Brinkley, Chapter 19.2 Notes

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Brinkley

Chapter 19

Part II

Imperialism

The Causes of Imperialism

Imperialism - The policy by which strong nations extend their political, military, and economic control over weaker nations.

Several developments shifted American attention to lands across the seas.

1. Subjugating the American Indians provided experience of exerting colonial control over dependent people.

2. The supposed "closing of the frontier" produced fears that natural resources would soon dwindle.

3. Depression of the 1890s encouraged some businessmen to look for new markets abroad.

Colonial economies are extractive economies - the imperial country

extracted raw materials from the colony and

shipped them to the home country.

The New Manifest Destiny4. Bitter social protests (Populists, labor, women) led some politicians to urge a more aggressive foreign policy as an outlet for frustrations that would otherwise destabilize domestic life.

5. Europeans carved Africa among themselves and Americans were afraid they were "behind".

6. Darwin's theories justified imperialism.

7. Alfred T. Mahan urged the US government to build a great navy in his work, The Influence of Sea Power upon History.

Certain nations and races were superior to others and therefore were destined to rule over inferior peoples and cultures.

Becoming A World Power1867 - Secretary of State William Seward purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million

1895 - U.S. businessmen saw Latin America as a natural place to expand trade and investments.

Secretary of State James Blaine preached the benefits of economic cooperation to delegates of

17 Latin American nations.

Constructed the Pan-American Highway System that runs through

North America.

By 1900, the U.S. had the 3rd largest navy in the world

Soon, entrepreneurs looked to the Pacific to expand their capitalist

ventures

Becoming A World Power

In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry sailed a fleet of American warships into Tokyo, Japan.

The Japanese thought his ships were "giant dragons puffing smoke"

Perry showered the Japanese emperor with lavish gifts

Japan realized since they closed themselves off for such a long time, they were far behind the world militarily and wanted to build up their military.

Perry negotiated the treaty of Amity and Commerce that opened Japan to trade with America

Perry's journey set a precedent for further expansion across the Pacific Ocean

Not This One!

HawaiiHawaii and other Pacific Islands were coveted by the US as feasible stopping points to China.

Officers of the US Navy looked at Pearl Harbor as a possible permanent base for US ships.

The growing number of Americans who had taken up residence on the in Hawaii increased American presence.

In 1810, King Kamehameha I established dominance, welcomed American traders and helped them develop a thriving trade between Hawaii and China.

Missionaries began settling in the early 19th century.

William Hooper was the 1st American to buy land & establish a sugar plantation.

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HawaiiArrival of missionaries and planters devastated Hawaiian society. They brought diseases that killed Hawaiians. Missionaries replaced native religion w/ Christianity.

Other settlers introduced firearms, liquor, and a commercial economy - eroding Hawaiian society.

By the 1840s, American planters spread throughout the islands; and American settler, G.P. Judd became Prime Minister of Hawaii under King Kamehameha III, who agreed to establish a constitutional monarchy.

In 1887, the US negotiated a treaty with Hawaii permitting it to open Pearl Harbor. By then, growing sugar for export to American became the basis of the Hawaiian economy - as a result of an 1875 agreement allowing Hawaiian sugar to enter the US without a tariff.

The American-dominated sugar plantation system displaced native Hawaiians from their lands and relied heavily on Asian immigrants, whom the Americans considered more reliable and more docile than the natives.

HawaiiHawaiians did not accept their subordination without protest.

In 1891 they elevated Queen Liliuokalani to the throne. She set out to challenge the growing American control of

the islands. She only remained in power for 2 years.

In 1890, the US eliminated the exemption from American tariffs in Hawaiian sugar trade. The result was devastating to the economy of the islands, and American planters concluded the only way for them to recover was to become part of the US and be exempt from tariffs.

In 1893 planters staged a revolution and called upon the US for protection. After a US warship arrived in Honolulu harbor, the Queen yielded her authority.

A provisional government, led by Sanford Dole was quickly established and sent a delegation to DC to negotiate annexation. Congress approved it in 1898.

Controversy Over CubaSince the 1860s, Americans were sympathetic to the Cuban struggle for

independence from Spain led by Jose Marti. "Cuba Libre!"

Problem with Spanish Control over Cuba: By 1897, American entrepreneurs invested $50 million in sugar cane plantations and

other ventures in Cuba. These businessmen saw Cuba as a growing market for

American products.

Sensationalist journalism (jingoism) in the US created the impression that the Spaniards were committing atrocities.

Joseph Pulitzer (New York World) and William Randolph Hearst (New York Journal) were leading newspaper publishers who sent reporters to Cuba to provide accounts of Spanish atrocities on Cubans. Their publications were called the "Yellow Press" because they featured a popular comic-strip character called The Yellow Kid.

