 238French victory at Fleurus in July 239Tourville fails to exploit victory off Beachy Head on 10 July . . . . 239-40The Boyne, 11 July: King James returns to France 240Savoy joins the Allies: the battle at Staffarda, 18 August 240-1The Turks recover Belgrade: effect on the German war 241Sweden and Denmark assert neutral rights at sea 2411691: end of Irish campaign 241-2William III in the Spanish Netherlands; fall of Mons in April . . . . 242Operations elsewhere; Catinat takes Nice 242-3The strain on French resources; death of Louvois 243French plans to invade England: La Hougue to Barfleur, 29 May-3 June . . 243-4French privateers 244Luxembourg captures Namur in June; battle of Steenkerk, 3 August . . . 244-51692: French superiority on the Rhine; abortive invasion of France from Savoy. 245Loosening of the Grand Alliance; Swedish offers of mediation . . . . 245-61693: The Smyrna convoy; William defeated at Landen-Neerwinden, 29 July . 246-7French successes in Catalonia and Piedmont 2471694: French on the defensive in all theatres except Catalonia . . . . 247-8Failure of Allied landing near Brest in June 248

xiii


CONTENTS

Naval operations in the Mediterranean: William orders Russell to winter there page 248-91695: Campaign in the Netherlands: William recaptures Namur in September . 249Peace-feelers: Callieres at Maastricht 249-501696: abortive plans to invade England 250The Treaty of Turin (29 August) and the neutralization of Italy in October; effects

in the Balkans and in Spain 250-1Financial exhaustion of both sides 251War in North America and the Caribbean, 1689-97 2511697: French advances in the Netherlands and capture of Barcelona, 10 August 252The Peace of Ryswick, 20 September-30 October 252-3Recognition of William III by Louis XIV 253

CHAPTER VIIITHE EMERGENCE OF GREAT BRITAIN AS A WORLD POWER

By the late D A V I D O O G , Fellow of New College, OxfordTransformation of Britain between 1660 and 1714 254English and French war-making resources compared 254-5The Jacobite menace 255Ireland and Scotland 255-6The French use of Ireland and Scotland 256-7England's natural advantages 257-8The human element: social change in the countryside 258A wide range of craft skills; ' the poor ' 259-60The fiscal factor and economic policy 260-1The balance of trade and the chartered companies 261-2London 262The 'new rich' and new luxuries 262The status of women 263Predominance of southern England 263The Revolution survives . 263-4A regime of toleration: religion, treason and blasphemy 264-5The judges: Sir John Holt 265Limitations on the prerogative 265-6The control of foreign policy 266-7The importance of the Act of Settlement 267Towards cabinet government; the Junto 267-8Queen Anne's ministers: Godolphin and the Marlboroughs . . . . 268-9Queen Anne turns to the Tories: Dr Sacheverell 269-70Harley and Bolingbroke, their characters and political outlook . . . . 270-1Death of Queen Anne and succession of George I; the 'Fifteen'. . . . 271-2Composition of the House of Commons 272-3Whigs and Tories 273-5Tory opposition to full-scale hostilities 274-5The Union with Scotland: Scottish parties 275-6The Estates of Scotland throw down the gauntlet 276-7Negotiations for union; the treaty of 1706, ratified in 1707 277-8Consequences of the Union; Highlanders and Lowlanders 278-9The Augustan Age in England; the new journalism 279-80Attacks on Marlborough 280Swift as a pamphleteer: The Conduct of the Allies 280-1The liberalism of Defoe 281-2Addison's eulogy: an enlarged and unified Britain 282-3

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER IXWAR FINANCE, 1689-1714

By P. G. M. D I C K S O N , Fellow of St Catherine's College and Lecturer in Modern Historyin the University of Oxford, and J O H N S P E R L I N G , Associate Professor in Humanities,San Jose State College, CaliforniaNeglect of the financial side of war . page 284-5The English financial system before and after 1688 285Mounting war expenditure 285-6Limitations of tax revenue 286Long-term borrowing; the Tontine of 1693 286-7Excessive reliance on short-dated borrowing; depression of credit by 1697 . . 287Lottery loans and long annuities; the lenders 287Technical developments in the City of London: the insurance market . . 288-9The Bank of England and the Exchequer: tallies 289-90Waning of public credit in 1696 290The Bank saves the situation 290-1Origin and development of Exchequer Bills 291-2Over-issue of bills by Navy and Victualling Boards: the South Sea Scheme . 292Problem of remitting money to 'the forces abroad': several false starts . . 292-3Bank of England office at Antwerp; competing syndicates 293Godolphin's exchange system survives the Spanish Succession War . . . 293-4Defects of public finance in the United Provinces 294Financial machinery of the central government; federal revenue . . . . 294-5The military budget and naval finance 295-6Cost of two wars chiefly met by increasing provincial contributions . . . 296Direct and indirect taxes in the province of Holland 296-7Growth of public debt in Holland; loan facilities at A m s t e r d a m . . . . 297-8France: the Contrdle Giniral; strength and weaknesses of Colbert's example . 298-9Scale of war expenditure; direct and indirect taxes 299-300Long-term loans and sales of offices 300-1Types of short-dated bills; their over-issue after 1704 301-2Dearth of specie 302-3Foreign remittances: the experience of Huguetan 303-4Samuel Bernard's system: Protestant bankers and the Payments of Lyons . . 304-5Crisis of 1709; Desmarets and the Caisse Legendre 305Deficiencies in Habsburg financial organization . . . . . . 305-6Estimates of revenue and expenditure 306-7Limits to dishonouring commitments; transference of military obligations . . 307Loans on Dutch market and from England 307-8Internal borrowing: great nobles and Jewish financiers; Samuel Oppenheimer . 308-10Financial crisis of 1703; proposals for a State Bank 310-11Ineffectiveness of the Imperial Banco del Giro (1703) 311Success of Vienna City Bank (1706); funding operations 311-13Unprecedented scale of government expenditure 1689-1714: comparative fiscal

records 313Cost and efficiency of State borrowing: comparisons between countries . . 313-14International elements 314Social and economic consequences of war finance 31415

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER XTHE CONDITION OF FRANCE, 1688-1715

By J E A N M E U V R E T , Director of Studies at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, ParisLouis XIV his own first minister after 1691 page 316More obedience to government by 1688 316-17Colbert's concern with short-term needs; tax abuses 317-18The reorganization of 1661-88 in other branches of administration . . . 318-19Two instruments of power: the intendants and the army 319Limitations of the royal power; its opportunism 319-20A stagnant economy: corn prices 320Economy distorted by demands of war; the circulation of money . . . 320-1The crisis of 1693-4 32 i -2Movement of corn prices after 1694 and the famine of 1709 . . . . 322-3Repercussions of food scarcity . . . 323Financial makeshifts of the Crown 323-4Riots; the contribution of salt-smuggling to violence 324-5The Camisard rebellion in Languedoc, 1702-4 325The army as an element of disorder; characteristics of recruitment . . . 325-6Criticism of royal policy; the influence of Beauvillier, Chevreuse and Madame de

Maintenon 326-7Fenelon's ideas on reform: 'Letter to Louis XIV* (1693/4) and Tilimaque (1699) 327-9Other critics: Boisguilbert's economic analysis; Vauban's fiscal proposals . . 329-31The Controllers-General from 1689 to 1715 331The capitation and the dixiime; reasons for partial failure 332-3Social forces: the clergy and the increasing authority of the bishops . . . 333Gallicanism and the new Jansenism 333-4The Parlements 334~5The Provincial Estates 335-6The financiers: Legendre, Bernard, the Paris family 336-7International contacts of the 'new converts': the Crown and the Huguenots . 337-8Proliferation of offices for sale 338The administrative nobility; social distances in general 338-9Prospects of social advancement 339-4Importance of the larger towns; the Parisian mondain 340-1A shift in mental attitudes 341-2Growing cosmopolitanism and sense of cultural superiority 342

CHAPTER XITHE SPANISH EMPIRE UNDERFOREIGN PRESSURES, 1688-1715

By the late ROLAND DENNIS HUSSEY, Professor of History in theUniversity of California, Los Angeles, and J. S. B R O M L E Y

The question o f decline 343-4Towards recovery; foreign elements in the population 345Public finance; the Church 346-7The seigneurial system and the grandees 347-8Shifting cabals at the court of Carlos II; his character. 348-9Overseas possessions: the Philippines, the Canaries, the Indies . . . . 349

