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PART I: Comparative Political Analysis

1 The Comparative Approach: An Introduction 1

2 Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23

PART II: The State, Development, Democracy, and Authoritarianism

3 The Modern State 46

4 Development and Political Economy 80

5 Democracy and Democratization 111

6 Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 140

PART III: Institutions of Government

7 Constitutions and Constitutional Design 168

8 Legislatures and Legislative Elections 196

9 Executives 224

10 Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Groups 250

PART IV: Politics, Society, and Culture

11 Revolutions and Contention 277

12 Nationalism and National Identity 306

13 Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 332

14 Ideology and Religion in Modern Politics 357

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Brief Contents

PART V: The Comparative-International Nexus

15 Comparative Politics and International Relations 381

PART VI: Country Profi les and Cases

• Advanced Industrialized Democracies

United Kingdom 410

France 426

Germany 441

Japan 455

United States of America 470

• Emerging Polities: The “BRIC” Countries

Brazil 487

Russia 503

India 517

China 531

• Comparisons and Contrasts

Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) 548

Mexico 562

Nigeria 578

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Insights xiiPreface xvMaps of the World xxvi

PART I: Comparative Political Analysis

CHAPTER 1

Th e Comparative Approach:An Introduction 1Asking Why: Research Questions in Comparative

Politics 2Major Questions in Comparative Politics 4Empirical Arguments versus Normative Arguments 6Solving Intellectual Puzzles: A Contemporary Analogy 7

Concepts 8Features of Good Concepts 9Conceptualization 9Operationalizing: From Concepts to Measures 10

Empirical Evidence 11Facts and Evidence 11Cases and Case Studies 12

The Comparative Method 13Variables and Comparison 13The Most-Similar-Systems Design 14The Most-Diff erent-Systems Design 17Comparative Checking 17Within-Case Comparison 19

Is the Study of Politics a Science? The Limits of theComparative Method 19

CHAPTER 2

Th eories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 23Introduction to Theories, Hypotheses, and Evidence 24

Theories 25Hypotheses 25

How Theories Emerge and Are Used 27Types of Evidence 28

Hypothesis Testing 30Correlation 30Causation 32

Critiques: Using Theory and Evidence 38Empirical Critiques: Confi rming Cases and Deviant Cases 38Theoretical Critiques: Improving Theories and

Hypotheses 38

The Challenge of Measurement: Errors, Biases, and Validity 40

Thinking Comparatively: Qualities of Good Analysis and Argumentation 41Step 1: Asking Good Questions: Why? 41Step 2: Hypotheses Testing: Generating Good Hypotheses and

Testing Them Fairly 42Step 3: Balancing Argumentation: Evidence, Originality, and

Meaningfulness 42

PART II: The State, Development,Democracy, and Authoritarianism

CHAPTER 3

Th e Modern State 46Concepts 47

The Modern State 48State Capacity 48Failed States 49The State–Society Relationship 51

Types 51Characteristics of Modern States 52

Bureaucracy 52Impersonality 53Sovereignty 54

Functions of Modern States 54

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Taxation 54Defense 55Policing 55Economic Management 56Investments in Human Capital: Education and Health 57Welfare State Functions 58Infrastructure and Other Public Goods 59

Causes and Eff ects: Why Do States and Welfare States Emerge? 60Why Do States Emerge? 60

Political/Confl ict Theories 60Economic Theories 63Cultural Theories 63Diff usion Theories 66

Why Do Welfare States Emerge? 68Cultural Changes 69Industrial Capitalism 69Mobilization and Political Action 72

THINKING COMPARATIVELY How Did the Spanish State Emerge? 74

CASES IN CONTEXT

The Mexican State and Rule of Law 56State-Led Development in Japan 57The German State: Unifi cation and Welfare 59The State in France 61The State in the United Kingdom 65What Is a Weak State, and Can It Be Changed? The Case of

Nigeria 66

CHAPTER 4

Development and Political Economy 80Concepts 82

Types 83Poverty and Inequality 83Employment and Infl ation 86Social Outcomes and Human Development 87Gender Relations and Racial and Ethnic Identities 88Satisfaction and Happiness 90Cultural Development 90Sustainability 90

Causes and Eff ects 91Institutions: Markets and States 92

Market-Led Development and Neoliberalism 92State-Led Development 94Institutions: Beyond the Markets–States Debate 96

Culture and Development 98Civil Society, Social Capital, and Trust 98Religion 99Value Systems 100

