brand kg campbell ad 2014 in-context and ecology immersion uia2014durban pp1332-1343-libre

8/10/2019 Brand KG Campbell AD 2014 in-context and Ecology Immersion UIA2014Durban Pp1332-1343-Libre

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UIA 2014 DURBAN PROGRAMME PARTNERS AND GUEST EDITORS 4

UIA 2014 DURBAN SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE: CORE MEMBERS AND ADVISORS

UIA 2014 DURBAN SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE: MEMBERS AND EDITORS UIA 2014 DURBAN SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE 5

UIA 2014 DURBAN ORGANISATION COMMITTEE 6

UIA 2014 DURBAN SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMME SUPPORT 6

UIA 2014 CONGRESS PROCEEDINGS 7

A WORD FROM THE EDITORS 9

INTRODUCTION TO THE UIA 2014 DURBAN CONGRESS PROCEEDINGS 10THE PEER REVIEW PROCESS 10

UIA 2014 CATEGORIES OF PARTICIPATION FOR AUTHORS AND PRESENTERS 11

UIA 2014 DURBAN PANEL OF REVIEWERS 11

PART 1 : RESILIENCE 24

PART 2 : ECOLOGY 251

PART 3 : VALUES 489PART 4 : ARCHITECTURE EDUCATION FORUM 691

PART 5 : CIB W104 OPEN BUILDING IMPLEMENTATION 745

PART 6 : CIB W110 INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING

PART 7 : DESIGN SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT (DSD) 1319

PART 8 : GLOBAL STUDIO 1475

PART 9 : SOUTH AFRICAN PLANNING INSTITUTE (SAPI) 16PART 10 : THE PUBLIC HEALTH GROUP (UIA – PHG) 1728

PART 11 : THE SOCIAL HOUSING FOCUS TRUST (SHIFT) 18

PART 12 : URBAN WATERWAYS 2046

AUTHORS INDEX 2103

CONGRESS SPONSORS 2117

CONGRESS SUPPORTERS AND MEDIA PARTNERS 2118

TABLE OF CONTENTS



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A WORD FROM THE EDITORS

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UIA 2014 CATEGORIES OF PARTICIPATION FOR AUTHORS AND PRES

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PANEL OF REVIEWERS



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UIA2014 DURBAN Architecture OTHERWHERE DESIGN SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT

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IN-CONTEXT AND ECOLOGY IMMERSION FOR RESILIENCE: AN EXPLORATION OF THE DESIGN OF AHOUSEHOLD FARMING KIT

Kyle Graham Brand, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa, [email protected] Donald Campbell, University of Johannesburg, South Africa, [email protected]

Abstract

Human-Centred Design proposes the method of In-context Immersion or meeting people where they live, workand socialise as a method to gain new insights and opportunities for the designer (IDEO, 2013). This method as perthe majority of empirical research tends to simplify complex situations in order to provide a set of criteria that canthen guide a design intervention to such problems. This paper explores how it is important to not only understandthe contextual situation of a problem, but also a much broader range of contexts and inuences which constitutethe ecology of the problem. Ecology Immersion can be dened over and above the designers’ immersion into aspecic context by the further discovery and exploration of other connected contexts. The designer is able to mapa broader system by immersing her/himself in these interconnected contexts and hence foreseeing how a proposed intervention could interact in the greater ecology of the problem. An example could be the effect theseemingly independent biological system and economic system could have on a small-scale agricultural project.This improved understanding then allows for the design intervention to have a better foundation in terms of thesystems it relies on, which potentially aids the nal intervention’s resilience. This paper explores and criticises thedesign process of a household farming kit as an example of such a method. This critique will offer potential insightinto future applications of this method in the eld of Industrial Design and its potential application in other designdisciplines to encourage greater resilience.

Keywords: In-context immersion, ecology immersion, industrial design, small-scale agriculture, foodsecurity, design for social development, social impact design, Johannesburg.

