Amalgamation 1

Amalgamation: An Analysis of Filipino Interracial Relationships

Camille Astrid O. Britanico

Riel E. Evangelista

Jamie Dominique U. Magcale

Karoline D. Sy

Ateneo de Manila University

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ABSTRACT

In contemporary Philippines, there exist certain notions regarding interracial

relationships. This is prevalent even in the history of the Philippines, wherein colonial

takeover of the country was still in effect. The positive and negative issues of having an

interracial relationship is similar to any ordinary relationship, although there are some

differences such as, cultural differences, racial discrimination and prejudice. Though some

prejudice about interracial relations, interracial relationships are treated with disdain and

disapproval. There is also an aspect of gender discrimination concerning interracial

relationships. Specifically, Filipinas are treated negatively as compared to Filipino men who

are in a relationship of a different race. All in all, there are numerous social theories that can

be applied to the phenomenon of interracial relationships that is present in the Philippine

context.

Keywords: interracial relationships, interracial marriages, social psychology

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Amalgamation:

An Analysis of Filipino Interracial Relationships

As the world grows ever more conscious of the endless possibilities brought about by

globalization, connecting and reaching out to people belonging to diverse races and cultures

have become immensely easier. Add to that the booming tourism industry and the rising

number of media depicting cross-cultural images and interactions , it is no wonder that

society is generally becoming more accepting of interracial relations. So much so, that there

has even been an observed increase in interracial relationships and marriages. The term

interracial relationships pertains to couples whose other half is of a different race

(Donovan, 2004). In the United States alone, it was reported in 2010 that one in ten

heterosexual marriages were interracial, while 18% of unmarried heterosexual couples and

21% of unmarried same-sex couples were interracial (Jayson, 2012). And in 2004, it was

reported that over 72% of Filipinos living abroad were engaged in an interracial marriage

(NSO, 2008).

The growing prevalence of interracial relationships has been identified by many

scholars as indications of the movement towards racial equality and intergroup relations

within a specific society (Kreager, 2008; Qian & Lichter, 2007). This attribution is due to the

fact that classic assimilation theories suggest a strong correlation between interracial

relationships and group assimilation and the erosion of barriers to social mobility (Kreager,

2008, p. 887). In relation to this, the social identity theory, which states that ones

membership to a specific group and the attributions that comes with being part of this group

are part of ones self-concept, and thus, brings about a sense of awareness and competition

towards groups that one is not part of (i.e. the outgroup), also accounts for the links

between interracial relationships, racial equality, and intergroup relations (Macapagal,

Ofreneo, Montiel, & Nolasco, 2013). As more and more people of different races mingle,

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interact, and form relationships with one another, the distinction between ones ingroup and

the outgroup/s becomes less and less concrete, and the perception of differences between

the racial groups become less clear and distinct.

Furthermore, according to Johnson and Jacobson (2004), prior experiences of

interracial contact significantly relates to approving attitudes toward interracial relationships

and marriages. In relation to this, Zajonc (1968) stated that repeated exposure can lead to

liking (Macapagal et al., 2013). As one becomes familiar and close even with people of

different nationalities, there is a higher possibility for that individual to approve, and maybe

even engage in, an interracial relationship. Additionally, the social constructionist approach

can also explain this. This approach proposes that how we view the things around us is

greatly affected by our personal interactions (Burr, 1998, as cited in Macapagal et al., 2013).

Ergo, if an individuals experiences predominantly positive encounters with people of

different races, that person will most likely develop a positive perspective towards interracial

relationships. This is also supported by Nahenow and Lawtons (1975) study where findings

suggest that people of different races and ages who were within close proximity to each other

were more likely to develop friendship (as cited in Macapagal et al., 2013). Similarly,

mainstream medias constant positive portrayal of interracial relationships as seen in shows

like Modern Family, Greys Anatomy, House, Big Bang Theory and How I Met Your Mother

also contributed to the alteration of traditional depictions of interracial relationships.

