A wall constructed in glazed-headed

Flemish bond with bricks of various

shades and lengths

A pallet of bricks stacked without

mortar

An old brick wall in English bond laid

with alternating courses of headers

and stretchers

BrickFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A brick is a block or a single unit of a ceramic material used in masonry construction.Typically bricks are stacked together or laid as brickwork using various kinds of

mortar to hold the bricks together and make a permanent structure.[1] Bricks aretypically produced in common or standard sizes in bulk quantities. They have beenregarded as one of the longest lasting and strongest building materials usedthroughout history.

In the general sense, a "brick" is a standard-sized weight-bearing building unit. Bricksare laid in horizontal courses, sometimes dry and sometimes with mortar. When theterm is used in this sense, the brick might be made from clay, lime-and-sand,concrete, or shaped stone. In a less clinical and more colloquial sense, bricks aremade from dried earth, usually from clay-bearing subsoil. In some cases, such asadobe, the brick is merely dried. More commonly it is fired in a kiln of some sort toform a true ceramic.

Contents

1 History1.1 Middle East1.2 Rome1.3 Europe1.4 China

2 Methods of manufacture2.1 Mud bricks

2.1.1 Rail kilns2.1.2 Bull's Trench Kilns

2.2 Dry pressed bricks

2.3 Extruded bricks2.4 Calcium-Silicate bricks2.5 Concrete bricks

3 Influence on fired colour4 Optimal dimensions, characteristics, and strength5 Use6 Limitations7 Gallery8 See also9 Notes10 References11 Further reading12 External links

History

Bricked Front Street along the Cane

River in historic Natchitoches,

Louisiana

The Roman Basilica Aula Palatina in

Trier, Germany, built with fired

bricks in the 4th century as an

audience hall for Constantine I

The ancient Jetavanaramaya stupa in

Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka is one of the

largest brick structures in the world.

Middle East

The earliest bricks were dried brick,meaning they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried (usually inthe sun) until they were strong enough foruse. The oldest discovered bricks,originally made from shaped mud anddating before 7500 BC, were found at TellAswad, in the upper Tigris region and in

southeast Anatolia close to Diyarbakir.[2]

Other more recent findings, dated between7,000 and 6,395 BC, come from Jericho,Catal Hüyük, and the ancient Indus Valley

cities of Buhen, Mohenjo-daro, Harappa,[3] and Mehrgarh.[4]

Ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 4500 BC in early Indus Valley

cities.[citation needed]

Rome

The Romans made use of fired bricks, and the Roman legions, which operated

mobile kilns,[citation needed] introduced bricks to many parts of the empire. Romanbricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised their production.The use of bricks in southern and western Germany, for example, can be traced backto traditions already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius.

Europe

The oldest domestic bricks were found in Greece. In the 12th century, bricks from

Northern-Western Italy were re-introduced to Northern Germany[citation needed],where an independent tradition evolved. It culminated in the so-called brick Gothic, areduced style of Gothic architecture that flourished in Northern Europe, especially inthe regions around the Baltic Sea, which are without natural rock resources. BrickGothic buildings, which are built almost exclusively of bricks, are to be found inDenmark, Germany, Poland, and Russia.

During the Renaissance and the Baroque, visible brick walls were unpopular and the brickwork was often covered with plaster.It was only during the mid-18th century that visible brick walls regained some degree of popularity, as illustrated by the DutchQuarter of Potsdam, for example.

The transport in bulk of building materials such as bricks over long distances was rare before the age of canals, railways, roadsand heavy goods vehicles. Before this time bricks were generally made close to their point of intended use. It has beenestimated that in England in the 18th century carrying bricks by horse and cart for ten miles (approx. 16 km) over the poor

roads then existing could more than double their price.[citation needed]

Bricks were often used for reasons of speed and economy, even in areas where stone was available. The buildings of theIndustrial Revolution in Britain were largely constructed of brick and timber due to the demand created. During the buildingboom of the 19th century in the eastern seaboard cities of Boston and New York City, for example, locally made bricks wereoften used in construction in preference to the brownstones of New Jersey and Connecticut for these reasons.