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C O N T E N T SForeign penetration: contraband, piracy, the Asiento page 349-50Territorial threats in North, Central and South America 350Second marriage of Carlos II (1689): Maria Anna of Pfalz-Neuberg . . . 350-1The new queen's increasing influence: dismissal of Oropesa 351Austrophils and Francophils: importance of the Despacho Universal . . . 351-2Government economies and other reforms 352Max Emmanuel of Bavaria and the hereditary government of the Spanish

Netherlands 352-3Administrative reorganization: the Junta dos Tenientes (1693) . . . . 353Proposals to curb the Inquisition, 1696 353-4The Nine Years War overseas: flotas, galeones, corsairs 354Skirmishes in Hispaniola; Anglo-Spanish attack on Saint-Domingue, 1695 . . 354-5Cartagena captured by Pointis and Ducasse, 1697 355-6Defensive counter-measures and missionary expansion in the Indies: California,

Amazonia, the Philippines 356-7Catalonia in the Nine Years War 357Franco-Austrian rivalry at Madrid: Cardinal Portocarrero and the queen . . 357-8First Partition Treaty; anti-Habsburg manifestations in Madrid . . . . 358Hostilities in north Africa; the French in the South Sea and Louisiana . . 359-60The 'Darien Company' of 1695: the Scots in Darien 1 6 9 8 - 1 7 0 0 . . . . 360Second Partition Treaty: Carlos wills his kingdoms to Philip of Anjou . . 360-1Death of Carlos II (1 November 1700): Louis XIV accepts the will . . . 361Philip V in Madrid: attitudes of the grandees and of Aragonese realms . . 361-2Reactions in Catalonia and Valencia 362Philip's character 362-3The problems he had to face; constitutional diversity 363Louis XIV at first displays tact towards Spain 363-4Growth of French trading in the Indies: the Asiento 364-5Increasing French influence: Jean Orry sent to Spain in 1701 . . . . 365Orry proposes a French-style administration; his financial reforms . . . 365-6Renovation of the Spanish army 366-7Marriage of Philip to Maria Luisa of Savoy (1701); influence of the princess

des Ursins 367Philip in Saragossa, Barcelona and Naples, 1701-3 368Maria Luisa as Lieutenant of the Realm; her popularity in Madrid . . . 368-9French disputes at Madrid: Louis XIV recalls Orry and Madame des Ursins, 1704 369Reinstatement of Madame des Ursins and Orry, 1705 369-70Portocarrero retired; appointments of Amelot and Grimaldo . . . . 370Catalonia and Valencia in revolt after the arrival of Archduke Charles on

22 August 1705 370-1Criticism of'Charles I I I ' 3711706: Philip temporarily evacuates Madrid; second recall of Orry . . . 371-2The war overseas; French convoy protection; Campeche, the Canaries, Florida,

Colonia do Sacramento 372The Manila galleon: Dampier and Woodes Rogers 372-3After Almanza (1707): destruction of the Aragonese fueros 373-4Breach between Spain and France: the peace-talks of 1709 374-5Resistance to French economic pressures 375-6Breach with Rome, 1709 376Philip and the peace negotiations; the return of Orry in 1713 . . . . 376-7End of the old system of government in Spain 377Death of Queen Maria Luisa in February 1714 377-8

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CONTENTSChurch and State: Melchor de Macanaz and the Inquisition . . . page 378Fall of Barcelona in September 1714: Berwick's rule in Catalonia . . . 378-9Settlement of Catalan government, 1715-17 379-8oPhilip's marriage to Elizabeth Farnese opens a new era 380

CHAPTER XIIFROM THE NINE YEARS WAR TO

THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSIONBy S I R G E O R G E C L A R K

Ryswick treaties in reality an armistice 381Max Emmanuel in the Spanish Netherlands; Dutch garrisons . . . . 3 8 1 - 2Weakness of the Spanish forces 382Run-down of Dutch and English armies 382-3Austrian and French forces not substantially affected 383The diiference between 1698 and 1688 383-4Much dependent on the death of Carlos I I ; the Spanish attitude . . . 384Attitudes of the Maritime Powers and of the House of Habsburg . . . 384-5French interests in Spain and her possessions 385The Spanish succession: legal issues and the claimants 385-6The Habsburg interest; the secret partition of 1668 386-8The Bavarian claim 388Dutch supporters of partition 388Preliminary moves for a revised partition; Tallard in London, 1698 . . . 388-9Policy of Louis XIV: military dispositions in southern France . . . . 389-90Position of Max Emmanuel and Bergeyck's plans for Ostend . . . . 390-1William Ill 's proposals; the slurs on his motives 391-3First Partition Treaty, 11 October 1698: its merits 393-4The death of Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria (February 1699) . . . . 394The new situation 394-5A balance between France and Austria 395Second Partition Treaty, 25 March 1700; Leopold I prepares for war . . . 395-6Philip of Anjou made heir to Carlos I I : Portocarrero and the pope . . . 396-7Louis XIV accepts the will between 12 and 14 November 1700 . . . . 397Philip V recognized in Milan and Brussels 3971701: French military measures 397-8French troops admitted into the Spanish Netherlands: withdrawal of the Dutch

and of Max Emmanuel 398-9Archbishop Joseph Clement of Cologne and his chapter 399-400Philip V recognized by the United Provinces and England, February-April 1701 400The English parliament persuaded by William III; the emperor's position . . 401Competition for allies in Germany between Leopold I and Louis XIV . . 401-2Outbreak of the Great Northern War: the Peace of Travendal, 18 August 1700 402-3The emperor determined to withstand French claims 4031701: French troops in north Italy (January); attitudes of Italian States . . 403Military and naval preparations in the west; attitudes of German States . . 404-5Austrians in Italy: Eugene defeats Catinat and Villeroi 405Marlborough and the Treaty of the Grand Alliance (7 September) . . . 406Franco-Polish negotiations broken off 406German accessions to the Grand Alliance 406-7Portuguese treaties with France and Spain (June) 407

xviii


CONTENTSLouis XIV recognizes the Old Pretender (September) and proposes cession of

Spanish Netherlands (30 October) page 4081702: the emperor's uncertain strategy: preference for a Mediterranean war . 408-9Death of William HI on 19 March; declarations of war, 8 April-15 May . . 409

CHAPTER XIIITHE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION IN EUROPE

By A. J. W EEHESD A \h, formerly Secretary of the State Commission forDutch History at The Hague

Aims of the Grand Alliance. 410German States and the Alliance 410-11Strength of Allied forces in 1702 411-12French advantages 412Situation in the Spanish Netherlands: reforms of Count Bergeyck . . . 412-13Support for Louis XIV in the Empire: Bavaria and Cologne . . . . 413-14William Ill 's continental policy continued under Queen Anne . . . . 414Effects of William's death on the United Provinces; Dutch war aims . . . 415Problem of the supreme command: Marlborough 415-16Initial successes of the Allies on Rhine and Meuse, 1702-3 416Marlborough's preference for a mobile strategy frustrated by the Dutch , . 416-171703: Villars breaks through to Bavaria; Tyrol attacked on two sides . . 417The war in north Italy; Savoy joins the Allies 417-18Cadiz and Vigo, 1702; Portugal joins the Alliance: the Methuen treaties (May-

December 1703) 418-19Anglo-Dutch interdict on trade with Spain and France ( 1 7 0 3 - 4 ) . . . . 419-201704: the threat to Vienna; Marlborough's march to the Danube: Blenheim

(13 August) 420-2Stalemate in the Netherlands and north Italy 422Opening of Allied campaign in Spain (March): Gibraltar captured on 3 August. 422-3The battle of Malaga on 24 August 4231705: Emperor Joseph I, Bavaria and Transylvania 423-4Marlborough's abortive Moselle advance; differences between Marlborough

and the Dutch 424The plight of Savoy; Barcelona capitulates on 14 October to the Allies . . 425Louis XIV's first secret peace offers rejected 425-61706: Ramillies (23 May) and the Belgian revolution 426-7The Dutch Barrier; Marlborough and the government of the south Netherlands. 427Anglo-Dutch Condominium in the south Netherlands; the upper Rhine . . 428The relief of Turin (7 September) and French retreat across the Alps . . . 428-9Allies' successes in Spain followed by evacuation of Madrid . . . . 429-30Favourable position of the Allies: ' N o peace without Spain' . . . . 430-1Frustration of Dutch Barrier diplomacy 4311707: Charles XII in Saxony: Marlborough goes to Altranstadt in April . . 431-2Sterile campaign in the Netherlands; Villars forces the Lines of Stollhofen. . 432The Austrians move into Naples 432-3Allied failure before Toulon (22 August) and defeat at Almanza (25 April) . 4331708: English successesSardinia and Minorca 433-4Austrian reinforcements for Catalonia 434Netherlands the principal war theatre: Oudenarde (11 July) . . . . 435The murderous siege of Lille: fall of the citadel on 9 December . . . . 435-6