Socio-demographic variables also influence interracial marriages. Studies show that

age, gender, and education are the principal factors regarding partner selection (Liu, 2008;

Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013; Torngren, 2011). With regard to the factor of age in

relation to interracial coupling, Yancey (2002), and Joyner and Kao (2005) propose that

younger people are more prone to be involved in interracial relationships (as cited in Seshadri

& Knudson-Martin, 2013). Gender also holds quite an influence on the phenomenon of

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interracial relationships among Asian Americans as it seems that the women have a higher

propensity of having Whites as husbands, in comparison to the Asian American mens

propensity of having an interracial marriage (Alba & Nee, 2003; Fujino, 1997; Jacobs &

Labov 2002; Lee & Fernandez, 1998; Liang & Ito, 1999; Mok, 1999; Rosenfeld, 2001, as

cited in Liu, 2008). This may have been caused by negative attributions linked to Asian males

shown by the media, and the impression that they are weak compared to Whites (Constable,

2003; Liang & Ito, 1999; Tucker & Mitchell-Kernan, 1995, as cited in Liu, 2008). Asian

females, on the other hand, are perceived to be beautiful by White males because they are

illustrated as embodiments of certain characteristics that Whites consider to be essential for a

partner. These characteristics include conventionality, loyalty, and submissiveness

(Constable, 2003; Nemoto, 2006, as cited in Liu, 2008). On top of that, high educational

attainment often translates into breaking racial barriers. Hence, having a greater possibility of

interracial marriage (Jacobs and Labov, 2002; Kalmijn, 1998; Qian, 1997; Tucker and

Mitchell-Kernan, 1995 as cited in Liu, 2008). Also, studies have shown that Asian males

with Caucasian wives holds the highest SES compared to other couplings, in relation to

employment, educational attainment, and income. Davis (1941) and Merton (1941) stated that

this can be explained by the status exchange theory, which suggest an exchange of

socioeconomic status for racial status. Having formed this when miscegenation was still

frowned upon and considered unconventional, Davis and Merton indicate that such

phenomenon allows a bargain between partners, an exchange to perpetuate elevation or

compensation of either socioeconomic status or racial status. For example, an African

American man, possessing high SES marries a Caucasian woman of a lower SES. Using this

scenario, we can see that somehow, having a high SES allowed the man to trade for a higher

social status. Contrarily, the Caucasian woman is bargaining her racial status for a higher

SES by marrying said African American man. During the time of this theorys conception,

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however, data was very hard to find. Be that as it may, Davis and Mertons theory have been

supported by several contemporary studies on interracial relationships (Fu, 2001; Kalmijn,

1993; Qian, 1997; as cited in Liu, 2008). It is important to note, however, that some studies

show that interracial couples are more susceptible to separation than couples of similar race

(Sossah, 2012). This may be due to, in part, the difference in cultural backgrounds, as

interracial couples tend to have a harder time in relating to one another which plays a

significant role in maintaining relationships.

Additionally, people in interracial relationships are said to be aware of differences,

and are curious of other differences that are still unknown (Seshadri & Knudson-Martin,

2013). This can be again attributed to the social identity theory, as deriving a part of ones

identity increases ones awareness of the characteristics by which their ingroup is represented

by. Thus, because of the heightened awareness of ingroup characteristics, one also becomes

more aware of characteristics that are different from those of the ingroup, i.e. characteristics

of the outgroups or other races (Macapagal et al., 2013). Moreover, in relation to social

representation, the curiosity involved in knowing about other differences may be an

indication of the need to be in the know of other socially shared ideas that one is not aware

of (Macapagal et al., 2013). Personally reconciling issues that may arise because of said

differences may improve closeness as it seems that communication, especially about issues

and differences within and without the relationship, is very vital (Llerena-Quinn &

Bacigalupe, 2009, as cited in Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013). This is similar to the

conflict resolution theory of conciliation, wherein one of the two parties, in this case one

person in the relationship takes small steps in reconciliation to avoid anymore

misunderstanding. The means employed may need and at the same time, enrich

commitment, intentionality, and secure attachment (Gaines & Agnew, 2003; Ting-Toomey,

2009; Troy et al., 2006, as cited in Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013). Similarities and

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equalitarianism can also bring forth success in interracial relationships (Yancey & Lewis,

2009, as cited in Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013). Despite the clash of opposing cultures

in interracial couples, having a sense of openness to each others cultures can also help in

maintaining the relationship and this will soon foster similarity between the two, like any

other type of relationship. Moreover, partners who treat each other as equals, regardless of

each others race, will more likely have a prosperous relationship.