Controversy Over Cuba

By 1898, McKinley warned the Spanish to quickly establish peace or the U.S. would take whatever steps it “should deem

necessary to procure this result.”

McKinley formally protested Spain's "uncivilized and inhuman" conduct, causing the Spanish government to offer some reform

but Cubans demanded independence and Spain refused.

Causes of the Spanish American War

1. The de Lome Letter. Described McKinley as a weak and stupid man. Enraged Americans.

2. The American battleship USS Maine blew up in Havana harbor with a loss of more than 260 people. Americans accused (inaccurately) that the Spanish sunk the ship.

“Remember the Maine!”

3. American Imperialist Ambitions. Keep up with European Imperial Powers

War hysteria swept the nation and Congress unanimously appropriated $50 million for military preparations. McKinley still hoped to avoid conflict. But others in his administration, particularly his Secretary of War, Theodore Roosevelt were

clamoring for war. In March 1898, at McKinley's

request, Spain agreed to stop the fighting but refused to negotiate with the rebels and reserved the right to resume hostilities at its

discretion.

That satisfied neither public opinion nor Congress. On April 25, McKinley asked for and received a declaration of war against

Spain.

Causes of the Spanish American War

Sec. of State John Hay called the Spanish-American war "a splendid little war" because the war onl lasted a few months because Cuban rebels already weakened Spanish

resistance, making the American intervention simply a "mopping-up" exercise.

"A Splendid Little War"

1. At the center of the fighting were the Rough Riders led by Theodore Roosevelt who resigned his cabinet position to be involved in the war. = WAR HERO

His fame rested in large part on his role in leading a bold reckless charge up Kettle Hill directly into the face of Spanish guns. Roosevelt emerged untouched but lost over a hundred soldiers.

Significance:

2. U.S. Marines captured Guantanamo Bay.

Senator Henry M. Teller (CO) proposed an amendment to the US declaration of war against Spain proclaiming the US would not establish permanent control over Cuba. Teller Amendment - The US "hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except for pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island to its people." The US occupied Cuba until 1902.

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Puerto Rico and the United StatesPuerto Ricans resisted Spanish rule like the Cubans did. Like Cuba, the Spanish made only minor reforms but no independence.

But before the changes had any chance to take effect, control of Puerto Rico shifted to the US during the Spanish American War. The Foraker Act ended military rule and established a formal colonial government.

Agitation for independence continued, and in 1917, Congress passed the Jones-Shaforth Act- declaring Puerto Rico as US territory & made all Puerto Ricans American citizens.

The Puerto Rican sugar industry flourished as it took advantage of the American market that was now open to it without tariffs.

As in Hawaii, Americans from the mainland established large sugar plantations.

The growing emphasis on sugar as a cash crop, and the transformation of many Puerto Rican farmers into paid laborers, led to a reduction in the growing of food for the island and greater reliance on imported goods.

Seizing the PhilippinesAssistant Secretary of Navy Theodore Roosevelt strengthened the navy's Pacific

fleet and instructed Commander Commodore George Dewey to attack Spanish naval forces in the Philippines, a colony of Spain.

Dewey completely destroyed the Spanish in Manila. Several months later, after the arrival of an American expeditionary force, the Spanish surrendered to the US

While Dewey was defeating the Spanish Navy, Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo were overpowering the Spanish army.

Spain realized the war was fruitless. On August 12, an armistice ended the war.

Terms of armistice: Spain recognized the independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and the Pacific Island of Guam to the US, and accepted continued American occupation of Manila pending the final disposition of the Philippines.

The Treaty of Paris, 1898 officially ended the war.

The Philippines QuestionMckinley appeared to reluctantly to support the annexation of the Philippines. But, according to his own accounts, he believed there were no other acceptable alternatives.

1. Returning the Philippines to Spain would be cowardly and dishonorable.

2. Turning them over to other imperialist powers would be bad business.

3. Granting them independence would be irresponsible because the Filipinos were unfit for self government.

The only thing left to do was to take all Filipinos, educate them, and uplift and Christianize them.

Why?

4. McKinley's supporters reasoned the islands were a valuable stepping stone to trade in China and warned that if the U.S. gave up the Philippines, other nations would take control.

Treaty of ParisSigned December 1898

American negotiators startled the Spanish by demanding that they also cede The Philippines to the US but an American offer of $20 million for the islands softened

their resistance.

Imperialist resistance in the US was fierce.

During debate over ratification of the treaty, the Anti-Imperialist League, created by wealthy Bostonians and New Yorkers, rose to oppose the acquisition of the Philippines.

Members included Mark Twain, Samuel Gompers, William

Jennings Bryan, and Andrew Carnegie.