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C O N T E N T S

1709: failure of peace negotiations page 436-7Louis XTV appeals to his people; Malplaquet (11 September) a pyrrhic victory . 437-8Allies on the defensive in Spain 438Anglo-Dutch Treaty of Succession and Barrier of 29 October: resentments

aroused by it 438-91710: failure of further peace negotiations (March-July) 439-40The ' N e Plus Ultra Lines'; Allied debacle in Spain 440Tory government in England: a n e w foreign policy 440-11711: the invasion of France again frustrated 441-2Negotiations between St John and Torcy 441Disavowal of the Barrier Treaty 442Swift's The Conduct of the Allies; Anglo-Dutch recriminations . . . . 442-31712: Congress meets at Utrecht, 29 January: the British 'restraining orders' of

21 May 443The Dutch defeated by Villars at Denain on 24 July 443-41713: the new Barrier and the Peace of Utrecht (March-April) . . . . 4441714: Treaties of Rastatt and Baden 444The fate of Catalonia 444-51715: the Third Barrier Treaty (15 November) 445

CHAPTER XIVTHE PACIFICATION OF UTRECHT

By H. G. P I T T , Fellow of Worcester College and Lecturer in Modern Historyin the University of Oxford

Early movements towards peace, 1706-8 446-7Differences about Spain: change in French attitude 447-8Attitude of Whigs: Britain and Austria opposed to partition . . . . 448Pressure put on the Dutch in return for a Barrier 448Conflicting aims of the powers: the Preliminaries of 1709 448-9Lack of a coherent policy in Vienna; Wratislaw's Italian policy . . . . 449-50The negotiations of March-May 1709: Dutch demands stepped up . . . 450-1French concessions; the question of compensation for Philip V . . . . 451-2The 4th and 37th articles rejected by France; causes of misunderstanding . . 453-4Vienna's intransigence 454-5Significance of the first Barrier Treaty: a diplomatic triumph for the English . 455Further negotiations at Mardyck and Geertruidenberg (1710) . . . . 456Break-up of Godolphin's ministry the turning-point 456-7War-weariness brings support to St John's policy; the English press . . . 457-8Secret Anglo-French pourparlers begin in August 1710: the propositions of

April 1711 458-9The Mesnager Convention of 8 October 1711 459-60Dutch reluctantly accept this as a basis 460Parliament approves the Convention 460-1The Congress of Utrecht: agreement between Britain and France the deciding

factor 461The'Specific Demands 'of the Allies: British and Dutch 462Emperor's refusal to consider partition of the Spanish inheritance . . . 462-3Possibility of Philip V inheriting French crown: Philip's attitude . . . 463-4Deterioration in Anglo-Dutch relations: trading rights and the Barrier . . 464-5The claims of Prussia: Upper Guelderland and Neuchatel 465-6Portuguese gains and disappointments 466

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C O N T E N T S

Settlement with Savoy: Sicily and an Alpine barrier page 466-7Habsburg isolation: the emperor negotiates over Spain 467-8French claims against Austria: the Italian princelings 468Louis XTV removes the Old Pretender to Lorraine in February 1713 . . . 469Parliament rejects Bolingbroke's commercial treaty with France . . . . 469-70Britain and France settle American questions 470Signing of peace treaties with France, n April 1713 470Britain's major war aims achieved . 470-1Dutch forced to acquiesce 471Divergences between the emperor and the German princes 471-2Negotiations conducted between Villars and Eugene (November 1713-January

1714) 472Treaty of Rastatt, 6 March 1714 473The German settlement; religious divisions in the Empire 473-4The Treaty of Baden, 7 September 1714 474Comparative instability of the German settlement 474-5Political and commercial negotiations between England and Spain: the Asiento . 475-6Anglo-Spanish peace treaty signed on 13 July 1713 476Treaty between United Provinces and Spain signed on 26 June 1713 . . . 476Treaty between Spain and Portugal of February 1715: Colonia do Sacramento . 476Second Anglo-Dutch Barrier Treaty, 30 January 1713 476-7Austro-Dutch Barrier Treaty, 15 November 1715 478Later history of the Dutch Barrier 478Value of the pacification of Utrecht 478-9

CHAPTER XV

FRANCE AND ENGLAND IN NORTH AMERICA,1689-1713

By PHILIP S. HAFFENDEN, Lecturer in American Historyin the University of Southampton

Repercussions of the Glorious Revolution in North America . . . . 480The background of revolutionary disturbances; the role of Boston . . . 480-1Massachusetts: a compromise with independence 481New York: Jacob Leister 481-2Maryland: dissatisfaction with proprietary government 482Virginia and East Jersey 482-3The Massachusetts charter of 1691 483Changes outside New England 483-4French Canada: State and Church . 484-5Long-range control from Versailles . . . 485Character of French Canadians 485-6The French and the American Indians; Frontenac 486Failure of the Phips expedition to Quebec (1690) 487Frontenac borrows the methods of Indian warfare 487-8French successes in Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay 488-9The French chastise the Iroquois and procure their neutrality (1701) . . . 489-90The Navigation Act of 1696 and the Board of Trade 490-1The Crown and the colonial charters 491-2The Puritan theocracy at bay: the Salem trials; Quakers and Anglicans . . 492-3Religion in other colonies; French and German sects 493-4Effects of war on moral behaviour 494

xxi


C O N T E N T S

E d u c a t i o n : H a r v a r d , Yale , Wil l iam a n d M a r y page 494-5Pr in t ing press a n d libraries 495Social s t ructure a n d u r b a n consciousness 495-6N e w F r a n c e : social services, educa t ion a n d cul ture 496-7T h e miss ionary frontier 497-8T h e uppe r Mississippi and Lou i s i ana : Jesuits a n d Seminarists . . . . 498-9Origins of Louis iana , 1684-98 499-500I ts early vicissitudes: t he L e M o y n e bro thers a n d Croza t 500-1T h e W a r of t h e Spanish Succession in N e w England 501-2Vaudreui l a n d Dud ley consider regional neutral i ty 502Massachuse t t s fails t o cap tu re Po r t Roya l , Acad ia 502-3R a p i d changes of for tune in Newfound land 503Carol in ian a t t acks o n F l o r i d a missions 503-4Ind ian polit ics a n d t h e defence of Louis iana 504Cap tu re of P o r t R o y a l (October 1710) and the ' G l o r i o u s En te rp r i se ' . . . 505Fiasco of the Quebec expedit ion of 1711 505-6Seeds of imperial d is integrat ion; the passing of a generat ion . . . . 506-7Amer ican a t t i tudes t o the Peace 507-8N e w F r a n c e retains its vigour 508Effects of war o n p o p u l a t i o n ; increase of English p reponderance . . . 508

CHAPTER XVIPORTUGAL AND HER EMPIRE, 1680-1720

By V. M A & A L H A E S G O D I N H O , Docteur is Lettres, SorbonneSlump and boom in Portuguese Atlantic economy; the course of prices, 1668-1728 509-10Crisis of production in Brazil: sugar, spirits, and tobacco . . . . . 5 1 0 - 1 1Restricted money supply 511Anti-mercantile feeling: the Inquisition 511-12Fall in re-exports. 512Industrial investment projects and new manufactures, 1670-92 . . . . 5 1 2 - 1 3Sumptuary laws to cut down imports 513Monetary policy: success of the revaluation decree of 1688 513-14The slave trade: the Cacheo Company and the Asiento of 1696 . . . . 514-15Mozambique: fresh colonizing efforts 516Goa and Macao: new East India companies merged in 1700 . . . . 5 1 6 - 1 7Revival of Eastern trade; profits and cargoes 517The Omanis capture Mombasa (1698); the Zambesi delta 517-18Decay of Portuguese cities in India; migrations of Indo-Portuguese . . . 518-19Trade boom during and after the Nine Years War 519-20Extension of olive groves and vineyards 520-1Collapse of policy of industrialization 521-2Interests of the nobility in growth of wine exports 522A watershed in economic policy: the cycle of port, madeira, and gold. . . 523Expansion of trade with England after 1688; significance of the Methuen treaty

of 27 December 1703 . 523-4A strictly defensive foreign policy orientated towards France . . . . 524Frontier problems in the Peninsula and South America 525Treaties with Spain and France, 18 June 1701 525Anglo-Dutch sea power and the Methuen treaties of 16 May 1703 . . 525-6The army in relation to a slow population rise 526-7The ravages of war, 1704-12: food supplies 527-8

xxii


CONTENTSShrinkage of silver supply; contradictory results of Succession War . . page 528Brazil: the Buenos Aires trade before and after 1670; convoys to Lisbon . . 528-9Expansion in Brazil: Colonia do Sacramento, 1680-1715 529-30Developments in Amazonia: the Maranhao and Gran Para . . . 530The Jesuits in Upper Amazonia; the French of Cayenne 531Cattle-raising and the penetration of the interior 531-2The great cattle domains: growth of the leather trade 532Expeditions from Sao Paulo: the bandeirantes in quest of gold . . . 532-3Systematic exploration of the interior from 1674; the gold rush after 1700 . . 533-4The export of Brazilian gold, 1699-1755 534-5European destinations of Brazilian gold 535Renewed fall in Portuguese price levels, 1712-30, and new attempts to foster

industry 535-6Crown revenues before and after 1716; a mercantile monarchy . . . . 536-7Landed wealth and the religious Orders 536The wealth of the nobility 537-8Forms of property and of rights over the land and its produce . . . . 538-9State and society in Portugal 539-^0

