brand identity documentation

8/4/2019 Brand Identity Documentation

1/27

Brand identity documentation:a cross-national examination

of identity standards manualsBegona Jorda-Albinana and Olga Ampuero-Canellas

Centro de Investigacion en Tecnologas Graficas,Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Natalia VilaDepartment of Marketing, Faculty of Economics, University of Valencia,

Valencia, Spain, and

Jose Ignacio Rojas-Sola

Department of Graphic Engineering, Design and Projects,University of Jaen, Jaen, Spain

Abstract

Purpose Thepurpose of thispaper isto identify the key features ofan identitystandards manualandassess the differences in the rules used for applying the brand to both low- and high-context cultures,companies selling consumer goods and those selling services, and multinational and local companies.

Design/methodology/approach The methodology is based on the analysis of 341 identitystandards manuals and on the analysis of three key features found in the manuals: contents, normativetone, and development.

Findings The results divide the contents of the manual into two blocks: core and peripheral; and

show that there are differences between the manuals of high- and low-context cultures, companiesselling consumer goods and those selling services, and multinational and local companies.

Research limitations/implications Type I errors could have been introduced and theconclusions must be regarded as tentative.

Practical implications The findings show that applying the brand at an international levelrequires a strategy of adaptation which takes into account the particular nature of each culture.

Originality/value This paper contributes to the debate on standardization/adaptation of the signsof visual identity (name, logo, and color) in global marketing, by studying the rules used in applyingthe brand and discussion of the documents which contain them.

Keywords Brands, International marketing, National cultures

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionCompanies that focus on developing an effective image program have control over a keycompetitive weapon (Gray and Smeltzer, 1987), and managers mindful of theircompanys image cannot afford to ignore the corporate identity of the organization(van Rekom, 1997). One of the more readily identifiable features of corporate identity is

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0265-1335.htm

The authors would like to thank the R&D&I Linguistic Assistance Office, UniversidadPolitecnica de Valencia (Spain), for translating this paper.

IMR26,2

172

Received February 2008Revised June 2008,August 2008Accepted September 2008

International Marketing Review

Vol. 26 No. 2, 2009

pp. 172-197

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

0265-1335

DOI 10.1108/02651330910950411


2/27

the visual component that is specified in the identity standards manual (van den Boschet al., 2004). This document is a guide to managing the application of the corporateidentity visual system (Margulies, 1977) and is a fundamental tool for any companywishing to apply its brand in a consistent way (Margulies, 1977; Melewar et al., 2005;

Olins, 1991; Regouby, 1989). Despite the importance of this document, few studies haveexamined its contents from a marketing point of view. Most of the information comesfrom the world of graphic design, and the studies are based more on the experience ofprofessionals than on empirical research (Bos et al., 1991; Carter, 1998; Oejo, 1999;Whitbread, 2001). Furthermore, most of the studies comparing different countries,sectors or companies have concentrated mainly on the medium in which the brand isapplied: advertising in general (Pratt, 1993; van Raaij, 1997), television, print media(Ahmed, 2000; Al-Olayan and Karande, 2000) and the internet (Okazaki, 2005; Vila,2004). Corporate identity, visual identity and the ways to apply them consistently havebeen studied to a lesser extent (Jun and Lee, 2007; Madden et al., 2000; Melewar andWooldridge, 2001; van den Bosch et al., 2006a, b).

Against this background and in an attempt to add something new to thewell-established debate on standardization/adaptation of international marketing(Ryans et al., 2003; Whitelock and Fastoso, 2007; Wong and Merrilees, 2007), this studyanalyses 341 identity standards manuals from all over the world and from differenteconomic sectors, with four main aims to:

(1) identify the key features of an identity standards manual so as to betterunderstand the rules for applying the brand;

(2) assess the differences in the rules used for applying the brand to both low- andhigh-context cultures;

(3) assess the differences in the rules for applying the brand to both companiesselling consumer goods and those selling services; and

(4) assess the differences in the rules for applying the brand to both multinationaland local companies.

The analysis of these differences is based on three key features found in the manuals:contents of the manual, normative tone and development of the manual. The resultswill be a guide for any company interested in designing an identity standards manualand especially for those operating in different countries and cultures.

We begin with an explanation of the theoretical framework of the rules for applyingthe brand and identity standards manuals and how they are related to differentcultures, types of products and geographical expansion of the company. Then, weexplain the research method, how the data were obtained and the variables used tomeasure the proposed concepts. We provide the results of the analysis and comment on

them in the discussion section. Finally, we summarize the main conclusions, themanagerial implications and the limitations of the research.

Theoretical backgroundCorporate visual identity and international marketingCorporate visual identity can be defined as the way an organization uses logotypes,typography styles, names and architecture to communicate its corporate philosophyand personality (Melewar et al., 2005). When a company plans to expand to other

Brand identitdocumentatio

17


3/27

countries or cultures, it also needs to determine how to transmit its brand withoutlosing its identity; thus, the question whether to adapt or standardize the brand is morecommon in the area of international branding (Whitelock and Fastoso, 2007). Theproblem of whether to adapt the brand name has been the subject of numerous studies

(Whitelock and Fastoso, 2007), but less attention has been paid to studying visualidentity in the international sphere. This explains why Whitelock and Fastosos (2007)study recommends that future research should concentrate on aspects such asstandardizing visual signs (e.g. colors and logotypes).

However, a brand is more than a name and a set of graphic signs; it also comprises aseries of rules or a system that indicates how it should be applied (Margulies, 1977;Melewar and Saunders, 1998; Rogers, 1997; Villafane, 1999). Such a corporate visualidentity system encourages positive associations with the company (Rogers, 1997),strengthens brand image (Kohli et al., 2002), unifies the messages and positions thecompany as an entity (Olins, 1991), thus reducing the risk of image fragmentation(Chajet, 1989). In the field of international marketing, previous findings need to beextended through a study of the cultural differences that exist when rules for applyingthe brand are established. If branding has enormous potential for internationalmarketing (Wong and Merrilees, 2007), application of this branding should have afundamental place within international marketing theory.