INTRODUCTION

Social impact design, or design for public good that is socially, environmentally, and economicallysustainable, is clearly gaining traction in design education, research and practice (Smithsonian Institution2013). As this mode of design expands, design methods focused on such endeavours need to be tested andrened. This paper rstly explores the method of In-context Immersion as utilised by various designpractitioners under a variety of guises as an attempt by designer/s to better understand the people they aredesigning for or with, especially when designing for marginalised communities (IDEO 2011, pp. 46-47; Polak2009, pp. 15-17 and Martin & Hanington 2012, p.60). This method, as adopted by many practitioners, iscriticised by the authors as taking too narrow and reductionist a view in relation to the complex economic,social, cultural and political realities experienced by the majority of people from communities where suchdesign is taking place. The paper then explores the systemic nature of problems in terms of their broaderecology and the proposed method of In-context and Ecology Immersion is then explained. The combinationof In-context and Ecology Immersion is explored in relation to a research project, the Design andDevelopment of a Household Farming kit (Brand 2014) (Figure 1). The paper then concludes that such amethod provides the opportunity for greater resilience for both the design intervention and those who willrely on it.




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Figure 1: Anna holding the hoe-tool at her home (Photo: Kyle Brand).

IN-CONTEXT IMMERSION

In the Human-Centred Design Toolkit developed by the design and innovation consulting firm IDEO, themethod of In-context Immersion is advocated as a method which design practitioners can adopt in order to“...understand the people they are designing for not just on an intellectual level, but also on an experientiallevel” (2011, p. 46). This understanding at a level of personal experience is intended to allow unexpectedopportunities or new insights to be revealed. This is in contrast to the preconceptions brought into anycontext where a designer is designing for someone else. In-context Immersion can be defined as immersingoneself in the context in which the design intervention should operate. This often means that the designerwould seek to experience the typical conditions that the final user of the intended design interventionwould experience. In Figure 2 one of the authors is seen conducting a focus group with Jeffery Hughes andWillem van Zyl at their farms in Noordgesig, Soweto. Conducting this interview on their farm allowed for atwo-way immersion, that of the author in the farms environment and the farmers’ immersion into theconceptual world of the designer. During such a focus group, the farmers could physically identify issues in

their environment and demonstrate their points of view without feeling alienated by an unfamiliar context. These focus groups drew attention to aspects the author did not notice during previous immersiveexperiences.




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Figure 2: Jeffery Hughes explaining a concern he had with the farming tunnel design, photograph by Myles Day(used with permission).

The process of In-context Immersion has become a fundamental building block in most participatory designpractice. The design practitioner often assumes a visit to the location of the participants as non-negotiable,especially in socially orientated design projects where the designer and participant come from vastlydifferent socioeconomic contexts. Relating to the authors’ project, since the design intervention was forfarmers, the designer needed to visit their farms. This is in line with what Paul Polak suggests when hedescribes two of the steps in his guide to practical problem solving: “2. Talk to the people who have theproblem, and listen to what they say” (2009, p. 15-17) and “3. Learn everything you can about the problem’sspecific context” (2009, p.17).

In-context Immersion is similarly termed Design Ethnography by Bella Martin and Bruce Hanington in theirbook, Universal Methods of Design (2012, p. 60). They describe this method as an approximation of theimmersive methods of traditional ethnography, which encourages the designer “...to, deeply experience andunderstand the user’s world for design empathy and insight” (ibid.). Design Ethnography differs from ‘true’Anthropological Ethnography in that the designer is seeking time-sampled observations and behaviours. These experiences can be sought through “the experience sampling method, diary and photo studies,

cultural probes, contextual inquiry, and various forms of observation, including modified versions ofparticipant observation” (ibid.).

This pervasive adoption of In-context Immersion might be attributed to the development and wideracceptance of user-centred design methods amongst design practitioners (Smithsonian Institution, 2013). The extent to which designers actually immerse themselves and their intentions behind such projects haveled to some criticism by the targeted population of what could be considered a new imperialism throughdesign (Nussbaum 2010) or ulterior economic motives hidden under the banner of charity (Arad 2012). Thisdebate will likely continue as ‘Social Innovation’ continues to become more mainstream. Indian industrialdesigner and academic Singanapalli Balaram highlights how it is not only the people one is designing forthat the designer needs to take cognisance of, but also the economic, social, cultural and political realities ofa country (Balaram 1998, p. 3). He states that, “the design activity of any country cannot be well understood

without knowledge of the context in which it operates.” This extends the notion of a possibly too narrow in-context immersion to a broader immersion into the ecology of the context.