Given all of these, this paper, through the help of the different lenses of social

psychology, aims to unravel the social issues surrounding interracial relationships,

particularly gender issues, in the Filipino context.

Interracial relationships and marriages in the Philippines date back to the countrys

colonial period, as many Filipinos married local settlers of different descents, including

Spaniards, Chinese, Indians, and Muslims (Root, 1997, as cited in Nadal, 2011). Moreover,

Nadal (2008) argues that Filipinos primarily engage in interracial relationships in order to

gain higher social status, envy, or respect (Nadal, 2011). Previous literature also suggests that

this may be attributed to the past colonization of the Philippines of the Spanish and

Americans (Nadal, 2008, as cited in Nadal, 2011). Hence, this exhibits the colonial mentality

of Filipinos where they use the norm of basing their standard of beauty on the appearance of

the colonizers while viewing their own physical appearance as inferior (Nadal, 2011). Such

colonial mentality may have propelled Filipinos to marry a person of a different descent so as

to improve their own social status, and also gain envy or respect.

Back in the colonial land, however, a different atmosphere was set for interracial

relationships and marriages, particularly those involving Filipinos and Americans. During the

20s and 30s, aside from anti-interracial marriage laws, an anti-Filipino mindset also

became pervasive in California as Filipino men were viewed as relationship adversaries for

Whites (Nadal, 2011). The proliferation of this sentiment was caused by three things: 1.)

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White women expressed interest towards Filipinos because they think that they are not as

sexist as the Whites, 2.) Filipinos courted Caucasian women as there were no Filipinas

around, and 3.) during the Great Depression, when unemployment was rampant, the Whites

developed this irrational perception that Filipinos were stealing their jobs (Guevarra, 2008, as

cited in Nadal, 2011). This sentiment, rooted in jealousy and perceived injustice, bred not

only hate, but also negative stereotypes and discrimination for Filipinos. It was only in 1933,

when the California Supreme Court released a mandate stating that Filipinos can now be

allowed to marry Whites and Mexicans, that this issue was solved. Looking at this, we can

see how arbitration contributed to solving the conflict between the Filipinos and the Whites

(Myers, 2008, as cited in Macapagal et al., 2013). The court order released, first and

foremost, abolished anti-miscegenation laws imposed on Filipinos. However, the effect of the

mandate transcends the borders of the courtroom as well, as it somehow allows the Filipinos

to assert themselves as the Whites equal, especially in the marriage field. Conversely, this

also makes the Whites see Filipinos as their equals, particularly in the dating game. Ergo,

court intervention also helped in resolving the social dilemma that was present during this

time.

Formal restrictions to interracial marriage have long been eradicated in the United

States and in other parts of the world (Schuman et al., 1997, as cited in Kreager, 2008).

Despite this, however, implicit restrictions on interracial relationships still seem to exist.

Subtle expressions of disapproval from others toward interracial couples include awkward

glances, under-the-breath comments, head shaking, expressions of disbelief or verbal

intimidation (Childs, 2005; Dalmage, 2000, as cited in Kreager, 2008, p. 891). In a study by

Lewandowski and Jackson (2001), they discovered that Caucasian men who marry African

American women are perceived as weak and have less capacity for success, while African

American men who marry Caucasian women are seen as more liberal, and have a weak grasp

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on their racial identity. Looking at this in the Filipino context, one can observe the same

expression of implicit restrictions towards Filipinos in interracial relationships; however,

these informal restrictions seem to be gender biased. For example, up until now, Filipinas

involved in interracial relationships, especially with Caucasian men, are stigmatized with

labels like prostitutes and mail order brides (Ignacio, 2005). In contrast, Filipino men who are

able to marry people of another race, especially those of European or American descent, are

put on pedestals, backed up by common Filipino exclamations like, Ang lakas! Such

discrepancy in reactions, relative to the gender of the Filipino involved in interracial

relationships may be a product of portrayals in Filipino mainstream media where interracial

relationships involving Filipinos, especially Filipinas, are used as comic relief, like the ones

shown in movies such as Sisterakas. Research has found that these stereotypes can lead

interracial couples to experience anxiety, insecurity, guilt, anger, depression, and identity

conflict. These experiences seem to arise due to racism and external pressures from society