Identity standards manual: history, concept and dimensionsAs early as 1850, several British railway companies attempted to standardize thedesign of stations, trains and certain graphic designs (Hefting, 1991). However, theGerman company AEG and Olivetti in Italy are usually cited as the pioneers in identitydesign because, at the beginning of the twentieth century, they formally entrusted adesigner with the task of devising a coherent design to use for their buildings,advertising, products and sales outlets (Muller-Brockmann, 1998). Later, the Ulm

Design School, founded in Germany in 1951, defined the methodology needed to giveidentity design greater depth in discipline and formality (Satue, 1992).

More recently, van den Bosch et al. (2004) identified 11 measures an organization cantake to attain a consistent visual identity. One of them is the visual identity standardsmanual or corporate identity manual, which provides a set of rules on how to usegraphics correctly and consistently in all marketing communication (Margulies, 1977;Melewar et al., 2005; Regouby, 1989; Rogers, 1997; Villafane, 1999). Olins (1991) statesthat all companies should have one of these manuals because it is impossible toimplement and maintain the visual aspect of an identity program without one.

In their proposals for the contents of an identity standards manual, Costa (1989),Regouby (1989), Bos et al. (1991), Hernandez Mogollon (1997), Carter (1998), Villafane(1999) and Sanz de la Tajada (2000) all establish a similar structure that comprises fivedimensions:

(1) introduction, which contains the objectives of the visual identity system,instructions for use and the basic terminology that will be used in the manual;

(2) basic elements of visual identity, including logo, symbol, brand, corporatecolors and typefaces;

(3) rules for using the brand, which basically refer to the layout and size of theitems, the color and the decorative items;

IMR26,2

174


4/27

(4) applications of the brand to various pieces, such as stationery, advertising,publications, uniforms, vehicles and signage; and

(5) technical complements, which contain the color swatches and art files needed toreproduce the visual identity.

The manuals vary in form, but almost all include these five dimensions. The maindifferences are in the contents referring to how the dimensions are applied becausethere is a wide variation depending on the business activity and the size of thecompany (Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006; Villafane, 1999; Whitbread, 2001). In this sense, adistinction can be made between core dimensions, which are present in the majorityof corporate manuals, and peripheral dimensions, which are present only in somemanuals. Thus, we postulate the following hypotheses:

H1a. There are five dimensions that define the contents of an identity standardsmanual.

H1b. The dimensions of an identity standards manual can be divided into core andperipheral dimensions.

Gutierrez Gonzalez (2006) divides the identity standards manuals into two types simple and complex according to how far they are developed. The simple manualcontains only basic rules for using the brand and is relevant to companies whosebrands have a limited application. The complex manual attempts to address all thepossible circumstances in which a brand can be used and is relevant to big companieswith many alternatives for implementing the visual identity and the potential for manypeople to use the brand. The complex manual tends to have more pages and sectionsthan the simple manual.

With regard to the tone used in the writing of the rules, the manual should be bothstrict and flexible (Bos et al., 1991; Costa, 1989; Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006), bearing in

mind that excessive rigidity can limit creativity whereas excessive flexibility can leadto a distorted identity. Depending on the type of company, the level of detail used inwriting the rules can range from a meticulous description to a casual, broad-brushdescription (Whitbread, 2001).

Rules for applying the brand: differences between high- and low-context culturesHall (1976) concentrates on the type of communication that is predominant in eachculture and distinguishes between high-context cultures, in which high-contextcommunication is predominant (i.e. most of the information transmitted is found in thephysical or internalised context of the person, in which non-verbal communication andsilences play an important role), and low-context cultures, in which low-contextcommunication is predominant (i.e. most of the information conveyed is included in theexplicit code, and non-verbal communication is unimportant). Direct, explicit messagesare appropriate to low-context cultures, whereas implicit, indirect and ambiguousmessages are appropriate to high-context cultures (Gudykunst et al., 1996). In addition,in low-context communication, the receiver knows very little and must be toldpractically everything, whereas in high-context communication, the receiver is alreadycontextualised and does not require preliminaries or introductions (Hall and Hall, 1990).

High-context cultures are more common in the East than in the West and incountries that have a strong sense of tradition and history and change little over time.


17


5/27

In contrast, low-context cultures change drastically from one generation to another.Furthermore, social behavior in high-context cultures is based more on social rules andcodes than on explicit laws, whereas low-context cultures tend to be more law oriented(Al-Olayan and Karande, 2000). Likewise, Wurtz (2006) points out that low-context

cultures prefer fast messages, which are easily decoded and interpreted (headlines,television ads, and prose), whereas high-context cultures prefer slow messages, whichrequire more effort to be interpreted and decoded (books, television documentaries, andpoetry). Thus, by relating the features of low- and high-context communications to thecontents, normative tone and development of the identity standards manuals, we canestablish the following hypotheses:

H2a. Since low-context communication is reinforced by preliminaries to contextualisethe receiver, the presentation section will have a higher profile in manuals oflow-context cultures than in manuals of high-context cultures.

H2b. Since high-context communication gives more importance to non-verbal elementswhereas low-context communication gives more importance to textual elements,the graphic aspects of the brand (symbol and logotype) will have a greaterpresence in manuals of high-context cultures whereas the textual aspect of thebrand (name) will have a greater presence in manuals of low-context cultures.

H2c. Since ambiguous, indirect, and elaborate messages are characteristic ofhigh-context communication, rules for use of the brand referring to decorativeelements (e.g. secondary typefaces, secondary colors, corporate tiled pattern, andsupergraphic) will have a higher profile in manuals of high-context cultures thanin manuals of low-context cultures.

H2d. Since low-context cultures tend to be more legalistic and based on written rules,the manuals of low-context cultures will include more rules and consequently will

have a more rigid tone than manuals of high-context cultures.

H2e. Because of their preference for direct language and fast messages, low-contextcultures will have less-developed manuals, whereas because of their preferencefor indirect, elaborate language, and slow messages, high-context cultures willhave more complex manuals.