Systems and Structures: International and Domestic 101Domestic Economic Structures and Class Interests 102International Economic Structures and Class Interests 102Geography 103

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Explaining the Development of North and South Korea 105

CASES IN CONTEXT

Did Free Markets Help the United States Get Rich? Will They in the Future? 83

What Explains India’s Recent Growth? 85Does the Global Economy Help or Hurt Developing Nations like

Brazil? 86Why Are Natural Resources Sometimes a Curse? The Nigerian

Case 88Development and Political Economy of Britain 91How Did China Become an Economic Power? 97

CHAPTER 5

Democracy and Democratization 111Concepts 113

Democracy and Democratic Regimes 113Procedural (Minimal) Defi nitions of Democracy 114Substantive Defi nitions of Democracy 115

Regime Change and Democratization 117

Types 118Types of Democracy 118

Representative Democracy 118Direct Democracy 120

Types of Democratization 121Democratic Transitions 121Democratic Consolidation 122

Causes and Eff ects: What Causes Democratization? 122Modernization 123Culture and Democracy 126The International System 127Domestic Institutions 128Agents and Actors: The Role of Individuals and Groups 130Combining Arguments and Theories: Multiple Causes 131

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Is American Democracy a Model? 133

CASES IN CONTEXT

Gradual Democratization in the United Kingdom 121Democratic Consolidation in Brazil 123Is China Destined for Democracy? 124Democracy’s Success in India: What Can We Learn from a

Deviant Case? 125Democratization (Partially) from the Outside in Japan 128Is American Democracy in Trouble? 132

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CHAPTER 6

Authoritarian Regimes and Democratic Breakdown 140Concepts 142

Authoritarianism and Authoritarian Regimes 142Transitions to Authoritarian Regimes 143

Types 143Types of Authoritarianism 143

Totalitarian Regimes 143Theocracies 144Personalistic Dictatorships 145Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes 145Hybrid and Semi-authoritarian Regimes 146

Types of Transition (or Nontransition) to Authoritarianism 147Authoritarian Persistence 147Democratic Breakdown 149Transition to Hybrid or Semi-authoritarian Regime 151

Causes and Eff ects: What Causes Authoritarian Regimes to Emerge and Persist? 153Historical Institutionalist Theories 153Poverty and Inequality 154State Weakness and Failure 156Political Culture Theories of Authoritarian Persistence 158Barriers to Collective Action 159Special Causal Circumstances Surrounding Hybrid

and Semi-authoritarian Regimes 161

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Why Did Zimbabwe Become and Remain Authoritarian? 162

CASES IN CONTEXT

Democratic Features of Authoritarian Systems? The Case of Iran 144

Oligarchy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism in Russia 148Mexico’s “Perfect Dictatorship” and Its End 149Democracy and Authoritarianism in Germany 150Authoritarian Persistence in Nineteenth-Century France 152Development, the Weak State, and Authoritarianism in

Nigeria 157

PART III: Institutions of Government

CHAPTER 7

Constitutions and Constitutional Design 168Concepts 171

Constitutions 171Constitutional Design 172

Types 174Flexible and Rigid Constitutions 174Separation of Powers: Judicial Review and Parliamentary

Sovereignty 175Federalism and Unitarism 177

Federalism 177Unitarism 179

Authoritarian and Democratic Constitutions 180

Causes and Eff ects: What Are the Eff ects of Federal Constitutions? 181Are Federal Constitutions Good for Social Stability? 182Are Federal Constitutions Good for Protecting Democratic

Rights? 184Are Federal Constitutions Good for the Economy? 185Judicial Review and Democracy 187

THINKING COMPARATIVELY What Explains the Similarities between the American and South African Constitutions? 190

CASES IN CONTEXT

Brazil’s Constitution 175No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the

United Kingdom 178Constitutional Design: Theocracy in Iran 182Federalism and the States in Nigeria: Holding Together or

Tearing Apart? 184Federalism and Diff erences in Development in India 185Is Judicial Activism in the United States a Problem? 189

CHAPTER 8

Legislatures and Legislative Elections 196Concepts 198

What Legislatures Are 198What Legislatures Do 199

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Types 200Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures 200Electoral Systems 203

District Systems 203Proportional Representation (PR) 205Mixed or Hybrid 207

Executive–Legislative Relations 209

Causes and Eff ects 211Patterns of Representation 212Electoral Systems and Representation 213Legislative Decision Making and Representation 216Executive–Legislative Relations and Representation 218