The world's highest brick tower of

St. Martin's Church in Landshut,

Germany, completed in 1500

Malbork Castle, former Ordensburg

of the Teutonic Order – biggest brick

castle in the world

The trend of building high office buildings that emerged towards the beginning of the 19th century displaced brick in favor ofcast and wrought iron and later steel and concrete. Some early 'skyscrapers' were made in masonry, and demonstrated thelimitations of the material – for example, the Monadnock Building in Chicago (opened in 1896) is masonry and just 17 storieshigh; the ground walls are almost 6 feet (1.8 m) thick to give the needed support; clearly building any higher would lead toexcessive loss of internal floor space on the lower floors. Brick was revived for high structures in the 1950s following work bythe Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and the Building Research Establishment in Watford, UK. This method produced 18-story structures with load-bearing walls no thicker than a single brick (150–225 mm). This potential has not been fullydeveloped because of the ease and speed in building with other materials; in the late 20th century brick was confined to low- ormedium-rise structures or as a thin decorative cladding over concrete-and-steel buildings or for internal non-load-bearing walls.

In Victorian London, bright red brick was chosen to make buildings more visible in the heavy fog that caused transport

problems.[5]

China

In pre-modern China, brick-making was the job of a lowly and unskilled artisan, but

a kiln master was respected as a step above the former.[6] Early traces of brickswere found in a ruin site in Xi'an in 2009 dated back about 3800 years ago. Beforethis discovery, it is widely believed that bricks appeared about 3000 years ago in theWestern Zhou dynasty since the earliest bricks were found in Western Zhou

ruins.[7][8][9] These bricks are the earliest bricks discovered that were made by a

fired process.[10] Early descriptions of the production process and glazing techniquesused for bricks can be found in the Song Dynasty carpenter's manual Yingzao Fashi,published in 1103 by the government official Li Jie, who was put in charge ofoverseeing public works for the central government's construction agency. Thehistorian Timothy Brook writes of the production process in Ming Dynasty China(aided with visual illustrations from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedic text publishedin 1637):

…the kilnmaster had to make sure that the temperature inside the kiln stayedat a level that caused the clay to shimmer with the colour of molten gold orsilver. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as toproduce the surface glaze. To anonymous laborers fell the less skilled stages ofbrick production: mixing clay and water, driving oxen over the mixture totrample it into a thick paste, scooping the paste into standardized woodenframes (to produce a brick roughly 42 cm long, 20 cm wide, and 10 cm thick),smoothing the surfaces with a wire-strung bow, removing them from theframes, printing the fronts and backs with stamps that indicated where thebricks came from and who made them, loading the kilns with fuel (likelierwood than coal), stacking the bricks in the kiln, removing them to cool whilethe kilns were still hot, and bundling them into pallets for transportation. It was

hot, filthy work.[11]

The idea of signing the worker's name and birth date on the brick and the placewhere it was made was not new to the Ming era and had little or nothing to do with

vanity.[12] As far back as the Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206 BC), the governmentrequired blacksmiths and weapon-makers to engrave their names onto weapons inorder to trace the weapons back to them, lest their weapons should prove to be of a

lower quality than the standard required by the government.[13]

Methods of manufacture

Chile house in Hamburg, Germany

The brickwork of Shebeli Tower in

Iran displays 12th-century

craftsmanship

Brick making at the

beginning of the 20th

century.

Modern clay bricks are formed in one of three processes – soft mud, dry press, or extruded.

Normally, brick contains the following ingredients:[14]

1. Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight2. Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight3. Lime – 2 to 5% by weight4. Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight5. Magnesia – less than 1% by weight

Mud bricks

The soft mud method is the most common,as it is the most economical. It starts withthe raw clay, preferably in a mix with 25–30% sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay isfirst ground and mixed with water to thedesired consistency. The clay is thenpressed into steel moulds with a hydraulicpress. The shaped clay is then fired("burned") at 900–1000 °C to achievestrength.