Rules for applying the brand: differences between companies offering consumer goodsand companies offering servicesFrom a design perspective, there seems to be agreement that the contents of manualsvary in accordance with the business activity or type of problems faced by thecompany and that the greatest differences are found in the dimension called

applications of brand (Bos et al., 1991; Costa, 1989; Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006;Villafane, 1999). Thus, we can hypothesize the following:

H3a. The greatest difference in contents between the manuals of tangible goodscompanies and service companies can be found in the dimension applicationsof brand.

van den Bosch et al. (2006b) emphasize that open and dynamic organizations seem touse their corporate visual identity in a more consistent way than those of a closed or

IMR26,2

176


6/27

static nature. If, as van den Bosch et al. (2006a) claim, service companies are more openand dynamic than companies with tangible products, they will try to have a moreconsistent visual identity and, consequently, to use more rigid or rule-based manuals tohelp them attain this. Similarly, Wilson (1997) points out that quality and effectiveness

in delivering a service vary significantly from one branch office to another and atdifferent moments in time. This inconsistency creates the need for more rigid rules tohelp standardize the service and convey one single image. This rigidity can beextrapolated to the identity standards manual. Thus, we can hypothesize the following:

H3b. Service providers manuals will have a more rigid normative tone thantangible goods companies manuals.

In relation to the corporate identity of a service, Wilson (1997) also shows thatdesigning and controlling corporate behavior is much more difficult and complex thanmanaging visual identity. A similar idea is maintained by van den Bosch et al. (2006a);they indicate that manufacturing companies rely more on the tools for managing

corporate visual identity than service companies do. Consequently, we can hypothesizethe following:

H3c. Product-based companies will tend to have more complex manuals, whereasservice providers will tend to use simple manuals.

Rules for applying the brand: differences between multinational and local companiesSeveral studies have analysed the need to adapt or standardize the brand and/or visualidentity in an international context (Jun and Lee, 2007; Melewar and Saunders, 1998;Schmitt, 1995). Unlike other aspects of marketing communication, the nature of visualidentity tends towards centralization, and its standardization is accepted by local

managers and produces profits by having a favorable impact on consumers and sales,enhancing advertising awareness, and enhancing the success of executive recruitment,for example Melewar and Saunders (1998). Melewar and Saunders (2000) find apositive relationship between the degree of standardization of the visual identity ofmultinational companies and the perceived effectiveness of the different applications ofthe brand used by the organization.

In terms of design, Villafane (1999) points out that the applications of the brandincluded in the manual vary with the size of the company. Likewise, Melewar andKaraosmanoglu (2006) find that large multinational companies identify architectureand location as an important aspect of visual corporate identity. Accordingly, we positthe following hypothesis:

H4a. The contents of the identity standards manuals of multinational companieswill vary from those of local companies in the dimension applications ofbrand and, in particular, in the sections on architecture and signage.

For a global brand, it is imperative that the central organization does not lose strategiccontrol by allowing local or regional branches to have too much autonomy (Roellig,2001). This is even more important in todays context, in which practically allemployees have easy access to digital tools to manage or design communications ontheir own (Keeley, 2001). Consequently, we offer the following hypothesis:


17


7/27

H4b. The identity standards manuals of multinational companies will have a morerigid normative tone than those of local companies.

Whitbread (2001) and Gutierrez Gonzalez (2006) state that the development of the

manual depends on the number of possible users who will apply the identity.Considering that the number of people involved in the use of the visual identity isgreater in a multinational company, the manuals of these companies will be morecomplex. This idea is corroborated by Oejo (1999), who states that the manual of localsmall and medium-sized enterprises may be a few pages in length, whereas somemultinational companies may need three volumes and editions in different scripts(e.g. Latin, Arabic, and Chinese):

H4c. The identity standards manuals of multinational companies will tend to bemore complex than those of local companies.

Methodology

SampleThe methodology is based on the analysis of identity standards manuals. To obtain themanuals, we consulted three web pages that select, classify and offer manuals tographic designers (i.e. www.ci-portal.de, www.identityworks.com and www.brandsoftheworld.com). The manuals available are representative of manuals thatare currently being designed for companies for two reasons:

(1) designers include their latest work completed for a company on these sites; and

(2) the manuals are used as models for designing other manuals, according toCosta (1989).

From the manuals available on these web pages, we selected 341 manuals that

contained the three basic features common to all manuals (Whitbread, 2001):identifiers, instructions on what to do and instructions on what not to do. Table Iincludes a more detailed description of the sample.

Coding procedure: content analysisThis paper focuses on content analysis because little empirical research has been doneregarding mission statement content (Pearce and David, 1987; Peyrefitte and David,2006). Furthermore, the suitability of using content analysis in cross-cultural studies isnoted in recent studies by Wang and Chan (2001), Lin and Jeffres (2001), Jo and Jung(2005) and Heinonen and Strandvik (2005). To provide greater guarantees as to thereliability of the results and before statistical analysis, two specially trained judges(doctoral students) evaluated each manual independently. Following Jo and Jungs

(2005) recommendations, the judges coded 10 percent of the manuals and assessedwhether the properties studied existed. Discrepancies were solved by discussionbetween the judges, in line with Holstis (1969) procedure.

The statistical tool used to demonstrate that agreement between the two judges wasCohens (1960) k. If there is perfect agreement, the statistical value will be 100 percent;otherwise, it will be zero. The result ofk-values for the majority of the variables wasabove 0.8. In the rare cases in which k-values were below 0.7, the coding procedure wasrepeated so as to reach higher values.

IMR26,2

178


8/27

Corporate information obtained: variables of measurementAt the beginning of the content analysis of the manuals, we compiled a list of thesections included in these documents according to three criteria:

(1) the proposals of the existing literature;

(2) the contents of the manuals of the top ten companies, following Jo and Jungs(2005) recommendations; and

(3) the results of a survey sent to 106 design studios that had worked in the area ofvisual identity, had proven experience in the graphic design sector and hadreceived some kind of recognition for their work.

In total, 51 graphic designers answered the survey. The survey consisted of a file with

46 contents, and the interviewees needed to signal the contents that in their opinionwere part of an identity standards manual. Table II shows the results of this survey inmore detail.