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THE ECOLOGY OF PROBLEMS

A greater capacity to access and acquire knowledge as a result of rapid increases in communicationtechnologies in recent years has led to a far more nuanced understanding of problems. Seldom, if not ever,can a problem be considered finite and isolated. “I have yet to see any problem, however complicated,which, when looked at in the right way, did not become still more complicated” (Anderson cited in Meadows2008, p. 11). Problems, like the people they affect, are always interconnected and highly complex. RichardBuchanan in his discussion on Rittle’s description of wicked problems explains that, “Design problems are"indeterminate" and "wicked" because design has no special subject matter of its own apart from what adesigner conceives it to be. The subject matter of design is potentially universal in scope, because designthinking may be applied to any area of human experience. But in the process of application, the designermust discover or invent a particular subject out of the problems and issues of specific circumstances” (1992,p. 16). This highlights the need of the designer to define a problem’s boundaries, but in too narrowlydefining a problem a designer can easily miss important considerations for the long term resilience of adesign intervention.

Problems are systemic in nature, leading to not only a difficulty in understanding them, but also in solvingthem. Donella Meadows, in her book Thinking in Systems (2008) explains, “A system isn’t just any collection of

things. A system is an interconnected set of elements that is coherently organized in a way that achievessomething” (p. 11). This systemic nature of problems refers to their interconnection with additional sets ofelements, these elements could include other problems or other contexts that are connected and thereforealso affected by the problem at hand. Often if carefully investigated, any problem presents a very deep andcomplex array of not only elements that are interconnected, but also additional interconnected systems. This array of systems with interconnected elements is seldom static, but rather dynamic and continuallychanging, hence the indeterminacy of wicked problems (Buchanan 1992, pp. 15-16).

The word ecology has been chosen by the authors to capture the dynamism of the systemic nature ofproblems. This word, ecology, is typically associated with the description of natural systems, especiallyhighly complex systems. As an example of a highly complex system, Meadows describes human beings, “Weare complex systems - our own bodies are magnificent examples of integrated, interconnected, self-maintaining complexity. Every person we encounter, every organization, every animal, garden, tree, andforest is a complex system. We have built up intuitively, without analysis, often without words, a practicalunderstanding of how these systems work, and how to work with them” (Meadows 2008, p. 3). AlthoughMeadows describes the human body as a complex system, systems of a similar nature are termed asecologies in this paper in an attempt to encapsulate their dynamic nature.

Understanding the ecology of any problem in order to bring about considered change, as in any gooddesign intervention, is crucial. This is important in order that the design intervention is well considered andthe resulting change is a beneficial disruption to the current system. When addressing problems withdesigned solutions one needs to be cognisant of the systems on which the designed solution would rely. This has implications in terms of resilience (unpacked in the following heading) on both the designintervention and those relying on it (Campbell & Brand 2012, p. 281). Without cognisance of the ecology thataccompanies a presented problem, the problem itself is not defined, making it impossible to solve

effectively without pure luck, which should not be encouraged.

The ecology of a problem is very vast and complex, this makes it difficult to understand and take account of.However a designer attempts to explore the current ecology of a system, the greater their understandingand the more poignant and effective any designed disruption can be. Even doctors specialising in a specificfield of medicine are required to study and understand human anatomy as a whole. So even though onecould not legitimately claim to comprehend the full ecology of a problem, one could have a relativecomprehension, and the broader the better. To develop this, one needs to understand the elementsconnected within the ecology, since the ecology itself is intangible without its parts. This would require anin-context immersion into the different elements within the ecology. Typically user-centred designpractitioners would inherently visit the immediate, obvious, context to which the design intervention islinked. However, there are many other elements which also play an important role in the design

intervention’s existence and these interconnections require consideration. In other words, the exploration ofadditional in-context immersion experiences in order to understand “not only at an intellectual level, but




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also at an experiential level” (IDEO 2011, p. 46) each of these different elements. This is what is defined in thispaper as Ecology Immersion.