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Representation in New Zealand and Beyond 220

CASES IN CONTEXT

The Mother of Parliaments: The United Kingdom and the Westminster Model 204

Proportional Representation and Political Power in the Russian Duma 206

Electoral Rules and Party (In)Discipine in Brazil’s Legislature 207The Hybrid Electoral System of the Japanese Diet 208Institutional Design: Germany’s Bundestag and Bundesrat 210The United States Congress: Dysfunctional or Functioning by

Design? 215

CHAPTER 9

Executives 224Concepts 226

Types 227Executive Structures: Presidential and Parliamentary 227Formal Powers 230Partisan Powers 233Coalitions 234Informal Powers 237

Causes and Eff ects 238Stable and Unstable Regimes: Presidentialism, Parliamentarism,

and Democracy 238Stable and Unstable Executives: Styles of Presidential Rule 241Stable and Unstable Executives: Patterns of Parliamentary

Rule 243

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Beyond the American and British Models 245

CASES IN CONTEXT

Electing the French President: What Do Runoff s Do? 228“The Most Powerful Person in the World”? Checks on American

Presidents 229Executives in Russia: Was the Former President a Puppet? 231Who Governs China? 233

Giving the “Big Finger”: The Mexican President’s Dedazo 234The Presidency in Nigeria: Powers and Limitations 238

CHAPTER 10

Political Parties, Party Systems, and Interest Groups 250Concepts 253

Political Parties 253Party Systems 253Interest Groups 254

Types 255Political Parties: Elite, Mass, and Catch-All Parties 255Party Systems: Dominant-Party, Two-Party, and Multiparty

Systems 256Interest Groups: Pluralism and Corporatism 262

Causes and Eff ects 265Party Systems and Representation 265

What Factors Shape Party Systems? 265How Do Party Systems Shape Political Outcomes? 267

Interest Groups and Representation 270

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Party Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa 273

CASES IN CONTEXT

The Chinese Party System 258How Did Japan’s Dominant Party Win for So Long? 259Consensus-Based Politics in Germany 260Personalism and the Party System in Russia 263The PRI and Corporatism in Mexico 264What Makes Interest Articulation in Brazil Coherent or

Incoherent? 267

PART IV: Politics, Society, and Culture

CHAPTER 11

Revolutions and Contention 277Concepts 279

What Is “Contention”? 279Revolutionary and Non-revolutionary Contention 279

Types 280Social Movements 280Revolutions 284Insurgencies and Civil Wars 287Terrorism 287

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“Everyday Resistance” 289Thinking about Contention: Summary 290

Causes and Eff ects: Why Do Revolutions Happen? 290Relative Deprivation and Social Disequilibrium 291Resource Mobilization and Political Opportunities 292Rational Choice 294Culture or “Framing” Explanations 296

THINKING COMPARATIVELY The “Arab Spring” of 2011 298

CASES IN CONTEXT

Brazil’s Landless Movement 281The French Revolution 284India’s Struggle Against Colonialism 286The Russian Revolution 291The Chinese Revolution 293Iran’s Islamic Revolution and “Green Revolution”? 296

CHAPTER 12

Nationalism and National Identity 306Concepts 308

Identity 308Nationalism and the Nation 308

Types 309Primordialist Approaches 309Perennialist Approaches 309Modernist Approaches 310Types of Nationalism 310

Causes and Eff ects 313What Causes Nationalism to Emerge? 313

Primordial Ties 313Structural Forces 315Political Institutions 315Cultural Construction 318

What Causes Ethno-national Confl ict? 320Primordial Bonds 322Cultural Boundaries 322Material Interests 323Rational Calculation 323Social Psychology 326

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Ending Ethnic and National Violence 326

CASES IN CONTEXT

Civic Nationalism in France? 311Ethnic Boundaries of the German Nation? 312Industrialization, Modernity, and National Identity in Mexico 316Importing National Identity in Japan? 317National Identity in the United Kingdom 319The Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War: Nationalism and

Ethno-national Confl ict in a Post-colonial Society 325

CHAPTER 13

Race, Ethnicity, and Gender 332Concepts 334

Race and Ethnicity 334Gender 335Sexual Orientation 336

Types 336Disentangling Race and Ethnicity 336Discrimination Based on Race and Ethnicity 338Gender Discrimination 339Empowerment of Women and Minority Groups 341