No. % No. of products No. of services

SectorEducation 77 22.58 77

Public 48 14.08 48Technology 25 7.33 16 9Foundations/non-governmental organizations 23 6.74 23Telecommunications 21 6.16 6 15Industry 20 5.87 19 1Transport 19 5.57 5 14Tourism 18 5.28 18Health 17 4.99 6 11Culture 14 4.11 1 13B2B 10 2.93 10Real estate 9 2.64 2 7Energy 8 2.35 7 1Finances 6 1.76 6

Food and agriculture 5 1.47 5 Sports 5 1.47 5Politics 4 1.17 4Others 12 3.52 4 8Total 341 100 71 270CultureVery high-context 12 3.52High-context 119 34.90Low-context 122 35.78Very low-context 88 25.81Total 341 100

No. of pagesUp to 10 66 19.35From 11 to 30 143 41.94

From 31 to 50 61 17.89From 51 to 100 42 12.32More than 100 29 8.50Total 341 100

TableFeatures of the manua

analyze


179


9/27

Subsequently, we removed seven sections that obtained a frequency lower than20 percent (brand strategy, typographic standards, third dimension, blind emboss,formats, basic grid, and brand placement). In the opinion of the designers surveyed, themanual should not include these items because they do not strictly correspond to the

Dimensions Variables Percentage of citation

1. Introduction Presentation 90.20 Brand strategy 7.84 (excluded)

Contents 100.00User guide 58.82Glossary 74.51

2. Basic elements of visual identity History/values 68.63Name 62.75Logo 100.00Symbol 100.00Brand 100.00Corporate colors 100.00Corporate typefaces 92.16

3. Rules for using the brand Typographic standards 7.84 (excluded)Spatial versions 92.16Proportions 90.20

Exclusion zone 100.00Minimum size 100.00Construction grid 72.55Chromatic versions 94.12Monochromatic versions 100.00Third dimension 7.84 (excluded)

Blind emboss 3.92 (excluded)Color backgrounds 52.94Print variations 76.47Secondary typefaces 98.04Secondary colors 98.04Corporate tiled pattern 84.31Supergraphic 76.47Incorrrect applications 90.20

Formats 5.88 (excluded) Basic grid 7.84 (excluded) Brand placement 13.73 (excluded)

4. Applications of brand Stationery 100.00Publications 86.27Advertising 90.20Promotional tems 88.24Events 76.47Packaging labels 74.51Point of sale 76.47Architecture 56.86Signage 92.16Vehicles 90.20Uniforms 82.35

Web site usage 88.245. Technical complements Color swatches 74.51

Art files 100.00

Table II.Results of the surveyof 51 graphic designers

IMR26,2

180


10/27

manuals contents or are already included in other sections. We used the remaining39 sections to make a template for analysing the manuals contents.

To study the normative tone of the manuals, we accounted for the number of rulespresent in the advertising section. According to Reddy (2002), too many rules in this

section restrict creativity and are a clear indicator of a manual with a rigid tone.Conversely, fewer rules open up the possibilities for the advertiser and indicate aflexible tone. For each manual, the amount of rules appearing in this advertisingsection were counted, with the idea that if the number is high, the normative tone willbe rigid, and if it is low, the normative tone will be flexible.

To measure the level of development of the manuals, in line with the indications ofthe literature (Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006), we counted the pages and sections in eachmanual. Although the number of pages is a clear indicator of the length of the manual,certain design decisions can increase the number of pages without having an effect onthe information contained (e.g. wide margins, larger graphics or typefaces, blank pagesseparating the sections). Thus, counting the sections provides a better idea of the

degree to which the manual is developed.To categorise the culture to which each manual belongs, we used theclassification proposed by Hall and Hall (1990). This classification identifies fourdifferent contexts:

(1) very high-context cultures (e.g. Japan, China, and Arab countries);

(2) high-context cultures (e.g. Greece, Spain, Italy, England, and France);

(3) low-context cultures (e.g. the USA and Canada); and

(4) very low-context cultures (e.g. Scandinavian and German-speaking countries).

To measure the concept of product vs service, we classified the companies accordingto the procedure used by van den Bosch et al. (2006a), which distinguishes between

service providers and manufacturing companies dedicated to delivering tangibleproducts and services related to those products. To measure the concept ofmultinational vs local, we consulted the web page of each company and then used adichotomic variable to indicate its local or multinational character.

Statistical treatment: techniques appliedIn the content analysis, we applied a binary code procedure to estimate the presence ofeach of the 39 sections established. To check H1 and show that various dimensionsdefine the contents of an identity standards manual, we used the Kolmogorov-Smirnov(K-S) test. The differences with respect to the normal function (theoretical) indicate thatthe variables measured can be divided hierarchically into two large groups: variables

with significant presence in fewer than 50 percent of the manuals analysed andvariables that are significantly present in more than 50 percent of the manualsanalysed. The cluster analysis method was also used in hierarchical mode to distributethe 39 variables studied into dimensions. To check H2-H4 and demonstrate theexistence of significant differences among the manuals according to the type of culture,type of product and type of company, we used x2 analysis and the Kruskal-Wallisone-way analysis of variance test, following the indications of Jo and Jung (2005) andPeyrefitte and David (2006).


18


11/27

ResultsContent analysis of the identity standards manualsThe relevance of each of the 39 sections analysed is ascertained by how often theyappear in the manuals, and their importance is assessed using quartiles. The K-S test

identifies the variables that appear significantly in more than half the manuals studied.As Table III shows, of the 39 variables, 13 are prominent in more than 50 percent of themanuals. These 13 variables belong to four of the five dimensions identified by theliterature:

(1) introduction (two out of a total of four variables);

(2) basic elements of visual identity (three out of a total of seven variables);

(3) rules for using the brand (seven out of a total of 14 variables); and

(4) applications of brand (one out of a total of 12 variables).

In view of these results, dimensions 1-3 can be considered core contents of an identitystandards manual and dimensions 4 and 5 (technical complements) can be considered

peripheral contents. Dimension 4 is included in the second group because only one ofits 12 variables is present in more than 50 percent of the manuals. Thus, H1a and H1bare accepted.