Rail kilns

In modern brickworks, this is usually done in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which thebricks are fired as they move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars, whichachieves a more consistent brick product. The bricks often have lime, ash, and organic matteradded, which accelerates the burning process.

Bull's Trench Kilns

In India, brick making is typically a manual process. The most common type of brick kiln inuse there is the Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British engineerW. Bull in the late 19th century.

An oval or circular trench is dug, 6–9 metres wide, 2-2.5 metres deep, and 100–150 metresin circumference. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the centre. Half or more of thetrench is filled with "green" (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern toallow airflow. The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of finished brick.

In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the brick pile; cooled finished bricks areremoved from the other end for transport to their destinations. In the middle, the brick workers create a firing zone by droppingfuel (coal, wood, oil, debris, and so on) through access holes in the roof above the trench.

The advantage of the BTK design is a much greater energy efficiency compared with clamp or scove kilns. Sheet metal orboards are used to route the airflow through the brick lattice so that fresh air flows first through the recently burned bricks,heating the air, then through the active burning zone. The air continues through the green brick zone (pre-heating and drying thebricks), and finally out the chimney, where the rising gases create suction which pulls air through the system. The reuse ofheated air yields savings in fuel cost.

Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near

Ngcobo in the former Transkei in

2007.

West face of Roskilde Cathedral in

Roskilde, Denmark.

Swedish Mexitegel.

As with the rail process above, the BTKprocess is continuous. A half dozenlaborers working around the clock can fireapproximately 15,000–25,000 bricks aday. Unlike the rail process, in the BTKprocess the bricks do not move. Instead,the locations at which the bricks areloaded, fired, and unloaded gradually

rotate through the trench.[15]

Dry pressed bricks

The dry press method is similar to the softmud brick method, but starts with a muchthicker clay mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater forcein pressing and the longer burn make this method more expensive.

Extruded bricks

For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10–15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20–25% water (soft extrusion). This mixture is forced through a die to create a longcable of material of the desired width and depth. This mass is then cut into bricks of

the desired length by a wall of wires. Most structural bricks are made by this method as it produces hard, dense bricks, andsuitable dies can produce holes or other perforations as well. The introduction of such holes reduces the volume of clay needed,and hence the cost. Hollow bricks are lighter and easier to handle, and have different thermal properties than solid bricks. Thecut bricks are hardened by drying for 20 to 40 hours at 50 to 150 °C before being fired. The heat for drying is often waste heatfrom the kiln.

European-style extruded bricks or blocks are used in single-wall construction with finishes applied on the inside and outside.Their many voids comprise a greater proportion of the volume than the solid, thin walls of fired clay. Such bricks are made in15-, 25-, 30-, 42- and 50-cm widths. Some models have very high thermal insulation properties, making them suitable forzero-energy buildings.

Calcium-Silicate bricks

The raw materials for calcium-silicate bricks include lime mixed with quartz, crushedflint or crushed siliceous rock together with mineral colourants. The materials aremixed and left until the lime is completely hydrated; the mixture is then pressed intomoulds and cured in an autoclave for two or three hours to speed the chemicalhardening. The finished bricks are very accurate and uniform, although the sharparrises need careful handling to avoid damage to brick (and bricklayer). The brickscan be made in a variety of colours; white is common but pastel shades can beachieved. This type of brick is common in Sweden, especially in houses built orrenovated in the 1970s, where it is known as "Mexitegel" (en: Mexi[can] Bricks). InIndia these are known as Fly ash bricks, manufactured using the FaL-G (fly ash, limeand gypsum) process. Calcium-silicate bricks are also manufactured in Canada andthe United States, and meet the criteria set forth in ASTM C73 – 10 StandardSpecification for Calcium Silicate Brick (Sand-Lime Brick). It has lower embodied energy than cement based man-made stone

and clay brick.[citation needed]

Concrete bricks

A concrete brick-making assembly

line in Guilinyang Town, Hainan,

China. This operation produces a

pallet containing 42 bricks,

approximately every 30 seconds.