Anti-Imperialist League

Believed imperialism was immoral - a repudiation of America's commitment to

human freedom.

Others feared "polluting" the American population by introducing "inferior"

Asian races into it.

Industrial workers feared being undercut by cheap labor.

Conservatives worried about the large standing army and entangling foreign

alliances that they believed imperialism would required.

Others feared unwelcome competition in the new territories. Favoring ratification

was an equally varied group.

The strongest argument in favor of annexation was that the US already

possessed the islands.

Favored Imperialism

Exuberant imperialists like TR saw the acquisition of the empire as a way to

reinvigorate the nation.

Some businessmen saw the opportunities to dominate Asian trade.

Most Republicans saw partisan advantages in acquiring valuable new territories through a war fought and won by a Republican administration.

Election of 1900The fate of the treaty remained in doubt for weeks until it received the

unexpected support from William Jennings Bryan

Bryan backed ratification in order to move the issue out of the Senate and make it the subject of a national referendum in the election of 1900. But Bryan gravely miscalculated.

If the election of 1900 was in fact a referendum on the Philippines, it proved beyond doubt that the nation decided in favor of imperialism.

Imperialist ambitions were not the only issues of the campaign. Republicans were beneficiaries of growing prosperity - and also of the colorful personality of their

vice-presidential candidate, hero of San Juan Hill - TR.

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Governing the Colonies

Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico presented relatively few problems. They received territorial status relatively quickly: Hawaii in 1900, Alaska in 1912, and Puerto Rico in 1917. The US Navy took control over Guam.

Cuba was a bigger problem. American military forces, commanded by General Leonard Wood, remained there until 1902 to prepare the island for independence.

When Cuba drafted a constitution that made no mention of the US, Congress responded by passing the Platt Amendment - barred Cuba from making treaties with other nations.

It gave the US the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve independence, life, and property; and required Cuba to permit American naval stations on its territory. The amendment left Cuba with only nominal independence.

The Open Door

The acquisition of the Philippines increased the already strong American

interest in Asia, particularly China.

By 1900, England, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan began to carve up

China among themselves, pressuring the Chinese government for "concessions" that gave them effective control over

various regions of China.

In some cases, they simply seized Chinese territory and claimed it as their own. Many Americans feared that the process would soon cut them out of the China

trade altogether. Within its zone, each power had privileged access to Chinese ports and markets. The U.S. did not have a sphere of influence and was concerned they would be left out of the share of trade in

China.

The Open Door

Eager for a way to advance American interests in China without risking war. McKinley issued a statement saying the US wanted

access to China but no special advantages. "Asking only the open door for ourselves, we are ready to accord the open door to

others."

The next year, Secretary of State John Hay molded that statement into the Open Door Policy.

He asked that each nation with a "sphere of influence" in China allow other nations to trade freely and equally in its sphere. The US would be able to trade with China freely without interference.

Boxer Rebellion

Europe & Japan received the Open Door proposals cooly. Russia openly rejected them; the other powers claimed to accept them in principle but unable to act unless all the other powers agreed.

Hay refused to consider this a rebuff. He boldly announced that all the powers had accepted the principles of the Open Door had scarcely ended when the Boxers, a secret Chinese martial-arts society, launched a bloody revolt against foreigners in China.

The boxers wanted to expel all Western influence in China. In May 1890, Boxers killed and besieged missionaries in China. The entire foreign diplomatic corps took refuge in the British embassy in Peking. A multinational force was sent to China to squash the Boxer Rebellion.

Boxer Rebellion

In August 1900, the multinational force fought its way into Peking and broke the siege.

McKinley and Hay agreed to American participation in quelling the Boxer Rebellion in order to secure a voice in the settlement of the uprising and prevent the partition of China by the European powers.

Hay now won support for his Open Door approach from England and Germany and included the other participating powers to accept compensation from the Chinese for the damages the Boxer Rebellion caused.

Chinese territorial integrity survived only in name, and the US retained access to its lucrative China trade.

America did not want colonies in China, but free trade. This helped the U.S. expand its economic empire by flooding Chinese markets with cheap imports.

Modern Military System

The war with Spain revealed glaring deficiencies in the American military system.

Had the US been fighting a more powerful foe, disaster

might have resulted.

After the war, McKinley appointed Elihu Root, as secretary of war to supervise a major overhaul of the armed forces.

He enlarged the regular army from 25,000 to a maximum of 100,000. He established federal army standards for the National Guard, ensuring that never again would the nation fight a way with volunteer regiments trained

and equipped differently than those in the regular army.

This sparked the creation of a system of officer training schools. In 1903, a general staff (named the Joint Chiefs of Staff) was established to act as military advisers to the secretary of war. As a result, of the new reforms, the US entered

the 20th century with something resembling a modern military system.

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