CHAPTER XVIITHE MEDITERRANEAN

By J E A N M A T H I E X , Agrege de I'Universite, ParisUnity and diversity; eastern and western Medi ter ranean 540Coastal traffic and innumerable po r t s ; shipping hazards 540-1Populat ions of cities 541-2Cadiz, Leghorn, Genoa , Marseilles 542-3Plague: a stern quarant ine system 543Corsairs, Musl im and Christ ian 543-4The power of Algiers: prizes a n d pr isoners ; the redempt ion of slaves . . . 544-5France and the Barbary Regencies; Christ ian corsai rs ; Mal ta . . . . 545-6Privateers and merchan tmen; neutral flags 546-7Naval forces a limited deterrent 547-8Economy of the Medi ter ranean; corn t r ade ; impor ts and exports . . . 548Muslim overland trade-routes 548-9The Levant t r ade ; the Capitulat ions and consular organization . . . . 549-50English, Du tch and French in the Levant ; French Barbary companies . . 550-1The balance of Eas t -West t r ade ; Levantine industries 551The means of payment ; the specie t r ade ; cloth exports 551-2The French lead by 1715-20 . 552-3The empires of Spain and Turkey : methods of rule compared . . . . 553-4Morocco under the Sultan Muley Ismael 554The decline of former Mediterranean powers : Venice 554-6Changing na ture of Venetian economy; the terraferma 556Spanish dominions in I ta ly : Naples and Sicily, the Milanese . . . . 556-8The culture of Nap les ; music and the ar ts 558-9The achievement of Victor Amadeus I I of Savoy 559-60Limited resources of P iedmont-Savoy 560Administrative, fiscal and legal reforms; the royal supremacy . . . . 560-1Negative aspects of reform in P iedmont -Savoy . . . . . . . 561-2Shipbuilding in the Medi ter ranean: the Ot tomans and Venice . . . . 562Naval manpower and galley slaves; the French galley corps . . . . 562-3

xxiii


C O N T E N T SThe uses of the galley: its passing page 564-5Collapse of Spanish sea power 565The revival of Ottoman sea power: Mezzomorto 565-6The irruption of English sea power: Gibraltar 566-7The French navy in the Nine Years War: Toulon and Brest . . . . 567-8The Anglo-Dutch in the Mediterranean, 1694-6: the balance-sheet . . . 568-9The Mediterranean and the Partition Treaties 569The War of the Spanish Succession in the Mediterranean 569-70Spain's losses mainly attributable to defeats on land 570The Allies fail to exploit naval superiority; the Camisards 570-1Naval war subsidiary to war on land; French commercial s u p r e m a c y . . . 571From Mediterranean to Atlantic power rivalries 571

CHAPTER XVIIITHE AUSTRIAN HABSBURGS

By J. W. STOYE, Fellow of Magdalen College and Senior Lecturer inModern History in the University of Oxford

Court and government in the Hofburg 572Vienna: burghers and noblemen 572-3The growth of autocracy: the central treasury and the court chancery . . 573Resistance to autocracy: the Estates and office-holders 573-4The defects of government at the centre: overlapping committees . . . 574-5Habsburg devotion to the Catholic Church and to 'Our H o u s e ' . . . . 575-6Conflicts of priority between widely scattered hereditary claims . . . . 576The reconquest of Hungary, 1685-8 576-7Strength of the Habsburg position in the Balkans by 1689 577-8Pressure from western Europe 578-9Conflict between two fronts; breakdown of peace talks with the Turks . . 579Habsburg thrusts into Macedonia and Rumania 579-8oRevival of Turkish power in 1690; military deadlock after 1691 . . . . 580The battle of Zenta (11 September 1697) and the Peace of Carlowitz (1699) . 580-1Habsburg government in the newly conquered lands; population movements . 581-2Transylvania: Michael Apafl surrenders his title, 1697 582Hungary: the policy of Cardinal Kollonich 582-3Taxation leads to peasant unrest 583The Hungarian rebellion of 1703: Rakoczi and Berczenyi 583-4Rakocri's military successes and recognition by the Transylvanians . . . 584-5Suppression of the rebellion: battles of Zsibo (November 1705) and Trencui

(August 1708) 585The peace settlement at Szatmar and the Diet of 1712-15 585-6Relations between the emperors and the German princes 586-7The influence of Habsburg patronage in western and central Germany . . 587-8Shadowy character of the Imperial authority itself 588Bavaria before and after Blenheim 588-9Habsburg and Wittelsbach 589-90Friction with Brandenburg-Prussia and friendship with Hanover . . . 590Forward policy in Italy: the Spanish succession 590-1Habsburg reluctance to embark on hostilities in Spain 591Agreements within the family on Spanish partition, 1703 592The agreement with Victor Amadeus of Savoy, November 1703 . . . . 592-3

xxiv


CONTENTSArchduke Charles between the Maritime Powers and Vienna; devotion to his

Spanish title page 593Austrian campaigning in Italy, 1701-7; contributions levied on the principalities 593-4Habsburg disputes with the papacy 594-5Defeat of Clement XI in the War of Comacchio, 1708-9 595The claims of Victor Amadeus in Lombardy: Habsburg distrust . . . 595-6The attitude of Emperor Charles VI to Victor Amadeus II and Philip V . . 596-7Austrian rule in Italy compared with the Spanish 597Italian cultural influences at Vienna 597-8The Austrian Netherlands: old liberties confirmed 598The return to ambitions in the Balkans, 1716-18 598Economic and social conditions in the old possessions; lord and peasant in

Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia 598-600Impact of war taxation on the agricultural classes '' . 600A wealthy nobility expressed in architectural magnificence 600-1The nobility a unifying force in the Habsburg lands 601The entrenched position of the Church and its influence 601-2A static landlocked economy; production in the towns and on the larger estates. 602-3A tight gild-structure; court purveyors and privileged manufactures . . . 603Government and mineral resources: the Irmerberger Hauptgewerkschaft . . 603-4Development of trade with south-east Europe: the policy of Charles VI . . 604-5Importance of Silesia; shifts in trade-routes of the Austrian lands . . . 605-6Projects of economic reform frustrated before 1714 606-7Charles VI loses interest in them after 1720 607

CHAPTER XIXTHE RETREAT OF THE TURKS, 1683-1730

By A. N. KURAT, Professor of History in the University of Ankara,and J. S. B R O M L E Y

Extent of the Ottoman empire and its administrative divisions . . . . 608Contraction in Asia; Mesopotamia, Syria and Lebanon 608-9Importance of Egypt: political clans and military insurrections . . . . 609-10The Red Sea and the Black Sea; Tatars and Cossacks 610Frontier defence and the system of fortresses 610Communications; internal and external commerce 610-12Industrial crafts: gildsmen and janissaries 612Town and country; the growth of tax-farms 612-13A stagnant agriculture and peasant migration 613Military manpower, territorial and professional; the janissaries and other corps . 613-14The navy: galleys and sailing-ships 615Sultan and grand vizier; importance of the efendis 615-16Influence of the ulema; the intrigues of the Seraglio 616-17Self-criticism and the distrust of western influences 617The Patriarchate of Constantinople . 617-18Religion, race and poverty 6181683: the retreat from Vienna; the Holy League of 1684 618-19The struggle for Hungary; fall of Nove Zamky (1685) and of Buda (1686) . . 619Turks driven out of the Morea (1685-7); the defeat at Nagyharsany (12 August

1687) 620Army revolt of 8 November 1687 and the dethronement of Mehmed IV . . 620-11688: the Austrians capture Peterwardein and Belgrade; failure of peace parleys 621