The danger in only immersing oneself in the immediate, obvious context is that this results in a potentiallyfinite understanding of a problem from the viewpoint of the end-users. Often to solve a problem in thelonger term, one needs to have a broader understanding of the ecology in order to change the broadersystem/s that the designed intervention relies on. It may be these system/s that need to be changed sincethis is what could have led to the original problem in the first place. Solving only the problem and notaltering the system/s could result in the problem being solved for a finite period, but then the same or asimilar problem being replicated by the system/s that incurred the original problem. Robert Pirsig explainsthat “...if a factory is torn down but the rationality which produced it is left standing, then that rationality willsimply produce another factory. If a revolution destroys a systematic government, but the systematicpatterns of thought that produced that government are left intact, then those patterns will repeatthemselves in the succeeding government. There’s so much talk about the system. And so littleunderstanding” (Pirsig 1974, p. 94). It is this broader understanding that the method of Ecology Immersionaims to seek out. This enables broader systems to be altered, to solve problems not only in the finite mannerbut also in the long term and hence become more resilient.

RESILIENCE

“Resilience is the capacity of a system to experience shocks while retaining essentially the same function,structure, feedbacks, and therefore identity” (Walker et al. 2006, p. 2). Resilience can refer to a number ofdifferent entities, from people and communities to biological systems, economies and governments.Resilience in this paper refers to both a design intervention as a physical product, as well as the resilience ofthe people relying on the product. The resilience of a product can have a major influence on the resilience ofpeople or communities because of their reliance on it (Campbell & Brand 2013, p. 281). The ecology ofproblems as explored above is related to what can be termed the ecology of a design intervention. When adesign is ‘inserted’ into the ecology of the problem in order to bring about change, it becomes an element inthe newly readjusted ecology. If this design intervention is not resilient itself, it becomes a point ofvulnerability for not only the entire ecology but also creates a point of vulnerability for the people using it,thereby possibly compromising the resilience of both the people and the ecology/system (Campbell &Brand 2013, p. 281).

“A diverse system with multiple pathways and redundancies is more stable and less vulnerable to externalshock than a uniform system with little diversity” (Meadows 2008, pp. 3-4). In the same way, this can beapplied to products. For example, a product’s ecology includes its manufacture, distribution network,functions, market and so on. If these are diverse and multifaceted the products ecology is more resilient,resulting in a more resilient product, and hence a more resilient broader ecology, ultimately resulting in amore resilient end-user. Resilience is critical for marginalised people and communities, since any disruptionthat is not recovered from quickly can lead to more disruptions, which could put the community in aposition that compromises not only their current, but future wellbeing as well (Pasteur 2011, p. 15).

In order to understand the practical application of In-Context and Ecology Immersion to enhance resiliencein design interventions, the rest of the paper unpacks the design process of a household farming kitundertaken by the authors over three years (2011-2014).

IN-CONTEXT AND ECOLOGY IMMERSION IN PRACTICE - A HOUSEHOLD FARMING KIT

Small-scale farming falls under the broader context of food security. Food insecurity is a global, national andcommunity problem, which is highly complex and multifaceted (FAO 2008). When approached from thelevel of practical impact, Ian Smillie outlines various systemic issues that unfolded during the developmentand commercial sale of product to impact on food security in Tanzania: “When the project was conceived,most oil was imported; prices where high and availability was a problem. By 1986, however, after the

equipment had been developed and the cost of the technology was more or less fixed, import restrictionswere lifted, and the prices of oil fell. Fortunately this did not seriously affect the profitability of the press, but




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it signalled a problem frequently ignored in the development of appropriate technology” (Smillie 2008, p.133).

In the example above, the systemic nature of the problem, the design of an oil press, is clearly more than justthe oil press itself, but extends to the Tanzanian government’s import policy and how that impacts on the oilpress’s commercial viability. Meadows provides insight into problem solving on a range of scales, sheexplains that many serious problems, such as food insecurity, have attempted to be solved by “focusing onexternal agents” (2008, p. 4) and have led to the creating of further problems. “Hunger, poverty…, forexample, persist in spite of the analytical ability and technical brilliance that have been directed towarderadicating them. No one deliberately creates those problems, no one wants them to persist, but they persistnonetheless” (ibid.). The issue is that these sorts of problems are “intrinsically systems problems” and canonly be solved by acknowledging “the system as the source of its own problems, and find[ing] the courageand wisdom to restructure it” (ibid.).