When comparing these results with the designers answers (Table II), we show thatthe sections appearing most in the manuals are those mentioned most by the designers,and the sections appearing least are also those mentioned least by the designers.However, the degree of importance given is different; for example, 92.16 percentof designers agree that the corporate typefaces section is important, but only73.2 percent of the manuals include it. This may be because the designers are speakingabout the sections in general whereas the manual refers to specific cases that is, aspecific brand or company that differs in certain aspects from the general norm.

Next, following Ward cluster analysis results, we can group the variables analysedinto two groups according to the following three reasons:

(1) the solution explains a large intra-group variance (d2 # 65 percent), in whichboth groups differed greatly from each other;

(2) the addition of a third group explains less than 5 percent of the additionalvariance (Dd# 5 percent) (Flavian andPolo, 1998; Lewis and Thomas,1990); and

(3) when the dendogram is analysed, two groups of variables appear rapidly (Regerand Huff, 1993).

Thus, as Table IV shows, the natural solution is two groups.Study of the variables included in Cluster 1 (Table V) shows that they coincide with

those present in more than 50 percent of the identity standards manuals analysed (the only

exception is the advertising variable). In contrast, the variables that appear less frequentlyin the manuals are in Cluster 2. H1b is again corroborated because the core dimensionsand peripheral dimensions of an identity standards manual have been identified.

Differences in the contents of identity standards manuals: high-context vs low-contextcultures, tangible vs intangible products and multinational vs local firmsThe results of Table VI show that of the 39 sections analysed, 18 differ significantly inthe four cultures studied. The differences found were the following. For dimension 1,

IMR26,2

182


12/27

the manuals of low-context cultures include the presentation section much morefrequently than those of high-context cultures (x2 9.921, p , 0.05) (,70 vs 33percent). This is in line with the literature that indicates that low-context cultures aremore likely to use presentations to help situate the receiver. Thus, H2a is supported.

Test (K-S) Sig.

Low importance (variables present in , 25 percent of the manuals) a

Point of sale (4) 0.9 9.8 0.0

Architecture (4) 2.3 10.0 0.0Print variations (3) 2.9 10.0 0.0Corporate tiled pattern (3) 3.8 10.0 0.0Color swatches (5) 4.4 10.0 0.0User guide (1) 4.9 10.0 0.0Packaging labels (4) 5.6 10.0 0.0Name (2) 6.1 9.9 0.0Events (4) 6.7 9.9 0.0Uniforms (4) 7.6 9.9 0.0History/values (2) 8.6 9.9 0.0Supergraphic (3) 8.7 9.9 0.0Glossary (1) 9.6 9.8 0.0Construction grid (3) 16.6 9.4 0.0

Vehicles (4) 19.2 9.2 0.0Promotional tems (4) 19.2 9.1 0.0Logo (2) 20.1 9.0 0.0Web site usage(4) 22.7 8.9 0.0Symbol (2) 23.9 8.7 0.0

Medium importance (variables present in 25-50 percent of the manuals)Signage (4) 27.7 8.4 0.0Publications (4) 31.2 8.1 0.0Proportions (3) 31.8 8.1 0.0Art files (5) 34.1 7.8 0.0Secondary colors (3) 38.0 7.4 0.0Color backgrounds (3) 39.5 7.3 0.0Advertising (4) 45.5 6.7 0.0

High importance (variables present in 50-60 percent of the manuals)

Chromatic versions (3) 49.9 6.3 0.0Secondary typefaces (3) 50.0 6.3 0.0Spatial versions (3) 51.0 6.4 0.0Minimum size (3) 56.0 6.8 0.0Stationery (4) 63.0 7.6 0.0Exclusion zone (3) 60.9 7.3 0.0Incorrect application (3) 61.5 7.4 0.0Monochromatic version (3) 68.5 8.1 0.0Very high importance (variables present in more than 75 percent of the manuals)Contents (1) 66.2 8.4 0.0Presentation (1) 72.3 7.8 0.0Corporate typefaces (2) 73.2 8.5 0.0Brand (2) 88.3 9.7 0.0Corporate colors (2) 91.9 9.9 0.0

Note: aThe number in parentheses indicates the dimension to which the variable belongs, according tothe literature

Table IIImportance of th

variables in designinan identity standard

manu


18


13/27

For dimension 2, the manuals of high-context cultures stand out from the rest inthe section history/values (x2 4.24, p , 0.05), showing a greater sense oftradition and history typical of these cultures. Much more emphasis is also given tosymbol (x2 20.33, p , 0.01) and logo (x2 49.76, p , 0.01), the latter of which

appears more frequently in the manuals of high-context cultures. In contrast,low-context cultures tend to prefer the section name (x2 9.71, p , 0.05). Thus,H2b is accepted because high-context cultures show a preference for the graphicfeatures of the brand (symbol and logo) and low-context cultures show a preferencefor the textual features (brand name). The corporate typefaces section appears withmuch greater frequency in the manuals of very high-context and high-contextcultures (x2 8.993, p , 0.05), and this preference coincides with the importance forthese cultures of the context surrounding the communication (e.g., typeface size,thickness, and modulation).

For dimension 3, the manuals of very high-context and high-context cultures show asignificant preference for two of the rules that refer to decorative features:supergraphic (x2 9.55, p , 0.05) and corporate tiled pattern (x2 19.89,

p , 0.01), in partial support of H2c. These manuals also give greater importance tochromatic versions (x2 9.14, p , 0.05) and color backgrounds (x2 10.84,p , 0.05), as well as to most of the rules that refer to the layout and size of items:proportions (x2 26.50, p , 0.01), minimum size (x2 26.48, p , 0.01) andconstruction grid (x2 36.003, p , 0.01). In contrast, low-context cultures show amarked emphasis on the sections exclusion zone (x2 50.66, p , 0.01) andincorrect applications (x2 43.96, p , 0.01). The emphasis on the latter section is inline with the concise nature of low-context communication because this section tries tosynthesise the main guidelines on how to use the brand.

For dimension 4, manuals for very high-context cultures tend to include theuniforms (x2 7.81, p , 0.05) section more frequently, perhaps because of theimportance these cultures give people in terms of their influence on communication.Manuals of high-context cultures give more importance to stationery (x2 9.22,p , 0.05), and manuals of very-low-context cultures place particular emphasis onpublications (x2 11.49, p , 0.01), which reflects the preference of these culturesfor predominantly textual communication.

