britanico.evangelista.magcale.sy amalgamation
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social psychology paperTRANSCRIPT
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Amalgamation 1
Amalgamation: An Analysis of Filipino Interracial Relationships
Camille Astrid O. Britanico
Riel E. Evangelista
Jamie Dominique U. Magcale
Karoline D. Sy
Ateneo de Manila University
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ABSTRACT
In contemporary Philippines, there exist certain notions regarding interracial
relationships. This is prevalent even in the history of the Philippines, wherein colonial
takeover of the country was still in effect. The positive and negative issues of having an
interracial relationship is similar to any ordinary relationship, although there are some
differences such as, cultural differences, racial discrimination and prejudice. Though some
prejudice about interracial relations, interracial relationships are treated with disdain and
disapproval. There is also an aspect of gender discrimination concerning interracial
relationships. Specifically, Filipinas are treated negatively as compared to Filipino men who
are in a relationship of a different race. All in all, there are numerous social theories that can
be applied to the phenomenon of interracial relationships that is present in the Philippine
context.
Keywords: interracial relationships, interracial marriages, social psychology
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Amalgamation:
An Analysis of Filipino Interracial Relationships
As the world grows ever more conscious of the endless possibilities brought about by
globalization, connecting and reaching out to people belonging to diverse races and cultures
have become immensely easier. Add to that the booming tourism industry and the rising
number of media depicting cross-cultural images and interactions , it is no wonder that
society is generally becoming more accepting of interracial relations. So much so, that there
has even been an observed increase in interracial relationships and marriages. The term
interracial relationships pertains to couples whose other half is of a different race
(Donovan, 2004). In the United States alone, it was reported in 2010 that one in ten
heterosexual marriages were interracial, while 18% of unmarried heterosexual couples and
21% of unmarried same-sex couples were interracial (Jayson, 2012). And in 2004, it was
reported that over 72% of Filipinos living abroad were engaged in an interracial marriage
(NSO, 2008).
The growing prevalence of interracial relationships has been identified by many
scholars as indications of the movement towards racial equality and intergroup relations
within a specific society (Kreager, 2008; Qian & Lichter, 2007). This attribution is due to the
fact that classic assimilation theories suggest a strong correlation between interracial
relationships and group assimilation and the erosion of barriers to social mobility (Kreager,
2008, p. 887). In relation to this, the social identity theory, which states that ones
membership to a specific group and the attributions that comes with being part of this group
are part of ones self-concept, and thus, brings about a sense of awareness and competition
towards groups that one is not part of (i.e. the outgroup), also accounts for the links
between interracial relationships, racial equality, and intergroup relations (Macapagal,
Ofreneo, Montiel, & Nolasco, 2013). As more and more people of different races mingle,
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interact, and form relationships with one another, the distinction between ones ingroup and
the outgroup/s becomes less and less concrete, and the perception of differences between
the racial groups become less clear and distinct.
Furthermore, according to Johnson and Jacobson (2004), prior experiences of
interracial contact significantly relates to approving attitudes toward interracial relationships
and marriages. In relation to this, Zajonc (1968) stated that repeated exposure can lead to
liking (Macapagal et al., 2013). As one becomes familiar and close even with people of
different nationalities, there is a higher possibility for that individual to approve, and maybe
even engage in, an interracial relationship. Additionally, the social constructionist approach
can also explain this. This approach proposes that how we view the things around us is
greatly affected by our personal interactions (Burr, 1998, as cited in Macapagal et al., 2013).
Ergo, if an individuals experiences predominantly positive encounters with people of
different races, that person will most likely develop a positive perspective towards interracial
relationships. This is also supported by Nahenow and Lawtons (1975) study where findings
suggest that people of different races and ages who were within close proximity to each other
were more likely to develop friendship (as cited in Macapagal et al., 2013). Similarly,
mainstream medias constant positive portrayal of interracial relationships as seen in shows
like Modern Family, Greys Anatomy, House, Big Bang Theory and How I Met Your Mother
also contributed to the alteration of traditional depictions of interracial relationships.