In order to understand the systemic problem of food insecurity in Johannesburg, the methods of In-contextand Ecology Immersion were utilised in a Masters project undertaken at the Department of Industrial Designin University of Johannesburg titled Design and Development of a Household Farming kit (HFK) (Brand 2014). The project built upon a previous mini-dissertation project which also explored the development of small-

scale agricultural equipment. The Masters project aimed to develop a farming kit consisting of a set of basicequipment for a small-scale farming. The problem identified with existing kits was that they were notdesigned as a considered whole but were rather a collection of tools purchased from suppliers. On occasionthese tools overlapped in function and/or were not considered in accordance with the desires and needs ofthe farmers who they were given to. The farmers often simply accepted the tools without question sincethey received them for free and as the common English saying goes, “no one looks a gift horse in themouth”. The HFK aimed to not only provide the farmers with better, more appropriate equipment but alsoprovide lower-cost better targeted equipment that functioned as a holistic kit. This more considered kitcould then be provided by NGOs and governmental organisations to more farmers (i.e more kits) for thesame price that the existing kits were being purchased for. The initial concept of the kit consisted of: agreenhouse which provided farmers with the advantage of crop protection from hail and insects, and anextended growing season; a multifunctional hoe-tool, which would assimilate a hoe and spade into a singlehand tool; seeds for planting; and an instruction booklet to provide the farmers with sufficient knowledge touse the kit. This paper focuses specifically on the method of In-context and Ecology Immersion as itproceeded during the design development of the HFK.

When the project began the study wasn’t well defined, so potential partnerships were sought to betteridentify and establish its direction. This led to networking opportunities and contact with manyorganisations and groups who were also undertaking work in small-scale agriculture. This developed intothe first context in which the researcher was immersed, that of similar stakeholders. This networking enabledthe researcher to become better known within the local community of those working within the realm ofsmall-scale farming and food security. A number of workshops were attended which helped develop furtheropportunities for immersion. Local food markets as well as a range of small-scale farmers were visited as theproject began to take shape. For example, a visit was made to Mr dos Santos (Figure 3) a home foodgardener who grew vegetables since he was not able to purchase the varieties he preferred from retailers.

He had developed an extensive garden growing a wide variety of vegetables in a small area and muchknowledge was garnered from his expertise.




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Figure 3: Mr dos Santos in his home food garden (Photo: Kyle Brand).

As the project began to take shape, an additional multi-stakeholder partnership was established betweenthe authors, the local Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and the Balimi FoodSecurity Company (BFSC). This relationship was instigated by the authors after visits to the FAO seeking apotential partnership and it was the FAO that connected the BFSC and the authors. The BFSC then invitedthe authors’ to a site tour as part of a stakeholder meeting they were hosting. The BFSC asked for assistancewith presenting and communicating their own project and this together with the authors’ project waspresented to a number of interested parties including officials from the local government office. Thisbecame the first of many partnered presentations to high level government officials such as the Departmentof Rural Development and Agriculture, as well as commercial entities such as the Senwes agriculturalcompany (http://www.senwes.co.za/). These repeated presentations allowed for the researchers’ greaterunderstanding of the context of NGOs and governmental organisations.

It soon also became evident that it would be helpful to also start personal experiments with vegetablegrowing in order to be able to speak from experience with the farmers working on the project. Using limitedspace, a series of box gardens allowing for a range of vegetables to be grown were started at theresearcher’s home (Figure 4). This not only gave the researcher an empathetic connection to participants,

who were engaged during in-context immersion when visiting the participants in their own contexts, butalso allowed for the immersion into the context of home vegetable growing. This in turn led to otheropportunities linked to home gardening projects.




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Figure 4: Carrot grown during personal gardening experiments (Photo: Kyle Brand).

The next context for immersion was with the farmers themselves who would be the users of the farming kit.A series of prototypes were developed and tested by the farmers themselves. The greenhouse for example,needed to be set up on the farms by the farmers and was not simply delivered pre-assembled. This resultedin the researchers working with the farmers in its setup; on occasion this meant first assisting the farmerswith current tasks they were busy with before beginning. During this time, informal conversations with thefarmers encouraged an extended empathetic understanding of their context.