Yellow London Stocks at Waterloo

Loose bricks

Bricks of concrete with sand aggregate can be made using a simple machine and abasic assembly line. A conveyor belt adds the mixture to a machine, which pours ameasured amount of concrete into a form. The form is vibrated to remove bubbles,after which it is raised to reveal the wet bricks, spaced out on a plywood sheet. Asmall elevator then stacks these palettes, after which a forklift operator moves themto the brickyard for drying.

Influence on fired colour

The fired colour of clay bricks is influenced by the chemical and mineral content ofthe raw materials, the firing temperature, and the atmosphere in the kiln. For example,pink coloured bricks are the result of a high iron content, white or yellow bricks havea higher lime content. Most bricks burn to various red hues; as the temperature isincreased the colour moves through dark red, purple and then to brown or grey ataround 1,300 °C (2,372 °F). Calcium silicate bricks have a wider range of shadesand colours, depending on the colourants used. The names of bricks may reflect theirorigin and colour, such as London stock brick and Cambridgeshire White.

"Bricks" formed from concrete are usually termed blocks, and are typically pale greyin colour. They are made from a dry, small aggregate concrete which is formed insteel moulds by vibration and compaction in either an "egglayer" or static machine.The finished blocks are cured rather than fired using low-pressure steam. Concreteblocks are manufactured in a much wider range of shapes and sizes than clay bricksand are also available with a wider range of face treatments – a number of whichsimulate the appearance of clay bricks.

An impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by salt glazing, inwhich salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a "slip," which is a glaze material into which the bricks aredipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.

Natural stone bricks are of limited modern utility due to their enormous comparative mass, the consequent foundation needs,and the time-consuming and skilled labour needed in their construction and laying. They are very durable and considered morehandsome than clay bricks by some. Only a few stones are suitable for bricks. Common materials are granite, limestone andsandstone. Other stones may be used (for example, marble, slate, quartzite, and so on) but these tend to be limited to aparticular locality.

Optimal dimensions, characteristics, and strength

For efficient handling and laying, bricks must be small enough and light enough to bepicked up by the bricklayer using one hand (leaving the other hand free for thetrowel). Bricks are usually laid flat and as a result the effective limit on the width of abrick is set by the distance which can conveniently be spanned between the thumband fingers of one hand, normally about four inches (about 100 mm). In most cases,the length of a brick is about twice its width, about eight inches (about 200 mm) orslightly more. This allows bricks to be laid bonded in a structure which increasesstability and strength (for an example, see the illustration of bricks laid in Englishbond, at the head of this article). The wall is built using alternating courses ofstretchers, bricks laid longways, and headers, bricks laid crossways. The headerstie the wall together over its width. In fact, this wall is built in a variation of Englishbond called English cross bond where the successive layers of stretchers are displaced horizontally from each other by half abrick length. In true English bond, the perpendicular lines of the stretcher courses are in line with each other.

Face brick ("house brick") sizes, (alphabetical order)

Standard Imperial Metric

Australia 9 × 4⅓ × 3 in 230 × 110 × 76 mm

Denmark 9 × 4¼ × 2¼ in 228 × 108 × 54 mm

Germany 9 × 4¼ × 2¾ in 240 × 115 × 71 mm

India 9 × 4¼ × 2¾ in 228 × 107 × 69 mm

Romania 9 × 4¼ × 2½ in 240 × 115 × 63 mm

Russia 10 × 4¾ × 2½ in 250 × 120 × 65 mm

South Africa 8¾ × 4 × 3 in 222 × 106 × 73 mm

Sweden 10 × 4¾ × 2½ in 250 × 120 × 62 mm

United Kingdom 8½ × 4 × 2½ in 215 × 102.5 × 65 mm

United States 7⅝ × 3⅝ × 2¼ in 194 × 92 × 57 mm

A bigger brick makes for a thicker (and thus more insulating) wall. Historically, this meant that bigger bricks were necessary incolder climates (see for instance the slightly larger size of the Russian brick in table below), while a smaller brick was adequate,and more economical, in warmer regions. A notable illustration of this correlation is the Green Gate in Gdansk; built in 1571 ofimported Dutch brick, too small for the colder climate of Gdansk, it was notorious for being a chilly and drafty residence.Nowadays this is no longer an issue, as modern walls typically incorporate specialized insulation materials.