As for type of product, the results show that of the 39 variables analysed, only fourhave significant differences (Table VI). These belong to dimension 4: applications ofbrand. This is in line with H3a, which states that the manuals of consumer goods

Cluster

Intra-group varianceexplained

(s2

$ 60 %)

Variance notexplained

(s2

# 40 %)

Increase of intra-group varianceexplained by each cluster added

(Ds2

$ 5 %)

4 78.13 21.70 0.103 78.20 21.80 5.002 82.45 $ 60 17.55 # 40 21.27 $ 51 100.00 0.00

Note: Hierarchical cluster analysisSource: Own data and calculations

Table IV.Intra-cluster varianceexplained

IMR26,2

184


14/27

companies and service companies are similar except in the dimension related toapplying the brand. Thus, this hypothesis is supported. More specifically, the manualsof companies with tangible products place more emphasis on packaging labels(x2 27.28, p , 0.01), architecture (x2 4.15, p , 0.05) and vehicles

Items included inCluster 1 by the program

Items included inCluster 2 by the program

Cluster 1: permanent items

Presentation (1) 1Contents (1) 1Brand (2) 1Corporate colors (2) 1Corporate typefaces (2) 1Spatial versions (3) 1Exclusion zone (3) 1Minimum size (3) 1Monochromatic versions (3) 1Incorrect applications (3) 1Stationery (4) 1

Advertising (4) 1Cluster 2: variable items

User guide (1) 2Glossary (1) 2History/values (2) 2Name (2) 2Logo (2) 2Symbol (2) 2Proportions (3) 2Construction grid (3) 2Chromatic versions (3) 2Color backgrounds (3) 2Print variations (3) 2Secondary typefaces (3) 2Secondary colors (3) 2Corporate tiled pattern (3) 2

Supergraphic (3) 2Publications (4) 2Promotional items (4) 2Events (4) 2Packaging labels (4) 2Points of sale (4) 2Architecture (4) 2Signage (4) 2Vehicles (4) 2Uniforms (4) 2Web site usage (4) 2Color swatches (5) 2Art files (5) 2

Note: The number in parentheses indicates the dimension to which the variable belongs, according tothe literature

Table VBelonging conglomera


18


15/27

Accordingtoculture

Accordin

gtoproduct

Accordingtoc

ompany

No.ofitems

x

2

(df3

)

Very

high-context

(%)

High-context

(%)

Low

-context

(%)

Very

low-context

(%)

x

2

(df1)

Goods

(%)

Services

(%)

x

2

(df1)

Local

(%)

Multinational

(%)

Presentation

9.9

21*

33.3

73.1

74.0

71.6

Nosig.

66.7

73.8

Nosig.

74.4

66.7

Contents

Nosig.

41.7

68.1

65.4

65.9

Nosig.

61.1

67.5

Nosig.

68.4

60.2

Userguide

Nosig.

8.3

5.9

6.3

2.3

Nosig.

6.9

4.8

Nosig.

4.4

7.5

Glossary

Nosig.

0.0

10.9

11.8

5.7

Nosig.

12.5

8.9

Nosig.

8.4

12.9

History/values

4.2

4*

16.7

11.8

6.3

5.7

Nosig.

12.5

7.4

Nosig.

7.2

11.8

Name

9.7

11*

8.3

3.4

11.0

2.3

Nosig.

6.9

5.9

Nosig.

5.6

7.5

Logo

49.7

65*

*

8.3

40.3

13.4

3.4

Nosig.

12.5

22.1

Nosig.

21.6

16.1

Symbol

20.3

35*

*

50.0

34.5

19.7

11.4

Nosig.

19.4

25.1

Nosig.

24.8

21.5

Brand

Nosig.

83.3

86.6

8.7

89.8

Nosig.

88.9

88.2

Nosig.

88.4

88.2

Corporate

colors

Nosig.

75.0

94.1

89.0

92.0

Nosig.

88.9

92.6

3.8

24*

93.6

87.1

Corporate

typefaces

8.9

93*

75.0

81.5

63.0

73.9

Nosig.

73.6

73.1

4.8

7*

76.4

64.5

Spatial

versions

Nosig.

58.3

58.8

47.2

43.2

Nosig.

44.4

52.8

Nosig.

54.0

43.0

Proportions

26.5

07*

*

33.3

45.4

15.0

36.4

Nosig.

31.9

31.7

Nosig.

30.4

35.5

Exclusion

zone

50.6

69*

*

41.7

70.6

73.2

30.7

Nosig.

68.1

59.0

Nosig.

58.8

66.7

Minimumsize

26.4

87*

*

58.3

67.2

59.8

33.0

Nosig.

55.6

56.1

Nosig.

54.4

60.2

Construction

grid

36.0

03*

*

25.0

31.9

3.9

12.5

Nosig.

9.7

18.5

Nosig.

18.0

12.9

Chromatic

versions

9.1

40*

50.0

54.6

54.3

36.4

Nosig.

45.8

51.3

Nosig.

48.0

55.9

Monocromatic

versions

Nosig.

75.0

70.6

69.3

38.6

Nosig.

63.9

69.7

Nosig.

70.4

63.4

Col.

backgrounds

10.8

44*

58.3

46.2

40.9

26.1

Nosig.

40.3

39.9

Nosig.

41.2

36.6

Print

variations

Nosig.

0.0

2.5

4.7

1.1

Nosig.

2.8

3.0

Nosig.

2.8

3.2

(continued)

Table VI.Significant differencesin the contents of themanuals accordingto culture, productand company

IMR26,2

186


16/27

Accordingtoculture

Accordin

gtoproduct

Accordingtoc

ompany

No.ofitems

x

2

(df3

)

Very

high-context

(%)

High-context

(%)

Low

-context

(%)

Very

low-context

(%)

x

2

(df1)

Goods

(%)

Services

(%)

x

2

(df1)

Local

(%)

Multinational

(%)

Secondary

typefaces

Nosig.

41.7

48.7

53.5

45.5

Nosig.

47.2

50.6

Nosig.