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C O N T E N T S

The crisis of 1689 and Fazil Mustafa Pasha: a turn in the tide . . . page 621-2The slaughter at Zalankemen (19 August 1691) and attempts at mediation . . 622-3The Venetians in Chios, 1694-5 623Resilience of Ottoman war effort; financial dislocation and social evils . . 623-5Russian attacks on Azov, 1695-6; their implications 625-6The battle of Zenta (1697) and the agreements at Carlowitz (26 January 1699) . 626Many-sided significance of the Peace 626-7Threats of Venice and Russia to the Dardanelles and Black Sea . . . . 627-8Reforms of Hiiseyn Pasha; the armed forces 628-9Conflict between grand vizier and Mufti of Constantinople 629'The Adrianople affair'of August 1703: abdication of Sultan Mustafa II . . 629Character of Sultan Ahmed III : Chorlulu Ali Pasha grand vizier . . . 630Poltava, 1709: Charles XII in Turkey 630-1Increase in anti-Russian feeling: Devlet-Girei Khan and the Bender circle . . 631-2Baltaji Mehmed Pasha: Turkey at war with Russia, 20 November 1710 . . 632Tsar Peter appeals to the Balkan Christians; their relations with Moscow . . 632-3Antagonism between Orthodox and Catholic; Moldavia and Wallachia . . 633Russian advance to Moldavia 633-4Russian surrender on the Pruth, 21 July 1711; criticism of Baltaji Mehmed . 634-5Peter abandons Azov and Taganrog 635A Greco-Turkish regime: growing influence of the Phanariots . . . . 635-6Russia and Poland: further declarations of war by the Porte . . . . 636Peace of Adrianople, 5 June 1713; Charles XII leaves Turkey, September 1714 . 636-7Plans to recover the Morea from Venice: Silahdar Ali Pasha . . . . 637-8Campaign in the Morea, 1715; Corfu threatened, 1716 638Vienna decides to intervene: confusion in the Divan 638-9Eugene routs Silahdar Ali Pasha at Peterwardein, 5 August 1716, and takes

Temesvar on 12 October 639Fall of Belgrade, 16 August 1717; Venetian defeats at sea 640Treaty of Passarowitz, 21 July 1718 640-2Reasons for military inferiority of the Ottoman 642Ottoman desire for peace: Ibrahim Pasha a n d ' t h e Age of Tulips' . . . 642-3Cultural developments 643-4Epidemics, dear food, and unemployment 644The Afghans invade Persia: Tsar Peter moves to the Caspian, 1723 . . . 644-5The Turks and Russians dismember Persia, 1724-30 645Janissary rising in Constantinople, September-November, 1730 . . . . 645-6Sultan Mahmud I murders Patrona Halil and his associates . . . . 647

CHAPTER XX ( i )CHARLES XII AND THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR

By RAGNHILD HATTON, Professor of International Historyin the University of London

The war of 1700-21 seen as the climax of historic rivalries 648Swedish theory of empire 648-9Shifting balance of power in the Baltic 649Reassessments and reforms under Charles XI 649-50Sweden's neutrality in the Nine Years War: a prosperous interlude . . . 650-11697: accession of Charles XII: omens and dangers 651-2Holstein-Gottorp and Livonia: the coalition between Denmark, Saxony and

Russia 652-3xxvi


CONTENTSAugustus of Saxony-Poland attacks Livonia in February 1700 . . . page 653-4The Swedes attack Denmark: Peace of Travendal, August 1700 . . . . 654-5Swedish success over the Russians at Narva, 30 November 1700 . . . 655-6Decision to attack Augustus; the crossing of the Dvina, 19 July 1701. . . 656The situation in Poland and Lithuania . 656-8Charles XII's Polish policy and its critics 658Stanislas Leszczynski crowned king of Poland: the Treaty of Warsaw, 1705 . 658-9Poland as a base for a campaign against Russia or as a buffer-state . . . 659-60Swedish victories at Klisz6w (1702) and Fraustadt (1706) 660-1Character of Charles XII 661-2Charles moves into Saxony, 1706; Treaty of Altranstadt, 24 September 1707 . 662-3Marlborough's visit to Altranstadt 663-41708: preparations for the invasion of Russia 664The Russians forced out of Poland 664-5The routes to Moscow 665Russian defence plan: costly Swedish victory at Holowczyn, 14 July 1708 . . 665-6Failure of Lewenhaupt to join the main Swedish army: battle of Lesna, 9 October 666-7Winter quarters and scorched-earth tactics 6671709: Swedish diplomacy in search of a military success 667-8The defeats at Poltava and Perevolochna, 8-11 July 668-9Charles in Turkey for four years; schemes for a coalition at Bender . . . 669-70Sweden invaded from Denmark and Norway: attitude of the Maritime Powers,

1710 670Charles XII at Bender: his plans for reforms in Sweden 671Stenbock's victory at Gadebusch (December 1712) and surrender at Tonning

(January 1713) 671Failures of Swedish diplomacy 671-2The ' tumult' of Bender, February 1713; Charles reaches Stralsund on 21 November

1714 672-3The diplomatic situation; Prussia and Hanover join Sweden's enemies, 1715 . 673-4The fall of Stralsund (23 December 1715) and of Wismar (19 April 1716) . . 674Administrative reforms in Sweden; Gortz and the Jacobites . . . . 674-5Negotiations with Peter the Great and George I of England . . . . 675-7The succession question; struggle between the Holstein and Hesse parties . . 6771718: the invasion of Norway and death of Charles XII on 11 December . . 677What he had had in mind 677-8Treaties of Stockholm and Frederiksborg, 1719-20 678The Peace of Nystad, September 1721 679Sweden no longer a great power; the question of Charles XII's responsibility . 679-80

CHAPTER XX (2)THE ECLIPSE OF POLAND

ByJ6zEF GIEROWSKI, Professor of Modern Polish History, andANDRZEJ KAMINSKI, Lecturer in Modem European History,

in the Jagiellonian University, Cracow'Eclipsis Poloniae' 681Causes of paralysis; the basic malaise; a pessimistic generation . . . . 681-2John Sobieski and Augustus of Saxony 682-3Polish participation in the War of the Holy League: meagre results . . . 683-4Sobieski's succession strategy and family dissensions 684-5Lithuanian opposition to Sobieski's dynasticism spreads to Poland . . . 685-6

xxvii


C O N T E N T SThe interregnum of 1696-7: the contested election at Wola, 27 June 1697 . page 686Frederick Augustus I of Saxony crowned king of Poland as Augustus II,

15 September 687Possibilities and weaknesses of the Polish-Saxon Union 687-8Failure of duke of Conti to oust Augustus 688Resumption of war with the Ottoman, 1698: setbacks for Augustus . . . 688-9Dispute with Prussia over Elblag, 1698-1700 689-90Civil war in Lithuania: the Sapieha family capitulate, December 1698. . . 690-1The Sejm of 1699 and the withdrawal of Saxon forces from Poland . . . 691-2The anti-Swedish coalition and the invasion of Livonia, 1700 . . . . 692Augustus tries to limit the conflict with Sweden, 1700-1 692-3Charles XII cultivates a pro-Swedish faction in Poland 693Renewed civil war in Lithuania (1700) and appeal for Russian help . . . 693-4Opposition groups within Poland; James Sobieski 694The Sejm of 1701 and the Swedish invasion of Lithuania 694-5Charles XII calls for the deposition of Augustus II and occupies Warsaw, 1702. 695Conditional support for Augustus in Poland 695-6Cossack rising in the Dnieper Ukraine, 1702-4 696Swedish successes in 1703; the Sejm meets at Lublin 696-7Anti-Saxon confederacy of Warsaw, 1704 697Charles XII has Stanislas Leszczyriski crowned king in Warsaw, 12 July 1704 . 697Support for Augustus: General Confederacy of Sandomierz, 1704 . . . 697-8Russo-Polish alliance: the Treaty of Narva, 30 August 1704 . . . . 698-9Charles XII imposes the Treaty of Warsaw, 28 November 1705 . . . . 699Difficult position of Charles XII in 1706: the Swedes devastate Poland . . 699-700The Swedes invade Saxony while the Russians advance into Poland . . . 700-1The Treaty of Altranstadt: Augustus deprived of the Polish Crown . . . 701Tsar Peter and the confederates of Sandomierz: alternative candidates for the