Socio-demographic variables also influence interracial marriages. Studies show that
age, gender, and education are the principal factors regarding partner selection (Liu, 2008;
Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013; Torngren, 2011). With regard to the factor of age in
relation to interracial coupling, Yancey (2002), and Joyner and Kao (2005) propose that
younger people are more prone to be involved in interracial relationships (as cited in Seshadri
& Knudson-Martin, 2013). Gender also holds quite an influence on the phenomenon of
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interracial relationships among Asian Americans as it seems that the women have a higher
propensity of having Whites as husbands, in comparison to the Asian American mens
propensity of having an interracial marriage (Alba & Nee, 2003; Fujino, 1997; Jacobs &
Labov 2002; Lee & Fernandez, 1998; Liang & Ito, 1999; Mok, 1999; Rosenfeld, 2001, as
cited in Liu, 2008). This may have been caused by negative attributions linked to Asian males
shown by the media, and the impression that they are weak compared to Whites (Constable,
2003; Liang & Ito, 1999; Tucker & Mitchell-Kernan, 1995, as cited in Liu, 2008). Asian
females, on the other hand, are perceived to be beautiful by White males because they are
illustrated as embodiments of certain characteristics that Whites consider to be essential for a
partner. These characteristics include conventionality, loyalty, and submissiveness
(Constable, 2003; Nemoto, 2006, as cited in Liu, 2008). On top of that, high educational
attainment often translates into breaking racial barriers. Hence, having a greater possibility of
interracial marriage (Jacobs and Labov, 2002; Kalmijn, 1998; Qian, 1997; Tucker and
Mitchell-Kernan, 1995 as cited in Liu, 2008). Also, studies have shown that Asian males
with Caucasian wives holds the highest SES compared to other couplings, in relation to
employment, educational attainment, and income. Davis (1941) and Merton (1941) stated that
this can be explained by the status exchange theory, which suggest an exchange of
socioeconomic status for racial status. Having formed this when miscegenation was still
frowned upon and considered unconventional, Davis and Merton indicate that such
phenomenon allows a bargain between partners, an exchange to perpetuate elevation or
compensation of either socioeconomic status or racial status. For example, an African
American man, possessing high SES marries a Caucasian woman of a lower SES. Using this
scenario, we can see that somehow, having a high SES allowed the man to trade for a higher
social status. Contrarily, the Caucasian woman is bargaining her racial status for a higher
SES by marrying said African American man. During the time of this theorys conception,
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however, data was very hard to find. Be that as it may, Davis and Mertons theory have been
supported by several contemporary studies on interracial relationships (Fu, 2001; Kalmijn,
1993; Qian, 1997; as cited in Liu, 2008). It is important to note, however, that some studies
show that interracial couples are more susceptible to separation than couples of similar race
(Sossah, 2012). This may be due to, in part, the difference in cultural backgrounds, as
interracial couples tend to have a harder time in relating to one another which plays a
significant role in maintaining relationships.
Additionally, people in interracial relationships are said to be aware of differences,
and are curious of other differences that are still unknown (Seshadri & Knudson-Martin,
2013). This can be again attributed to the social identity theory, as deriving a part of ones
identity increases ones awareness of the characteristics by which their ingroup is represented
by. Thus, because of the heightened awareness of ingroup characteristics, one also becomes
more aware of characteristics that are different from those of the ingroup, i.e. characteristics
of the outgroups or other races (Macapagal et al., 2013). Moreover, in relation to social
representation, the curiosity involved in knowing about other differences may be an
indication of the need to be in the know of other socially shared ideas that one is not aware
of (Macapagal et al., 2013). Personally reconciling issues that may arise because of said
differences may improve closeness as it seems that communication, especially about issues
and differences within and without the relationship, is very vital (Llerena-Quinn &
Bacigalupe, 2009, as cited in Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013). This is similar to the
conflict resolution theory of conciliation, wherein one of the two parties, in this case one
person in the relationship takes small steps in reconciliation to avoid anymore
misunderstanding. The means employed may need and at the same time, enrich
commitment, intentionality, and secure attachment (Gaines & Agnew, 2003; Ting-Toomey,
2009; Troy et al., 2006, as cited in Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013). Similarities and
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equalitarianism can also bring forth success in interracial relationships (Yancey & Lewis,
2009, as cited in Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013). Despite the clash of opposing cultures
in interracial couples, having a sense of openness to each others cultures can also help in
maintaining the relationship and this will soon foster similarity between the two, like any
other type of relationship. Moreover, partners who treat each other as equals, regardless of
each others race, will more likely have a prosperous relationship.