Causes and Eff ects: What Factors Infl uence the Political Representation of Women and Minority Groups? 343Social Movement Mobilization 343Political Parties Based on Gender or Ethnicity 345Institutional Methods for Promoting Women’s and Minority Group

Members’ Representation in Elected Offi ce 349

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Indicators of Gender Empowerment 351

CASES IN CONTEXT

Gender in Post-revolutionary Iranian Politics 340Gender Empowerment in Japan? 340Gender and Political Representation in Brazil: Where Has Progress

Come From? 343Ethnic Groups and Political Representation in the United

States 347Why Aren’t There Major Ethnic Parties in Mexico? 347Ethnicity and Political Parties in India 348

CHAPTER 14

Ideology and Religion in Modern Politics 357Concepts 359

Modernity and Modernization 359Ideology 360Religion 360Secularization, Religion, and Modern Politics 361Religious Confl ict 362

Types 362Modern Ideologies 362

Liberalism 363Fascism 364Socialism 365

Modern Forms of Religion in Politics 366Lay and Religious States 366Denominationalism 367

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Causes and Eff ects 368Why (and How) Does Modernization Alter Religion’s Role in

Politics? 369Modernization Theory and Secularization 369The “Religious Economies” Approach 369Institutional Theories 371

Why Didn’t Ideology (and History) End? 372

THINKING COMPARATIVELY Two Lefts in Latin America? 375

CASES IN CONTEXT

Liberal Ideology in the United Kingdom 363Nazism in Germany 364Communist Ideology in Practice—Russia and the Soviet

Union 365Religion and Secularism in France 367Religion and Politics in Iran 368Religious Diff erence and Confl ict in Nigeria: Disentangling

Ethnicity and Religion? 369

PART V: The Comparative-International Nexus

CHAPTER 15

Comparative Politics and International Relations 381Concepts 383Issues 385

Globalization and Trade 385International Institutions and Integration 389Immigration 391Environment and Sustainability 394Transnational Networks 396Nuclear Threats and Terrorism 397

Causes and Eff ects 399Realism 400Liberalism 402Constructivism 403Marxism 404

THINKING COMPARATIVELY The EU and Levels of Analysis 405

CASES IN CONTEXT

China and the Global Economy 387The United States and the World: A Love-Hate Relationship? 391Globalization and Culture in France 392

Resource Management in Japan 396Iran and the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation 398India in the Twenty-fi rst Century: Domestic Politics, Identity, and

Security 398

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PART VI: Country Profi les and Cases

United Kingdom 410

PROFILE 410Introduction 410Historical Development 413Regime and Political Institutions 415Political Culture 416Political Economy 416

CASE STUDIES 417The State in the United Kingdom (Chapter 3) 417Development and Political Economy of Britain (Chapter 4) 418Gradual Democratization in the United Kingdom

(Chapter 5) 419No Constitution? No Supreme Court? Constitutionality in the

United Kingdom (Chapter 7) 420The Mother of Parliaments: The United Kingdom and the

Westminster Model (Chapter 8) 422National Identity in the United Kingdom (Chapter 12) 423Liberal Ideology in the United Kingdom (Chapter 14) 424

France 426


CASE STUDIES

The State in France (Chapter 3) 433Authoritarian Persistence in Nineteenth-Century France

(Chapter 6) 434Electing the French President: What Do Runoff s Do?

(Chapter 9) 435The French Revolution (Chapter 11) 436Civic Nationalism in France? (Chapter 12) 437Religion and Secularism in France (Chapter 14) 438Globalization and Culture in France (Chapter 15) 439

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Germany 441


CASE STUDIES 449The German State: Unifi cation and Welfare (Chapter 3) 449Democracy and Authoritarianism in Germany (Chapter 6) 450Institutional Design: Germany’s Bundestag and Bundesrat

(Chapter 8) 451Consensus-Based Politics in Germany (Chapter 10) 452Ethnic Boundaries of the German Nation? (Chapter 12) 452Nazism in Germany (Chapter 14) 453

Japan 455


CASE STUDIES 462State-Led Development in Japan (Chapter 3) 462Democratization (Partially) from the Outside in Japan

(Chapter 5) 463The Hybrid Electoral System of the Japanese Diet

(Chapter 8) 464How Did Japan’s Dominant Party Win for So Long? (Chapter 10) 465Importing National Identity in Japan? (Chapter 12) 467Gender Empowerment in Japan? (Chapter 13) 467Resource Management in Japan (Chapter 15) 468

United States of America 470


CASE STUDIES 478Did Free Markets Help the United States Get Rich? Will They in the

Future? (Chapter 4) 478Is American Democracy in Trouble? (Chapter 5) 479Is Judicial Activism in the United States a Problem?