The correct brick for a job can be selected from a choice of colour, surface texture, density, weight, absorption and porestructure, thermal characteristics, thermal and moisture movement, and fire resistance.

In England, the length and width of the common brick hasremained fairly constant over the centuries (but see brick tax),but the depth has varied from about two inches (about51 mm) or smaller in earlier times to about two and a halfinches (about 64 mm) more recently. In the United Kingdom,the usual size of a modern brick is 215 × 102.5 × 65 mm

(about 8 5⁄8 × 4 1⁄8 × 2 5⁄8 inches), which, with a nominal

10 mm (3⁄8 inch) mortar joint, forms a unit size of 225 ×

112.5 × 75 mm (9 × 4 1⁄2 × 3 inches), for a ratio of 6:3:2.

In the United States, modern standard bricks are (controlled

by American Society for Testing and Materials ASTM [16])

about 8 × 3 5⁄8 × 2 1⁄4 inches (203 × 92 × 57 mm). The

more commonly used is the modular brick 7 5⁄8 × 3 5⁄8 ×

2 1⁄4 inches (194 × 92 × 57 mm). This modular brick of 7 5⁄8plus a 3⁄8 mortar joint eased the calculations of the number of

bricks in a given run.[17]

Some brickmakers create innovative sizes and shapes for bricks used for plastering (and therefore not visible) where their

inherent mechanical properties are more important than their visual ones.[18] These bricks are usually slightly larger, but not aslarge as blocks and offer the following advantages:

a slightly larger brick requires less mortar and handling (fewer bricks), which reduces costtheir ribbed exterior aids plasteringmore complex interior cavities allow improved insulation, while maintaining strength.

Blocks have a much greater range of sizes. Standard coordinating sizes in length and height (in mm) include 400×200,450×150, 450×200, 450×225, 450×300, 600×150, 600×200, and 600×225; depths (work size, mm) include 60, 75, 90,100, 115, 140, 150, 190, 200, 225, and 250. They are usable across this range as they are lighter than clay bricks. The densityof solid clay bricks is around 2,000 kg/m³: this is reduced by frogging, hollow bricks, and so on, but aerated autoclavedconcrete, even as a solid brick, can have densities in the range of 450–850 kg/m³.

Bricks may also be classified as solid (less than 25% perforations by volume, although the brick may be "frogged," havingindentations on one of the longer faces), perforated (containing a pattern of small holes through the brick, removing no morethan 25% of the volume), cellular (containing a pattern of holes removing more than 20% of the volume, but closed on oneface), or hollow (containing a pattern of large holes removing more than 25% of the brick's volume). Blocks may be solid,cellular or hollow

The term "frog" for the indentation on one bed of the brick is a word that often excites curiosity as to its origin. The most likelyexplanation is that brickmakers also call the block that is placed in the mould to form the indentation a frog. Modernbrickmakers usually use plastic frogs but in the past they were made of wood. When these are wet and have clay on them they

Brick arch from a vault in Roman

Bath – England

A brick section of the old Dixie

Highway, United States

resemble the amphibious kind of frog and this is where they got their name. Over time this term also came to refer to theindentation left by them. On the laying of frogged brick see [1] (http://www.ibstock.com/pdfs/technical-support/TIS-25-Laying-frogged-bricks.pdf)

The compressive strength of bricks produced in the United States ranges from about1000 lbf/in² to 15,000 lbf/in² (7 to 105 MPa or N/mm² ), varying according to theuse to which the brick are to be put. In England clay bricks can have strengths of upto 100 MPa, although a common house brick is likely to show a range of 20–40MPa.