Polish throne 701Charles XII returns to Poland (1707) and moves into the Ukraine (1708) . . 702Augustus pressed to return: Leszczynski withdraws beyond the Vistula . . 702-3Battle of Poltava; Augustus finally decides to return in 1709 . . . . 703-4Growth of Russian influence in Poland 704The devastation and depopulation of Poland 704-5The decay of the towns and decline of the gentry 705-6Creeping disintegration of Poland; growing independence of provincial diets . 706Republican tendencies in reform: ideas of Szczuka and Karwicki . . . 706-7The General Council of Warsaw (1710) and the Sejm of 1712 . . . . 707-8Ascendancy of Peter the Great and revival of the Leszczynski party . . . 708-9Augustus intent on ensuring succession to his son: absolutist schemes. . . 709-10Attitudes of foreign powers to these plans: the French treaty of August 1714 . 710Extremist policy of Charles XII fatal to Augustus and to Poland . . . 710-11Polish discontents exploited by Peter the Great 711Violent agitation against Saxons in Lithuania and Poland: the General Con-

federacy of Tarnogr6d, 1715 711-12Augustus gives way to the confederates in November 1716 712Russian diplomacy at a loss; the Silent Sejm of 1717 712-13Military, economic and ecclesiastical reforms proposed to the Sejm of 1718 . 713-14Successful opposition of the hetmans supported by Russia and Prussia . . 714Poland the second major victim of the Great Northern War . . . . 714-15

XXVlll


CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXIRUSSIA UNDER PETER THE GREAT AND THE CHANGED

RELATIONS OF EAST AND WESTBy M. S. A N D E R S O N , Reader in International History

in the University of LondonRussia in the seventeenth century page 716The education of Peter the Great; his character and interests . . . . 716-17Conflict with the Tsarevna Sophia, Prince V. V. Golitsyn and the strel'tsy, 1689 717-18The capture of Azov (1696): Peter's Black Sea policy 718-19Peter's 'great embassy ' to western Europe, 1697 719Suppression of strel'tsy revolt, 1698 719-20A series of great innovations, 1699-1724 720The reorganization of the army; the training of officers 720-1The construction of a fleet 721-2Development of economic life: Peter's'mercantilism' 722-3Industry and industrial labour: successes and failures 723-4Failure of commercial policies: a merchant marine and commercial treaties . 724-5Agriculture resistant to change despite some innovations 725Administrative changes: theprikazy (1699-1701), the Senate (1711), the adminis-

trative colleges from 1718 725-6Bureaucratization of the provinces: strengthening of central control . . . 726Intellectual life and education 726-7Books, the theatre, science and the arts 727-8The conservatism of the Orthodox Church; end of its autonomy. . . . 728-9Structure of society: landowners and peasants; the 'Table of Ranks ' . . . 729-30A forced evolution 73-iIntolerable physical and financial burdens laid on the peasants . . . . 7 3 1 - 2The rebellion of the Don Cossacks (1706-8) and destruction of the Zaporozhian

secK 732Religious dissent and the tragedy of Tsarevich Alexis 732-3Poltava a turning-point in Russia's relations with Europe 733-4Bids for Russian support: the Northern War and the Spanish Succession . . 734-5The Western powers and the North after 1713 735-6Peter and the Balkans: the Russo-Turkish war of 1711 736Fears of Russian domination of the Baltic and north Germany, 1716-22 . . 736-7Russia politically part of Europe: Peter's second journey to the West, 1717 . 737Diplomatic and dynastic relations established with the European states . . 737-8Contemplated marriage alliances 738Expansion in Asia: China and Siberia; Persia and the Caspian . . . . 738-9Growing interest of the West in Russia 739-4Peter's contemporary standing as a monarch 740

xxix


CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXII

ARMIES AND NAVIESI. THE ART OF WAR ON LAND

By DAVID G. CHANDLER, Senior Lecturer in Military Historyat the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst

Limited and total warfare page 741Growth in size of armies 741-2International elements; mercenaries and adventurers 742Similarity between armies: French and Swedish influences 742-3Ottoman army relatively backward 743The Swedish 'military revolution' 743-4Military administration in France: Le Tellier and Louvois 744-5The Ordre du Tableau (1675) and other command-structures . . . . 745-6Developments in infantry weapons; flintlock musket and bayonet . . . 746-8Importance of the infantry soldier enhanced 748The effects on tactics and tactical formations 748-9Increase in casualty rates 749The art of fortification and siege-warfare; Vauban and Coehoorn . . . 750-1Use of permanent lines of defence: Stollhofen, Brabant and 'Ne Plus Ultra' . 751Defensive caution of generals and governments 751-2Exceptions: Charles XII, Marlborough, Eugene and Villars . . . . 752-3Limiting factors on operations: terrain and weather 753Four main war-theatres in western Europe 753-4The Baltic lands and the Balkans 754General features of field operations: the assembly-camp 754-5March-formations and field administration; Marlborough's night-marches . . 756-7Battle-formations; fire control 758-9Types of cavalry and their uses 759-6oArtillery: types and uses; the siege-train 760Little progress in organization of ordnance; status of gunners and engineers . 760-1Rudimentary staff systems: the commander in battle 761-2Contemporary records and comments 762

2. SOLDIERS AND CIVILIANSBy J. W. STOYE

The seasonal rhythm of war and politics; winter quarters 762-3Recruiting and redrafting; poverty the great provider 763-5Foreign contingents: the case of the Swiss cantons 765-6The theory of conscription by government 766Conscription and militia service: the example of Piedmont 766-7The French milice of 1688: substitutes and exemptions 767-8Conscription in Germany 768-9The German trade in soldiers 769The British army: mercenaries, volunteers and conscripts 769-70Recruitment of cavalry and dragoons easier than raising foot-soldiers. . . 770-1The Scandinavian systems; discontent in the Baltic States 771-3The demands of Charles XII, before and after Poltava 774The Danish militia: the order of 24 February 1701 and its social repercussions . 774-5Mobilization of manpower in Russia; breakdown of old Cossack organization . 775-6

XXX


CONTENTSPoland's military weakness page 776-7Officers: the bond between Peter's army and Russian landowners . . . 777Brandenburg-Prussia: the Cadet Corps and the winning of the Junkers . . 777-8The military career in German families; commoners and noblemen in Prussia . 778-80Household Guards in England and elsewhere 780Policy of Louis XIV: royal pressures and social conventions . . . . 780-1Aristocratic attitudes to military service in Italy and Spain 782-3Army and militia in England; the Scottish influx; purchase of commissions . 783-4The 'half-pay' officer; old soldiers 784Other soldier-civilian relationships 784-5Varied r61e of intendants in French frontier provinces: Flanders, Artois, Alsace 785-6Supply of armies in southern Netherlands and western Germany . . . 786-7Billeting and barracks 787Municipal oligarchies and war contractors 787-8Profits of war: fortunes and failures 788-9The armed forces as a reflection of social structures 789Growing distinction between military organization and civil society in the West;

social transformation in Russia and Prussia 789-90

3. NAVIES

By J. S. BROMLEY and A. N. RYAN, Senior Lecturer in Naval Historyin the University of Liverpool

Changes in relative strengths of navies; rise of British predominance . . . 790-1The line-of-battle: capital ships and others 791-2Building programmes: English, French and Dutch before and after 1688 . . 792-3Design of warships; ship science in France 793-4Levelling influence of the line-ahead: the importance of numbers . . . 794Factors governing the size and structure of navies; conflicts of use . . . 794-6Pressures of mercantile opinion: English and Dutch assumptions . . . 796American versus European strategy: navies subordinate to armies . . . 796-8Conflict between sea and land requirements in the Dutch Republic: its naval

decline 798-9Dutch naval organization: the Admiralty Colleges 799-800The Zeeland privateers; the privateering war 800-2Vauban and the guerre de course 802-4Economic warfare; rights of neutrals 804-5The Swedish and Danish navies 805Character of naval warfare in the Baltic; Tsar Peter's galleys . . . . 806-7Rapid rise of Russian sea power 807Limited endurance of warships; naval bases in the Baltic 807-8Mediterranean bases; Cadiz and Lisbon 807-8Bases overseas; the West Indies 809Defence problems and naval difficulties in the Caribbean 809-10Dockyards in England; the problem posed by Brest 811French arsenals: Dunkirk, Rochefort, Brest and Toulon; their supplies . . 811-13Forest policies in France and England; timber imports from the Baltic, Germany

and North America 813-14Dockyards and contractors: shipbuilding and naval stores 814-15The State and its contractors in France and England 815-17Problems of victualling: English and French compared 817-19Dockyard labour: the expansion in England 819Labour discipline in dockyards; irregular employment and pay . . . . 819-20

a XXXI MHS


CONTENTSManning problems: the Inscription Maritime page 820-1The Marines in France and England 822French impressment and the system of classes 822-3The English press gangs and the voluntary register of 1696-1710. . . . 823-4Danish and Swedish methods of manning 824-5Sickness; hospital ships and naval hospitals 825-6The formation of officers 826-7Emergence of the regular naval officer: rank and post; flag officers . . . 827-8Naval ethics 828-9'Gentlemen' and 'tarpaulin'; the warrant officers 829Administrators, naval and civilian 829-31Spending and borrowing in England and France 831-2Naval finance in the United Provinces and Scandinavia 832Administrators and statesmen 832-3Political priorities: unique situation of the English navy 833