(Chapter 7) 480

The United States Congress: Dysfunctional or Functioning by Design? (Chapter 8) 481

“The Most Powerful Person in the World”? Checks on American Presidents (Chapter 9) 483

Ethnic Groups and Political Representation in the United States (Chapter 13) 484

The United States and the World: A Love-Hate Relationship? (Chapter 15) 485

Brazil 487


CASE STUDIES 495Does the Global Economy Help or Hurt Developing Nations like

Brazil? (Chapter 4) 495Democratic Consolidation in Brazil (Chapter 5) 496Brazil’s Constitution (Chapter 7) 497Electoral Rules and Party (In)Discipine in Brazil’s Legislature

(Chapter 8) 497What Makes Interest Articulation in Brazil Coherent or Incoherent?

(Chapter 10) 499Brazil’s Landless Movement (Chapter 11) 500Gender and Political Representation in Brazil: Where Has Progress

Come From? (Chapter 13) 500

Russia (Russian Federation) 503


CASE STUDIES 511Oligarchy, Democracy, and Authoritarianism in Russia

(Chapter 6) 511Proportional Representation and Political Power in the Russian

Duma (Chapter 8) 512Executives in Russia: Was the Former President a Puppet?

(Chapter 9) 513Personalism and the Party System in Russia

(Chapter 10) 513–514The Russian Revolution (Chapter 11) 514Communist Ideology in Practice—Russia and the Soviet Union

(Chapter 14) 515

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India 517


CASE STUDIES 525What Explains India’s Recent Growth? (Chapter 4) 524Democracy’s Success in India: What Can We Learn from a Deviant

Case? (Chapter 5) 525Federalism and Diff erences in Development in India

(Chapter 7) 526India’s Struggle Against Colonialism (Chapter 11) 527Ethnicity and Political Parties in India (Chapter 13) 528India in the Twenty-fi rst Century: Domestic Politics, Identity, and

Security (Chapter 15) 529

China 531


CASE STUDIES 539How Did China Become an Economic Power? (Chapter 4) 539Is China Destined for Democracy? (Chapter 5) 540Who Governs China? (Chapter 9) 542The Chinese Party System (Chapter 10) 543The Chinese Revolution (Chapter 11) 544China and the Global Economy (Chapter 15) 545

Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) 548


CASE STUDIES 555Democratic Features of Authoritarian Systems? The Case of Iran

(Chapter 6) 555Constitutional Design: Theocracy in Iran (Chapter 7) 556Iran’s Islamic Revolution and “Green Revolution”? (Chapter 11) 558Gender in Post-revolutionary Iranian Politics (Chapter 13) 559Religion and Politics in Iran (Chapter 14) 559Iran and the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation (Chapter 15) 560

Mexico 562


CASE STUDIES 570The Mexican State and Rule of Law (Chapter 3) 570Mexico’s “Perfect Dictatorship” and Its End (Chapter 6) 571Giving the “Big Finger”: The Mexican President’s Dedazo

(Chapter 9) 572The PRI and Corporatism in Mexico (Chapter 10) 573Industrialization, Modernity, and National Identity in Mexico

(Chapter 12) 574Why Aren’t There Major Ethnic Parties in Mexico? (Chapter 13) 575

Nigeria 578


CASE STUDIES 585What Is a Weak State, and Can It Be Changed? The Case of

Nigeria (Chapter 3) 585Why Are Natural Resources Sometimes a Curse? The Nigerian

Case (Chapter 4) 586Development, the Weak State, and Authoritarianism in Nigeria

(Chapter 6) 587Federalism and the States in Nigeria: Holding Together or Tearing

Apart? (Chapter 7) 589The Presidency in Nigeria: Powers and Limitations

(Chapter 9) 590The Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War: Nationalism and Ethno-

national Confl ict in a Post-colonial Society (Chapter 12) 591Religious Diff erence and Confl ict in Nigeria: Disentangling

Ethnicity and Religion? (Chapter 14) 592

Notes 595Glossary 608References and Further Reading 620Credits 646Index 648

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