Given all of these, this paper, through the help of the different lenses of social
psychology, aims to unravel the social issues surrounding interracial relationships,
particularly gender issues, in the Filipino context.
Interracial relationships and marriages in the Philippines date back to the countrys
colonial period, as many Filipinos married local settlers of different descents, including
Spaniards, Chinese, Indians, and Muslims (Root, 1997, as cited in Nadal, 2011). Moreover,
Nadal (2008) argues that Filipinos primarily engage in interracial relationships in order to
gain higher social status, envy, or respect (Nadal, 2011). Previous literature also suggests that
this may be attributed to the past colonization of the Philippines of the Spanish and
Americans (Nadal, 2008, as cited in Nadal, 2011). Hence, this exhibits the colonial mentality
of Filipinos where they use the norm of basing their standard of beauty on the appearance of
the colonizers while viewing their own physical appearance as inferior (Nadal, 2011). Such
colonial mentality may have propelled Filipinos to marry a person of a different descent so as
to improve their own social status, and also gain envy or respect.
Back in the colonial land, however, a different atmosphere was set for interracial
relationships and marriages, particularly those involving Filipinos and Americans. During the
20s and 30s, aside from anti-interracial marriage laws, an anti-Filipino mindset also
became pervasive in California as Filipino men were viewed as relationship adversaries for
Whites (Nadal, 2011). The proliferation of this sentiment was caused by three things: 1.)
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White women expressed interest towards Filipinos because they think that they are not as
sexist as the Whites, 2.) Filipinos courted Caucasian women as there were no Filipinas
around, and 3.) during the Great Depression, when unemployment was rampant, the Whites
developed this irrational perception that Filipinos were stealing their jobs (Guevarra, 2008, as
cited in Nadal, 2011). This sentiment, rooted in jealousy and perceived injustice, bred not
only hate, but also negative stereotypes and discrimination for Filipinos. It was only in 1933,
when the California Supreme Court released a mandate stating that Filipinos can now be
allowed to marry Whites and Mexicans, that this issue was solved. Looking at this, we can
see how arbitration contributed to solving the conflict between the Filipinos and the Whites
(Myers, 2008, as cited in Macapagal et al., 2013). The court order released, first and
foremost, abolished anti-miscegenation laws imposed on Filipinos. However, the effect of the
mandate transcends the borders of the courtroom as well, as it somehow allows the Filipinos
to assert themselves as the Whites equal, especially in the marriage field. Conversely, this
also makes the Whites see Filipinos as their equals, particularly in the dating game. Ergo,
court intervention also helped in resolving the social dilemma that was present during this
time.
Formal restrictions to interracial marriage have long been eradicated in the United
States and in other parts of the world (Schuman et al., 1997, as cited in Kreager, 2008).
Despite this, however, implicit restrictions on interracial relationships still seem to exist.
Subtle expressions of disapproval from others toward interracial couples include awkward
glances, under-the-breath comments, head shaking, expressions of disbelief or verbal
intimidation (Childs, 2005; Dalmage, 2000, as cited in Kreager, 2008, p. 891). In a study by
Lewandowski and Jackson (2001), they discovered that Caucasian men who marry African
American women are perceived as weak and have less capacity for success, while African
American men who marry Caucasian women are seen as more liberal, and have a weak grasp
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on their racial identity. Looking at this in the Filipino context, one can observe the same
expression of implicit restrictions towards Filipinos in interracial relationships; however,
these informal restrictions seem to be gender biased. For example, up until now, Filipinas
involved in interracial relationships, especially with Caucasian men, are stigmatized with
labels like prostitutes and mail order brides (Ignacio, 2005). In contrast, Filipino men who are
able to marry people of another race, especially those of European or American descent, are
put on pedestals, backed up by common Filipino exclamations like, Ang lakas! Such
discrepancy in reactions, relative to the gender of the Filipino involved in interracial
relationships may be a product of portrayals in Filipino mainstream media where interracial
relationships involving Filipinos, especially Filipinas, are used as comic relief, like the ones
shown in movies such as Sisterakas. Research has found that these stereotypes can lead
interracial couples to experience anxiety, insecurity, guilt, anger, depression, and identity
conflict. These experiences seem to arise due to racism and external pressures from society
(Kibbler & Shinew, 2002, as cited in Sossah, 2012). Because of this, interracial couples may
tend to avoid public displays of affection so as to avoid encountering such expressions and to
avoid the negative experiences. In fact, quantitative research in the United States has shown
that interracial couples are less likely to participate in public displays of affection as
compared with their interracial counterparts (Vaquera & Kao, 2005, as cited in Kreager,
2008). Data concerning Filipino interracial relationships concerning this, however, is not
readily available.