In addition to the immersion with the farmers and the immersions into other interrelated contexts exploredabove, the researchers were also following current literature on small-scale agriculture in bothJohannesburg and abroad. This once again expanded the broader understanding of the ecology of theproblem of food insecurity.

All these different contexts into which the authors were able to immerse themselves to different degrees,with differing stakeholders and in different environments led to a greater understanding of the broadercontext and system of food insecurity and small-scale farming in Johannesburg. Initially this method beganmerely as partnership seeking, but after a number of immersive experiences the value of such a method

became apparent. This led to a more focused and applied application of what has been described in thispaper as In-context and Ecology Immersion. In a sense, this method developed organically as the projectprogressed, but its value became evident from the greater understanding of the ecology of the greaterproblem and it was therefore pursued with a greater sense of focus and intention.

The opportunities for immersion were initially sparse, but as the project progressed they became ever moreavailable. Initially any opportunity to be immersed in a context which was interconnected within the ecologyof food security was seized. However, as many more became available the researchers had to be moreselective and also focus more directly on the context where the final design intervention of the householdfarming kit would operate. In Figure 5, the green squares represent different contexts into which the authorswere immersed. In the initial stages, a number of contexts are examined through immersion, but as theproject progressed, exploration could only be sought in selected contexts in order to arrive at a conclusion.

There is also a bulge later (moving from left to right) in the diagram which aims to describe a period whenfurther contexts were sought and examined in relation to a more defined design intervention. In this case,this was the examining of different manufacturing methods and the testing of various options for the




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prototypes manufacturing. The largest extended green block (running the length of the diagram) representsthe end-users, in this case the farmers, and their context for the design intervention. This is shown as acontinuous line, although it is made up of a large number of shorter immersions, since the in-contextimmersion is an experience that extends into the psychological and intellectual realm of the designer andend-users even though physical contact may not be maintained during the entire period. After a number ofin-context immersions, the ecology of the problem was better understood, which led to more considereddesign decisions in terms of the greater system relating to the implementation of the household farming kit. These decisions included the choice of materials and manufacturing methods used to develop the tools inthe kit; the decision to promote natural farming methods; the adoption of a subsurface irrigation system inorder that the farmers did not till the soil repeatedly, thus encouraging low-tillage farming.

Figure 5: Multi-context outline in terms of time.

“Conway and Barber define [agricultural sustainability] as 'the ability to maintain productivity, whether of afield or farm or nation, in the face of stress or shock'. The stress might be small or large, temporary orpermanent. It could be the result of local factors, such as drought, flood or grasshoppers or it could comefrom external forces such as an increase in the price of fertilizer or the withdrawal of technical support.“Sustainability thus determines the persistence or durability of a system's productivity under known or

possible circumstances” (Smillie 2008, p. 118). In order that the household farming kit promote agriculturalsustainability it was considered in terms of its local ecology and the greater ecology of food security. Thiswas undertaken by reducing the price when compared to existing offerings (the kit cost approximately halfthat of existing kits); designing the elements so that they can easily be replicated and repaired using localartisanal skills (observed and investigated during various in-context immersions); and designing theequipment to fit the specific needs of the farmers together with them, thereby reducing its potential forredundancy.




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Figure 6: The greenhouse design being set up in Kanana (Photo: Kyle Brand).

Phillip Oosthuizen, an industrial design academic, proposes the following factors that all good designsshould consider (Interview 20 March 2014):

! Use - How the design functions. Is it usable, does it consider the person who would operate it?! Manufacture - How the design is made. What materials to choose, are they repairable, what skills or

machinery are required for the making of the product?! Business - How does the design make business sense? Is it cost effective and efficient?! Environment - What impact does the design have on the environment? Is it environmentally

sustainable?! Society - What impact does the design have on society? Is it a socially considered solution?

Different design projects and design interventions would inherently have a different balance ofconsideration for each. These factors of design can act as a good guide for the types of contexts that needsto be considered in order to develop an understanding of the greater ecology of a design problem. In theexample of the Design and Development of a Household Farming Kit each of these were explored in-contextthrough immersive experiences: the use of the kit in relation to the farm, the farmers, their households and

small-scale farming; the manufacture by developing a series of prototypes and by experimenting withdifferent manufacturing techniques for different elements of the kit; the business by interaction with NGOsand governmental organisations; the environment through various workshops, as well as seeing andstudying a variety of different farming practices; and lastly society through a multi-stakeholder approach tothe entire project.