Use

Bricks are used for building, block paving and pavement. In the USA, brickpavement was found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic, but it is coming backinto use as a method of traffic calming or as a decorative surface in pedestrianprecincts. For example, in the early 1900s, most of the streets in the city of GrandRapids, Michigan were paved with brick. Today, there are only about 20 blocks ofbrick paved streets remaining (totalling less than 0.5 percent of all the streets in the

city limits).[19]

Bricks in the metallurgy and glass industries are often used for lining furnaces, inparticular refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral(chromomagnesite) refractory bricks. This type of brick must have good thermalshock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting point, and satisfactoryporosity. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the United Kingdom,Japan, the United States, Belgium and the Netherlands.

In Northwest Europe, bricks have been used in construction for centuries. Untilrecently, almost all houses were built almost entirely from bricks. Although manyhouses are now built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, manyhouses are skinned with a layer of bricks on the outside for aesthetic appeal.

Engineering bricks are used where strength, low water porosity or acid (flue gas)resistance are needed.

In the UK a redbrick university is one founded and built in the Victorian era, often asa technical college. The term serves to distinguish these polytechnic colleges fromolder, more classics-oriented universities.

Colombian architect Rogelio Salmona was noted for his extensive use of red brick in his buildings and for using natural shapes

like spirals, radial geometry and curves in his designs.[20] Most buildings in Colombia are made of brick, given the abundance ofclay in equatorial countries like this one.

Limitations

Starting in the 20th century, the use of brickwork declined in many areas due to earthquakes. The San Francisco earthquake of1906 revealed the weaknesses of brick buildings in earthquake-prone areas. Many buildings in San Francisco collapsed duringthe earthquake, due to the cement-based mortar used to hold the bricks together. During seismic events, the mortar cracks andcrumbles, and the bricks are no longer held together.

A panorama of San Francisco after the earthquake.

Gallery

Ishtar Gate of Babylonin the PergamonMuseum, Berlin,Germany

Roman opus reticulatumon Hadrian's Villa inTivoli, Italy (2ndcentury)

Frauenkirche, Munich,Germany, erected 1468–1488, looking up at thetowers

Eastern gable of churchof St. James in Toruń(14th century)

Decorative pattern madeof strongly fired bricks inRadzyń Castle (14thcentury)

Mudéjar brick churchtower in Teruel, Spain,(14th century)

Brick sculpturing onThornbury Castle,Thornbury, near Bristol,England. The chimneyswere erected in 1514

A typical brick house inthe Netherlands.

A typical Dutchfarmhouse nearWageningen,Netherlands

Decorative bricks in StMichael and All AngelsChurch, Blantyre,Malawi

Virgilio Barco PublicLibrary, Bogotá,Colombia

FES Building, Cali,Colombia

A brick kiln, Tamil Nadu,India

Brickwork, UnitedStates.

Porotherm style clayblock brick

Moulding bricks, Poland

Brick made as abyproduct of ironstonmining Normanby – UK

See also

Brick tintingBrickworkCeramic building materialCeramicsClinker brickConcrete masonry unit (cinder block)Fire brickFly ash brickMasonry

Millwall brick, a street weapon in EnglandMortar, the materials that bricks are bound together withMudbrickRoman brickTileWienerberger

Notes

1. ^ World Book Encyclopedia

2. ^ (French) IFP Orient – Tell Aswad (http://wikis.ifporient.org/archeologie/index.php/Tell_Aswad). Wikis.ifporient.org.Retrieved on 2012-11-16.

3. ^ History of brickmaking, Encyclopædia Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/79195/brick/76609/History-of-brickmaking). Britannica.com. Retrieved on 2012-11-16.

4. ^ "Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities". Scientific American 15: 24–33. 2005.

5. ^ London the Biography by Peter Ackroyd page 435

6. ^ Brook, 19–20

7. ^ Earliest Chinese building brick appeared in Xi'an (中國最早磚類建材在西安現身)(http://web.archive.org/web/20100416132054/http://www.takungpao.com/news/10/01/28/_IN-1208245.htm). takungpao.com(2010-1-28)

8. ^ China's earliest building material (http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/realtime/art_main.php?&iss_id=20100128&sec_id=10793096&art_id=13673124)

9. ^ China's first brick, possible earliest brick in China (http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/collection/2010-01/29/content_12896997.htm) (藍田出土"中華第一磚" 疑似我國最早的"磚")

10. ^ Earliest fired brick discovered in Xi'an (http://news.sina.com.tw/article/20100130/2743984.html) (西安發現全球最早燒制磚)

11. ^ Brook, 20–21.