49.6

50.5

Secondary

colors

Nosig.

33.3

30.3

44.1

40.9

Nosig.

43.1

37.3

Nosig.

36.8

43.0

Corporatetiled

pattern

19.8

94*

*

0.0

10.1

0.8

0.0

Nosig.

1.4

4.4

Nosig.

4.4

2.2

Supergraphic

9.5

56*

33.3

8.4

7.9

6.8

Nosig.

8.3

8.9

Nosig.

7.6

11.8

Incorrect

applications

43.9

69*

*

75.0

58.8

78.7

36.4

Nosig.

61.1

61.6

Nosig.

65.6

50.5

Stationery

9.2

22*

41.7

69.7

53.5

68.2

4.0

63*

52.8

65.7

Nosig.

65.2

57.0

Publications

11.4

96*

*

16.7

32.8

22.0

43.2

Nosig.

23.6

33.2

Nosig.

32.8

26.9

Advertising

Nosig.

41.7

49.6

35.4

53.4

Nosig.

44.4

45.8

Nosig.

44.4

48.4

Promotional

items

Nosig.

8.3

21.8

21.3

13.6

Nosig.

16.7

19.9

3.5

*

16.8

25.8

Events

Nosig.

0.0

8.4

6.3

5.7

Nosig.

11.1

5.5

7.8

3**

4.4

12.9

Packaging

labels

Nosig.

0.0

3.4

8.7

4.5

27.2

83**

18.1

2.2

22.0

**

2.0

15.1

Pointofsale

Nosig.

0.0

0.8

0.0

2.3

Nosig.

0.0

1.1

Nosig.

1.2

0.0

Architecture

Nosig.

0.0

1.7

2.4

3.4

4.1

56*

5.6

1.5

Nosig.

1.6

4.3

Signage

Nosig.

33.3

34.5

21.3

26.1

Nosig.

29.2

27.3

Nosig.

26.8

30.1

Vehicles

Nosig.

25.0

21.8

15.7

19.3

4.2

73*

27.8

17.0

3.5

*

16.8

25.8

Uniforms

7.8

18*

16.7

11.8

3.1

6.8

Nosig.

11.1

6.6

Nosig.

6.4

10.8

Website

usage

Nosig.

8.3

19.3

22.8

28.4

Nosig.

22.2

22.9

Nosig.

22.0

24.7

Color

swatches

Nosig.

0.0

7.6

3.1

2.3

Nosig.

4.2

4.4

Nosig.

3.2

7.5

Artfiles

Nosig.

16.7

32.8

37.0

33.0

Nosig.

333

34.3

Nosig.

34.8

32.3

Note:Significantat:*p,

0.05;**p,

0.01

Table V


18


17/27

(x2 4.27, p , 0.05); this is because tangible products must be packed, stored andtransported. In contrast, the only significant aspect of the manuals of companiesoffering services is that they contain the stationery section more frequently(x2 4.06, p , 0.05). This is because in the absence of a tangible product, companies

give more importance to items that help provide a tangible aspect to the service offered(e.g. business cards, invoices, reports, and quotations).

Finally, with regard to company expansion, only six of the 39 variables studiedshowed significant differences (Table VI). These belong to dimensions 2 and 4. Fordimension 2, the sections related to corporate colors (x2 3.82, p , 0.05) andcorporate typefaces (x2 4.87, p , 0.05) appear far more frequently in the manualsof local companies. For dimension 4, the manuals of multinational companies place fargreater emphasis on promotional items (x2 3.5, p , 0.05), events (x2 7.83,p , .01), packaging labels (x2 22.0, p , 0.01) and vehicles (x2 3.5, p , 0.05).This may reflect a multinational companys attempt to cover all the possibleapplications of the brand so that the subsidiaries can find relevant examples of how toapply the brand and uncontrolled applications are reduced to the minimum. This is inpartial support of H4a because the results show significant differences in theapplications of the brand but no significant differences in terms of architecture andsignage.

Differences in the normative tone of identity standards manuals: high-context vslow-context cultures, tangible vs intangible products and multinational vs local firmsRegarding type of culture, the results (Table VII) indicate that manuals of verylow-context cultures have a higher average number of rules in the advertising sectionthan those of the other cultures, showing a more rigid, rule-based tone (t 3.64,p , 0.05). This result confirms H2d. For type of product (tangible vs intangible), interms of averages, there are no differences in the number of rules the two types of

company include in the advertising section of their manuals (t

2.43, notsignificant). Therefore, H3b is rejected. For type of company, there are no significantdifferences between national and multinational companies in terms of normative tone(t 0.99, not significant). Therefore, H4b is also rejected.

Differences in the development of identity standards manuals: high-context vslow-context cultures, tangible vs intangible products and multinational vs local firmsTables VIII and IX show the differences in the amount of pages and sections in themanuals according to culture, product and company. The differences in manuals ofdifferent cultures are significant in both the number of pages (x2 29.89, p , 0.05)and the number of sections (F 5.21, p , 0.01). Manuals of very high-contextcultures have fewer pages and manuals of high-context cultures have more sections

than the rest. Measuring the amount of sections is more revealing and accuratethan measuring the amount of pages (Gutierrez Gonzalez, 2006; Oejo, 1999),and therefore the manuals of high-context cultures tend to be more complex, inpartial support of H2e. Manuals of low-context cultures may have more pagesbecause, unlike high-context cultures, they need to give background details and,thus, more pages.

The results for type of product show that there are significant differences betweenthe manuals of product and service companies regarding the number of pages.

IMR26,2

188


18/27

Accordingtoculture

According

toproduct

Accordingtocompany

ANOVAtest

x

2(df3)

Very

high-context

(%)

High-context

(%)

Low-context

(%)

Very

low-context

(%)

x

2(df1)

Go

ods

(%

)

Services

(%)

x

2

(df1)

Local

(%)

Multinational

(%)

Norms

included/

prescriptions

(average)

3.64*

(df1)

0.41

1.01

1

.03

1.76

2.43

(df1)

nosig.

1.52

1.32

0.99

(df1)

nosig.