(Kibbler & Shinew, 2002, as cited in Sossah, 2012). Because of this, interracial couples may

tend to avoid public displays of affection so as to avoid encountering such expressions and to

avoid the negative experiences. In fact, quantitative research in the United States has shown

that interracial couples are less likely to participate in public displays of affection as

compared with their interracial counterparts (Vaquera & Kao, 2005, as cited in Kreager,

2008). Data concerning Filipino interracial relationships concerning this, however, is not

readily available.

Nonetheless, the degradation of Filipinas, does not always occur whenever they are

involved in interracial relationships. When the husbands were asked why they chose to marry

Filipinas, they said that it was because they made great wives. And such image is what most

Filipinas seem to embrace (Ignacio, 2005). Looking at this, we can deduce that somehow, the

minor influence (husband) overpowered the prevailing social representation of Filipinas in

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interracial relationships (negative attributions: prostitute, gold digger).

Racial discrimination and prejudice are also factors that can affect both partners in an

interracial relationship. Blumer (1958) defined prejudice as a response to a sense of group

position (as cited in Trngren, 2011, p. 8). Further, he also states that in order to define a

group position, complex interaction and communication within members of the dominant

group must first occur. In addition, he named prestige, power, skills, numbers and

opportunities as some of the elements that makes possible the formation of group position

(as cited in Trngren, 2011, p. 8). This is related to the concept of ethnocentrism where it is

suggested that in situations relating to intergroup relations, ones own group is considered to

be the center of everything and all others are related and/or dependent on it (Sumner, 1906).

Studies show that intercultural communication sensitivity and multiculturalism are important

predictors of ethnocentrism (Dong, Day, Collaco, 2008). Constant interaction and

communication propagates a sense of oneness as feelings and meanings become defined as

collective image. The fear that the inferior group will challenge the position of the superior

group is one of the essential sentiments that have a bearing on racial prejudice. Research has

shown that judgment of risk is associated to the level of prejudice (Quillian, 1995).

Moreover, some studies have proposed that the majoritys way of perceiving threat is relative

to the population of the minority (Taylor, 1998). Hence, group position theory is also

pertinent to attitudes regarding interracial marriage as interracial relationships defies the

limits set by group position and the limits set by the racial majority and minority. The

trepidation and misgivings with regard to the subordinate of the two overthrowing the more

dominant one is said to be linked to the worry of traversing racial boundaries (Trngren,

2011).

Accounting for all the challenges that cross-cultural couples might face, these

obstacles can be classified in two groups: the normative challenges that represent basically

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the difficulties that most of the couples face (the adjustment to marriage, personality and

gender difference, and parenting) and the cultural challenges (family disapproval, language

barrier, cultural norms, societal disapproval, traditions, and childrens identity) (Donovan,

2004; as cited in Sossah, 2012, p. 106). These normative challenges are universal in the sense

that most, if not all, romantic partnerships involve such challenges. However, these

challenges may be further complicated by cultural factors. A prime example of this is seen in

how Chinese individuals in the Philippines may have difficulties in establishing long-lasting

romantic relationships with native Filipinos due to cultural norms and differences, as the

notion of racial purity (Harris & Trego, 2008, p. 228) is strong within the Chinese

community. This phenomenon is colloquially known as the Great Wall.

Nevertheless, cooperation and communication between partners is instrumental in

overcoming the possible conflicts between interracial couples. In addition, various specialists

have advised behavioral approaches that could also contribute to solving such challenges.

Some of these comprise of good motives for the marriage, common goals, learning about

each others culture, sensitivity to each others needs, understanding for the others culture,

flexibility, solid and positive self image, spirit of adventure, ability to communicate,

commitment to the relationship, and a sense of humor (as cited in Sossah, 2012, p. 107). A

testament to this are prominent personalities like John Estrada and Priscilla Meirelles.

It is safe to conclude that culture plays an important role in the development of

relationships with others, especially with those of a different race. But in the end, love, most

especially consummate love, is a force that can break down barriers, and propel something

perceived to be impossible, possible.

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