12. ^ Brook, 22.

13. ^ Brook, 22–23.

14. ^ Dr. B.C. Punmia; Ashok Kumar Jain, B.C. Punmia; Arun Kr. Jain (1 May 2003). Basic Civil Engineering(http://books.google.com/books?id=sWZxu_muxyIC&pg=PA33). Firewall Media. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-81-7008-403-7. Retrieved16 November 2012.

15. ^ Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, Brick Kiln Units (PDF file) (http://www.environment.gov.pk/EA-GLines/I1B-Brick%20Kilns.pdf)

16. ^ http://www.astm.org/Standards/C652.htm

17. ^ http://www.maconline.org/tech/materials/BRICK/bricksizes/bricksizes.html

18. ^ Crammix Maxilite (http://web.archive.org/web/20081206161820/http://www.crammix.co.za/maxilite.htm). crammix.co.za

19. ^ Michigan | Success Stories | Preserve America | Office of the Secretary of Transportation | U.S. Department ofTransportation(http://web.archive.org/web/20090704104107/http://ostpxweb.dot.gov/preserveamerica/stories/michigan/index.cfm).

20. ^ Romero, Simon (6 October 2007). "Rogelio Salmona, Colombian Architect Who Transformed Cities, Is Dead at 78"(http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/arts/06salmona.html?_r=1&ref=obituaries&oref=slogin). The New York Times.

References

Aragus, Philippe (2003), Brique et architecture dans l'Espagne médiévale, Bibliothèque de la Casa de Velazquez, 2(in French), MadridBadstübner, E; Schumann, D, eds. (since 1997), Studien zur Backsteinarchitektur (in German) 7, Berlin Missing orempty |title= (help)Brook, Timothy (1998), The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, Berkeley: Universityof California Press, ISBN 0-520-22154-0

Campbell, James W.; Pryce, Will, photographer (2003), Brick: a World History, London & New York: Thames &HudsonCoomands, Thomas; VanRoyen, Harry, eds. (2008), "Novii Monasterii, 7", Medieval Brick Architecture in Flandersand Northern Europe, Koksijde: Ten DuinenCramer, J.; Sack, D., eds. (since 2004), Berliner Beiträge zur Bauforschung und Denkmalpflege (in German) 5,Petersberg Missing or empty |title= (help)Das, Saikia Mimi; Das, Bhargab Mohan; Das, Madan Mohan (2010), Elements of Civil Engineering, New Delhi: PHILearning Private Limited, ISBN 978-81-203-4097-8Kornmann, M. (2007), Clay Bricks and Roof Tiles, Manufacturing and Properties, Paris: Lasim, ISBN 2-9517765-6-XPlumbridge, Andrew; Meulenkamp, Wim (2000), Brickwork. Architecture and Design, London: Seven Dials,ISBN 1-84188-039-6

Further reading

Dobson, E. A. (1850), Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks and Tiles (2 pt.), London: John WealeHudson, Kenneth (1972) Building Materials; chap. 3: Bricks and tiles. London: Longman; pp. 28–42Lloyd, N. (1925) History of English Brickwork. London: H. Greville Montgomery

Dewan, Kader 2010

External links

Brick in 20th-Century Architecture (http://www.ochshorndesign.com/cornell/writings/brick.html)Brick Industry Association (http://www.gobrick.com)Mason Contractors Association of America (http://www.masoncontractors.org)Masonry Institute of America (http://www.masonryinstitute.org/)Western States Clay Products Association (http://wscpa.us/)"Bricks Made Automatically by One-Man Machine" (http://books.google.com/books?id=wt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA523&dq=Popular+Science+1935+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&hl=en&ei=zHM2Tpf-IeuFsgLc_MH3Cg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=Popular%20Science%201935%20plane%20%22Popular%20Mechanics%22&f=true) Popular Mechanics, April 1935, pg.523 bottom-left

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