CHAPTER XXIII

ECONOMIC ACTIVITYI. THE MAP OF COMMERCE, I683-I721

By JACOB M. PRICE, Professor of History in the University of MichiganInternational aspects of production and exchange over the short term . . 834Wars and economics; mercantilism old and new 834-5Growth of international finance; an age of speculative creativeness . . . 835-6Inter-regional exchanges of goods and commodities 836Baltic grain exports; the Amsterdam market 836-8Other corn-exporters: the transformation of England 838Corn production and market conditions in France 838-9The timber trade; masts 839-41Pitch and tar: Russia and North America break the Swedish tar monopoly . 841-2Turpentine and rosin: the French Landes 842Flax and hemp: Riga and Archangel 843-4Ash and potash for the soapmakers; tallow and wax 844-5Salt production in Europe: Dutch dominance in Baltic imports . . . . 844-5European vineyards: French, Spanish and Portuguese wines . . . . 846-7The victory of Oporto in England; expansion of the Dutch entrepot favours

Bordeaux 846-7Spirits: growth of brandy distillation in France and of gin in England . . 847European fisheries: decline of the Dutch herring-fleets; the Scots . . . 847-8The whale fishery: Dutch supremacy in Greenland and the Davis Strait . . 848The cod fisheries of Iceland and Newfoundland; the New England fishery . . 848-9The French fisheries; importance of the Banks; post-war recovery . . . 849-50Other overseas commodities: the North American fur trade and its European

markets 850-1The sources of tobacco; blending at Amsterdam; European competition . . 851-2Increase of smoking in Russia and France; the French tobacco-farm learns to

buy British 852-3Sugar as an empire-builder 853-4Rice; dyestuffs 854-5The African slave trade: the English outdistance their competitors . . . 855-6East India trade: its special features 856

xxxii


C O N T E N T S

The Dutch predominance decreases; French disappointments in the East . page 856-7Sugar, pepper and spices; Dutch selling policy 857-8Coffee and tea: the new trades to Mocha and Canton 858-9Raw silk: competition between Persia and Bengal 859-60Wrought silks and cottons from India compete with European textiles; calico-

printing in Europe 860-1Outward cargoes: the shipment of specie; decline of Dutch purchases of gold

and copper in Japan 861-2Specie in the Levant trade: Spanish silver and Brazilian gold . . . . 862-3The woollen industry in France: imports of Spanish wool; centres and types of

production 863-4The Dutch woollen industry depressed; growth of Silesian and German

manufactures 864-5The great English woollen and worsted industry: centres of production and

export markets 865-6The linen trade: manufactures in western and eastern Europe . . . . 866-7European silk manufacture: expansion in France; a new industry in England . 867-8Coal-mining: growth of English ascendancy 868-9The iron industry in Liege, England and Sweden: Swedish pre-eminence . . 869-70English and French foreign trade compared: their principal orientations . . 870-1The 'map of commerce': preponderance of the Baltic-Iberian artery; the Sound

statistics 871Dutch foreign trade and shipping: its pattern in I740 and in 1670 . . . 871-2Dutch and English shipping activity compared; post-war growth of French

tonnage 872-3Incidence of the wars on international business cycle 873-4The most striking changes in the general map of commerce 874

2. PRICES, POPULATION AND ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN EUROPE, I688-I7I5:A NOTE

By JEAN M E U V R E T

Prices as an index of economic activity: contours of 1690-1714 . . . . 874-5Cereals: variations in rye at Amsterdam, Lyons and Carpentras . . . . 875-6Olive oil, wines, peppers 877-8Examples of price rigidity in textiles 878-9The building industry: bricks and wages 879Mutations in money values 879-80Relative rigidity in prices of non-foodstuffs in relation to soaring food prices . 880-1Variations in intensity of food crises: France and northern Europe . . . 881Prices of raw wool compared with corn prices at Castelnaudary . . . . 881The meaning of a fall in pewter valuations 881-2'Rigidity'of wages 882Population trends; sources of demographies] statistics and their limitations . 882-3English population in the eighteenth century 883-4Evidence for Venice, Sicily, Munich, Augsburg, Zurich, Catalonia, central Sweden 884-5A relatively stationary situation: examples from England and France. . . 885Factors determining population: family limitation, war, morbidity . . . 885-7Morbidity and food shortages 887-8Crises in birth and death rates; French demographic geography . . . 888-9Subsistence and mortality elsewhere: Piedmont, London, Finland . . . 889-90Agricultural returns: an example from the Paris region 890-1The effect of low prices on producers 891-2

xxxiii 2-2


CONTENTSIndustry linked with agriculture page 892Activity in urban crafts: output and changes in the quality of manufacture . 892-3Danish Sound tolls compared with port dues of Amsterdam; East India sales . 893Transformation of English foreign trade 894Underlying buoyancy of French external trade 894-5Depression of inland centres: boom and slump at Geneva 895Tight money and interest rates in France; rentes constitutes . . . . 895-6Solidity of the Amsterdam Exchange Bank 896The National Debt in England 896-7Wars the main cause of higher price level in 1690-1714 . . . . 897T A B L E S A-J 898-902

I N D E X 903

xxxiv


CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

THE phase of European experience studied in the present volume,and to some extent in its predecessor,1 has elastic chronologicalboundaries and no such recognizable identity as may be claimed forages of reformation or revolution, though it contained features of both. Nordoes a single figure bestride it. The conventional description which fixeson the decline of France is at best a half-truth, and then only for the West.Even in characterizing 'The Age of Louis XIV from 1661, the editors ofthe 'old' C.M.H. were aware of 'the long, and seemingly remote, historyof the Ottoman Power in Europe' as a main determinant of a period whichlacked ' the organic unity which belongs to our Napoleon volume'; and assoon as this 'question of life and death' had been settled at Carlowitz in1699, 'a large division of the canvas is filled by the great Swedish or"Northern" War',2 formally closed at Nystad in 1721, six years after theRoi Soleil had gone to his grave but more than three before Peter, thegreat tsar, was to follow him.

If we consider the political geography of these years (ch. v), it is thechanging map of eastern Europe which impresses us first. By 1716 Swedenwas stripped of her trans-Baltic provinces, the basis of her great-powerposition (ch. xx(i)), with a commerce and revenues that had long been heranswer to Danish control of the Sound and Dutch domination of thetrade which passed through it.3 Sweden's loss was chiefly to the advantageof Russia, which staked out claims also in the direction of the Black Seaand the Caspian and was able for a time to station troops in Denmark andPoland, to send caravans to Peking and work up feeling against Islam inthe Balkans. There, the Peace of Passarowitz in 1718 added Transylvaniaand Little Wallachia, with much of Serbia and Bosnia, to the war-trodden wastes of Hungary acquired by the House of Habsburg atCarlowitz. Some of these developments, it is true, proved ephemeral. TheTurks were to recover Belgrade, the key to their position in Europe, andover half a century was to pass before the Russians occupied the Crimea;Tsar Peter's ignominious surrender to Turkish forces on the river Pruth in1711 was as great a sensation as had been his destruction of King CharlesXII's brilliant expeditionary force at Poltava and Perevolochna in 1709.

1 See Preface to vol. v, p. v. Below it has been judged useful to carry the surveys of

science, music and Ottoman affairs well into the eighteenth century.* The Cambridge Modem History, vol. v (1908), ed. A. W. Ward, G. W. Prothero and

Stanley Leathes, Preface, pp. v-vii.* For the larger perspective see Folke Lindberg, 'La Baltique et l'historiographie

scandinave', Annales (Economies, Societes, Civilisations), i6e annee (1961), 425-40.


RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND RUSSIABut 'the Turkish menace' was a thing of the past and 'the EasternQuestion' had been noisily announced. Several features it had in thisperiod, however, which were not to concern the future. Carlowitz endedthe last war which had at least begun, with the Holy League of 1684, as acrusade. In effect, it also marked the end of a persistent Polish interest inthe Rumanian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, although thePolish hold on neighbouring Podolia was now restored. Passarowitz like-wise put a term to Venetian ambitions in the Aegean: they had seemed tothreaten Constantinople itself when the republic stood in possession of theMorea for a generation. During the interval between these historicsettlements the viking Charles XII, who dreamed of attracting Otto-man and Persian trade to a Swedish Baltic and who for five years estab-lished his own nominee on the Polish throne, was to scheme in vain for avast combination of Swede and Turk, Pole and Cossack, against thevictor of Poltava.