Adopting a method of In-context and Ecology Immersion helped develop a richer understanding of thedifferent interconnected contexts related to small-scale farming. This gave the designer a great advantage interms of both opportunities for the design, but also in considering potential vulnerabilities in terms of thegreater ecology in which the design would function.




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CONCLUSION

This paper has discussed In-context Immersion as a method of gaining empathy for a problem context, butalso unpacks the benefit of understanding the systemic nature of problems and hence the furthermethodological development of Ecology Immersion. “To have to grapple with divergent problems tends tobe exhausting, worrying, and wearisome” (Schumacher 2011, p. 78) but by immersing oneself into manyinterconnected contexts one develops a tacit understanding of the ecology thereby putting oneself in abetter position to design a well-considered, resilient product.

Systems thinking and multi-context approaches to design are not original. However, the increasedpopularity of social impact design has led to many practitioners diving into an immersive experience withthe end-users of a product/system potentially at the expense of considering the other interconnectedcontexts, and thereby the ecology of the greater system. In this lies the potential that the design onlyeffectively addresses the problem in terms of the current context of the end-users at the expense of achanging broader ecology, hence limiting the solutions resilience. By defining and proposing In-context andEcology Immersion the authors aim to remind designers to consider the greater ecology associated withproblems they are trying to solve. This in turn should result in more resilient and sustainable products thatlimit the points of vulnerability for their users.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is based on the research supported in part by the National Research Foundation of South Africa forthe Thuthuka grant held by Angus D. Campbell titled Designing Development: An Exploration of TechnologyInnovation by Small-scale Urban Farmers in Johannesburg . Any opinion, finding and conclusion orrecommendation expressed in this material is that of the authors and the NRF does not accept any liability inthis regard.

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Balaram, S., 1998. Thinking design , National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad.

Brand, KG., 2014. ‘Design and development of a household farming kit’, viewed 3 April 2014,

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Buchanan, R., 1992. ‘Wicked problems in design thinking’, Design Issues, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 5-21.

Campbell, AD & Brand, KG., 2012. ‘Design of resilient products for small-scale farming in South Africa’,Proceedings of the Agrindustrial Design: 2nd International Product and Service Design Congress andExhibition on Agricultural Industries – Mediterranean/Food/Design. pp. 278-286, Izmir University ofEconomics Press, Turkey

FAO (Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations), 2008. ‘An introduction to the basic conceptsof food security’, viewed 10 October 2010, http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/al936e/al936e00.pdf .

IDEO, 2011. Human centered design toolkit , 2nd Edn, IDEO, Palo Alto.




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Martin, B & Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems,develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport Publishers, Beverly.

Meadows, DH., 2008. Thinking in systems: A primer . Chelsea Green Publishing, Vermont.

Nussbaum, B., 2010. ‘Is humanitarian design the new imperialism?’, viewed 12 July 2012,www.fastcodesign.com/1661859/is-humanitarian-design-the-new-imperialism .

Pasteur, K., 2011. From vulnerability to resilience: A framework for analysis and action to build communityresilience , Practical Action Publishing, Rugby.

Pirsig, RM., 1979. Zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance: An inquiry into values, reprint, Corgi Books,London.

Polak, P., 2009. Out of poverty: What works when traditional approaches fail , Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc,San Francisco.

Schumacher, EF., 2011. Small is beautiful: A study of economics as if people mattered , Vintage, New York.

Smillie, I., 2008. Mastering the machine revisited: Poverty, aid and technology , reprint, Practical ActionPublishing, Rugby.

Smithsonian Institution, 2013. Design and social impact: A cross-sectoral agenda for design education, researchand practice , The Smithsonian’s Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, in conjunction with the NationalEndowment for the Arts and The Lemelson Foundation, New York.

Walker, BH, Gunderson LH, Kinzig AP, Folke C, Carpenter, SR & Schultz, L., 2006. ‘A handful of heuristics andsome propositions for understanding resilience in social-ecological systems’, Ecology and Society, vol. 11, no.1, p. 13, viewed 4 April 2014, http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss1/art13/ .



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