Nonetheless, the degradation of Filipinas, does not always occur whenever they are
involved in interracial relationships. When the husbands were asked why they chose to marry
Filipinas, they said that it was because they made great wives. And such image is what most
Filipinas seem to embrace (Ignacio, 2005). Looking at this, we can deduce that somehow, the
minor influence (husband) overpowered the prevailing social representation of Filipinas in
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interracial relationships (negative attributions: prostitute, gold digger).
Racial discrimination and prejudice are also factors that can affect both partners in an
interracial relationship. Blumer (1958) defined prejudice as a response to a sense of group
position (as cited in Trngren, 2011, p. 8). Further, he also states that in order to define a
group position, complex interaction and communication within members of the dominant
group must first occur. In addition, he named prestige, power, skills, numbers and
opportunities as some of the elements that makes possible the formation of group position
(as cited in Trngren, 2011, p. 8). This is related to the concept of ethnocentrism where it is
suggested that in situations relating to intergroup relations, ones own group is considered to
be the center of everything and all others are related and/or dependent on it (Sumner, 1906).
Studies show that intercultural communication sensitivity and multiculturalism are important
predictors of ethnocentrism (Dong, Day, Collaco, 2008). Constant interaction and
communication propagates a sense of oneness as feelings and meanings become defined as
collective image. The fear that the inferior group will challenge the position of the superior
group is one of the essential sentiments that have a bearing on racial prejudice. Research has
shown that judgment of risk is associated to the level of prejudice (Quillian, 1995).
Moreover, some studies have proposed that the majoritys way of perceiving threat is relative
to the population of the minority (Taylor, 1998). Hence, group position theory is also
pertinent to attitudes regarding interracial marriage as interracial relationships defies the
limits set by group position and the limits set by the racial majority and minority. The
trepidation and misgivings with regard to the subordinate of the two overthrowing the more
dominant one is said to be linked to the worry of traversing racial boundaries (Trngren,
2011).
Accounting for all the challenges that cross-cultural couples might face, these
obstacles can be classified in two groups: the normative challenges that represent basically
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the difficulties that most of the couples face (the adjustment to marriage, personality and
gender difference, and parenting) and the cultural challenges (family disapproval, language
barrier, cultural norms, societal disapproval, traditions, and childrens identity) (Donovan,
2004; as cited in Sossah, 2012, p. 106). These normative challenges are universal in the sense
that most, if not all, romantic partnerships involve such challenges. However, these
challenges may be further complicated by cultural factors. A prime example of this is seen in
how Chinese individuals in the Philippines may have difficulties in establishing long-lasting
romantic relationships with native Filipinos due to cultural norms and differences, as the
notion of racial purity (Harris & Trego, 2008, p. 228) is strong within the Chinese
community. This phenomenon is colloquially known as the Great Wall.
Nevertheless, cooperation and communication between partners is instrumental in
overcoming the possible conflicts between interracial couples. In addition, various specialists
have advised behavioral approaches that could also contribute to solving such challenges.
Some of these comprise of good motives for the marriage, common goals, learning about
each others culture, sensitivity to each others needs, understanding for the others culture,
flexibility, solid and positive self image, spirit of adventure, ability to communicate,
commitment to the relationship, and a sense of humor (as cited in Sossah, 2012, p. 107). A
testament to this are prominent personalities like John Estrada and Priscilla Meirelles.
It is safe to conclude that culture plays an important role in the development of
relationships with others, especially with those of a different race. But in the end, love, most
especially consummate love, is a force that can break down barriers, and propel something
perceived to be impossible, possible.
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