Charles's fertile imagination, especially in exile on Turkish soil, drewtogether the strands of Baltic and Levantine affairs, but he was not the onlyruler capable of conceiving an eastern Europe utterly different from thatwhich took shape in this period. Frederick Augustus of Saxony, soonafter his controversial election to the Polish throne in 1697, entertainedthe vision of a trading power which would extend from Riga to theCaspian, as well as of a territorial link between Poland and Saxony alongthe middle Odera link which Brandenburg seemed willing to encouragein return for concessions in the Vistula delta. It was a Saxon thrust intoSwedish Livonia, as much as Danish pretensions to Sleswig-Holstein,which opened two decades of war in the North and drew the Swedes intothe Penelope's web of Polish politics (ch. xx(2)). The Polish-Saxon Unionturned out to be disastrous to the strengthening of central government inWarsaw because it led to foreign intervention, invited by dissident noble-men who feared for historic liberties or by Augustus II himself, whose bestintentions were suspect of absolutism and compromised by the behaviourof his Saxon troops. Yet Charles XII's determination to break that Unionat any pricethus involving the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in hisown ruin1should warn us not to read its history backwards. LikeSweden's own bid to retain domination of the eastern Baltic, and indeed toextend it to the Arctic, the potentialities of the Polish-Saxon Union were amajor issue of the Great Northern War, which can only be understood inthe light of these contemporary options and not simply as a stage in the

1 Paradoxically, nevertheless, in resolving to fill the throne with a Polish subject, Charles

was anticipating one of J.-J. Rousseau's principal recommendations for the preservation ofthe Commonwealth's independence. Rousseau's Considerations sur le gouvernement de laPologne, though written in 1772 with conscious modesty, remains a remarkable diagnosis ofthe strength and weaknesses of this unique nation, whose spiritual vitality and originality herecognized. Since the tendency of historians has been to underline its factiousness, it isinteresting that Rousseau saw the constitutional resort to spontaneous confederation as'a political masterpiece'.

2


INTRODUCTIONexpansion of Muscovy. Although Peter was to enjoy Russia's familiarprivilege of tertius gaudens in the end, at least as arbiter in Polish andLithuanian party conflicts, the first twenty years of his reign must be seenas a struggle for survival (ch. xxi). The Dnieper frontier itself had beensettled as recently as 1686; and even this 'perpetual peace', with itsprovision for a tsarist protectorate of the Orthodox religion in Poland,could not be taken in Moscow as permanent proof against Polish irreden-tism in the Ukraine.

Muscovy's humble value in Western eyes in 1689 was repeatedly con-firmed at the hand of Sweden's young warrior-king until Poltava dramati-cally resurrected the anti-Swedish coalition of 1698-9 and restoredAugustus II to the Polish throne. The tsar had still to survive his humilia-tion on the Pruth, and his most drastic administrative reforms, till thensubsidiary to the Swedish conflict, belong to his last decade; but by thetime of Charles XII's return to Sweden, in 1715, the 'maritime powers' ofBritain and the Netherlands, with a western balance of power only justattained, were uneasily aware of the need to contain 'a kind of northernTurk' (p. 735), who threatened to turn the Baltic into a Russian lake,much as the Ottomans regarded the Black Sea as their mare clausum.When Peter first visited the West in 1697, he came to acquire its tech-nology; in 1717 he returned as a conqueror and reformer, the greatestruler of the age. At the Russian celebration of the Peace of Nystad he wascongratulated on joining his newly created Empire to the comity ofpolitical nations. East and West remained indeed far apart in understand-ing: for all his realism, Peter had some of the pride of his Orthodoxchurchmen (whose dislike of westernizing policies rivalled that of theirOttoman counterparts, the ulemd) and he may have intended Holy Russiato turn her back on the West after several decades of apprenticeship. Butwhen he died, in 1725, the chancelleries of the West were amply representedat his handsome new capital of St Petersburg, with its German architectsand Dutch printing-presses (ch. xxi).

It had not been Russian friendship, however, but rather Sweden's andDenmark's, or at least the use of their troops, that the western powerscompeted for in their own protracted wars of 1688-97 and 1701-14(ch. VII and xm). For the British and the Dutch, the perseverance ofdistrust between the Northern Crowns was a tiresome irrelevance. Stock-holm was nervous of Danish irredentism in Scania, while Copenhagenfeared Swedish pressure through the duchy of Holstein-Gottorp, whoselands and fortification rights mingled confusedly with those of Denmark inSleswig and Holstein. This dispute, no more than patched up by theTreaty of Altona in 1689, largely explains Denmark's participation in theNorthern War; it was only the concerted attack from two other newkings, Augustus II and Peter I, that took Charles XII by surprise. As theyhad tried to straighten out the Holstein question, so the western powers


RISE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND RUSSIAwould have stopped the larger struggle if they could, especially when thedeath of the childless King Carlos II1 of Spain in 1700 opened the possi-bility of another ordeal by arms in the West itself. In the event, theSpanish Succession War was never to merge with the Northern War,although Augustus II more than once sought allies among the westernbelligerents, while fears of a Swedish diversion westwards contributed tothe mission of the commander-in-chief of the Maritime Powers, Marl-borough, to Charles XII in camp at Altranstadt in 1707. Western dip-lomacy had been altogether more active at Stockholm during the NineYears War, when both sides found supporters among the Swedishmagnates and set value on the arbitration of Charles XI in the deadlockinto which their hostilities entered from 1693; but Danish troops in thepay of the Maritime Powers then played a more direct role than anythingthe Swedes ever did. The record of these years shows the breakdown of theclassical French 'eastern barrier' in Sweden as in Poland. At the sametime, neither Sweden nor Denmarkwhere French influence tended topredominate in proportion as it lost ground in Stockholmrelished anAnglo-Dutch command of the seas, and the Northern Crowns werecapable of sinking their differences in defence of their rights as neutraltraders against attempts by the Maritime Powers to dictate to them. Themost constant interest of all the western powers in the Baltic was theircommerce, particularly their naval supplies and the corn and timber of thePolish and north German plain (ch. xxm (1)), however hard they soughtto snatch political advantages for themselves and deny them to theirrivals. The court of Stockholm cost more in 'gratifications' than mostothers,2 but nothing in the baffling silences of Charles XII's personalityrings truer than his refusal to take foreign subsidies at the expense of hisfreedom of action. Has any sovereign, placed in succeeding situations ofextreme difficulty, preserved a single-minded independence for so long?When he crossed the Sound in 1700 to knock Denmark out of the coalitionwhich sought to take advantage of his youth, he was protected by anEnglish fleet; but this did not prevent him from depriving England ofessential Finnish tar at a critical moment in her fortunes, nor later fromrisking her friendship when he badly needed it by unleashing his privateersagainst ships trading with Swedish ports in Russian occupation.

In such manner did the course of events in northern Europe impinge onthe West. Subsidy-troops apart, Brandenburg-Prussia was the only Balticpower to become involved in Western hostilities. A more direct andcontinuous reciprocity is discernible between the middle Danube and theupper Rhine. The dramatic thrusts of the Habsburg armies over Hungary

1 Contrary to the general practice of this History, his name and that of Louis XIV have

not been anglicized, for we know them best as they called themselves.* See the contribution by R. Hatton to William III and Louis XIV: Essays 1680-1720 by

and for Mark A. Thomson (ed. R. Hatton and J. S. Bromley, Liverpool and Toronto, 1968),ch. 5.


INTRODUCTION

and deep into the Balkans, after the Turkish failure before Vienna in1683, were virtually halted by 1692 because the Emperor Leopold I hadincreasingly to divert resources to the defence of western Germany, wherethe devastation of the Palatinate in 1688 had been followed by similar ifless systematic acts of French ruthlessness. The defensive organization ofthe Empire, at least of its western Circles, had been slowly improved since1681 and German troops were to play a notable if subordinate part in allthe main war theatres of the West throughout the period: what is more,many officers and their best leadersCharles of Lorraine, George of Hesse-Darmstadt, Lewis of Baden, Eugene of Savoywere formed in the hardschool of the Balkan campaigns, the greatest common enterprise of theImperial princes since the days of Charles V.1 Inevitably, however, as wasalways crystal clear to the managers of French policy, this crusadeweakened the Imperial contribution to anti-French coalitions. To thesethe Austrian Habsburg as such had also become a principal party in1673, but the siege of Vienna had reintroduced a conflict of prioritiesbetween the House of Austria and the Habsburg as emperor (ch. xvra).Hence

bromley_the new cambridge modern history, 1970 - the rise of great britain russia 1688-1725

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