1.52

1.32


0.05;**p,

0.01

Table VISignificant differencin the normative ton

according to culturproduct and compan


189


19/27

Accordingtocultur

e

Accordingtoproducts

Accordingto

company

No.ofpages

Veryhigh

-context

(%

)

High-context

(%)

Low-context

(%)

Verylow-context

(%)

Total

Goods

(%)

Services

(%)

Total

Multinat.

(%)

L

ocal

(%)

Total

Upto25

91

.7

52.1

63.9

44.3

190

66.2

53.0

190

56.5

55.4

190

From26to50

8

.3

20.2

23.0

31.8

81

12.7

23.8

81

16.3

26.5

81

From51to75

0

10.9

8.2

9.1

31

8.5

9.3

31

12.0

8.0

31

From75to

100

0

5.9

1.6

5.7

14

1.4

4.8

14

4.3

4.0

14

From100to

125

0

2.5

0.8

6.8

10

7.0

1.9

10

5.4

2.0

10

Morethan

125

0

8.4

2.5

2.3

15

4.2

4.4

15

5.4

4.0

15

Total

100

100

100

100

341

100

100

341

100

1

00

341

x

2

29.890*(df15)

13.199*(df5)

7.111(d

f55)

Sig.

0.012

0.02

0.21

2


0.05;**p,

0.01

Table VIII.Significant differences inthe development (numberof pages) of the manualaccording to culture,product and company

IMR26,2

190


20/27

As Table VII shows, the manuals of tangible goods companies have significantly fewerpages than service company manuals (x2 13.199, p , 0.05). With regard to thenumber of sections, there were no significant differences between the two types ofproducts (F 0.03, not significant). These results refute H3c, which stated that

manuals for products would be more complex than manuals for services.Finally, the results show no differences between manuals of local and multinational

companies regarding the amount of pages (x2 7.111, not significant) and the amountof sections (F 2.19, not significant). Thus, H4c is rejected.

DiscussionThe results of this research show that minimum or basic contents exist in the majorityof the identity standards manuals analysed. These are the core contents of themanual, which include introduction, basic elements of visual identity and rulesfor using the brand. The other two dimensions applications of brand andtechnical complements make up the peripheral contents of an identity standards

manual because fewer than half the manuals studied include variables belonging tothese dimensions. The distinction between core and peripheral contents becomesevident when the main function of a manual is considered, namely, to present the basicfeatures that make up the visual identity of the company and to explain how touse them.

Furthermore, the results confirm the traditional differentiation between high- andlow-context cultures and suggest that the identity standards manuals reflect culturalcharacteristics. Indeed, of the three features studied herein, the difference betweencultures seems to be what best distinguishes the contents, the normative tone and thedevelopment of the manual.

The results for the contents coincide with the features most valued in each culture.In high-context cultures, these include non-verbal features (logo and symbol),

traditions and customs (history/values), features defining the context of thecommunication (typography), accessories or decorative elements (corporate tiledpattern and supergraphic) and people (uniforms); in low-context cultures, these includetextual features (name and publications) and direct messages (incorrect applications).

Average no. of sections Typical deviation F Sig.

According to cultureVery high-context 7.91 3.89 5.214 * (df 3) 0.002High-context 9.20 3.74Low-context 8.20 3.64

Very low-context 7.20 3.34 According to productsGoods 8.23 4.32 0.030 (df 2) 0.862Services 8.32 3.49

According to companyMultinational 8.78 4.27 2.19 0.139Local 8.12 3.42

Note: Significant at: *p , 0.01

Table IXSignificant differences

the development (averagnumber of sections) of th

manual according culture, product an

compan


19


21/27

The aspects that each culture values most seem to influence the rules made forapplying the brand and the preparation of the identity standards manual. Thedifferences in the normative tone can also be explained by the differences betweencultures. The preference of low-context cultures for written rules results in more

prescriptive manuals than those of high-context cultures. The different ways themanuals develop their contents can also be explained by the particular nature of eachculture. The preference of low-context cultures for direct language and fast messagesresults in simpler manuals. The preference of high-context cultures for indirectlanguage and slow messages produces more complex manuals with more sections.

We also found differences in terms of contents and number of pages betweenmanuals of companies with tangible products and those of companies providingservices. As indicated in the literature, the differences found in contents refer only toapplying the brand, not to the rules for use. The intangible or tangible nature of theproduct explains why some applications are more important than others: packaging inthe case of products and stationery in the case of services. With regard to thedevelopment of the manual, that the manuals of service companies analysed have morepages and therefore are complex manuals may indicate that companies offeringservices pay more attention to their visual identity.

Regarding the expansion of the company, the differences found between themanuals of local and multinational companies pertain to content only. Local companiesplace more emphasis on contents that refer to the basic elements of the brand.Conversely, multinational companies place more emphasis on contents that refer toapplications of brand. This reflects how concerned multinational companies are abouttotal control of how the brand is applied; they present their subsidiaries with thegreatest possible amount of specific examples so that the subsidiaries merely copythem and create nothing themselves. Nevertheless, except for these differences, theresearch shows that the manuals of local and multinational companies are basically the

same. This may indicate that when a company decides to expand to other markets, ituses the same manual as in the local market and only extends the dimensionapplications of brand.

Conclusions, implications and limitationsThe evolution in competition, the massive proliferation in media and advertisingplatforms and the increase in demand and in the level of information offered to theconsumer all indicate that the quality of a company depends not only on its productsbut also on its services, actions and communications. In this context, the corporatevisual identity enables the company to present its corporate identity to the publicthrough a total visual image (Mut Camacho and Breva Franch, 2004).

However, the brand in itself does not exist; rather, it is presented to the publicthrough different vehicles (e.g. advertising, signage, and uniforms). Implementation ofthese applications means following a series of design rules (e.g. margins, colors,typefaces, and sizes), which must always be the same to convey a coherent, coordinatedimage that reinforces and enhances the companys communication with its public.These rules are contained in a companys identity standards manual, and according tothe results of this research, the main contents of the manual are the basic elements ofvisual identity and the rules for using the brand.

IMR26,2

192


22/27

The results of this research also show that there are differences in the contents ofthe manuals depending on the culture (high- vs low-context) and that the rulesgoverning the application of the brand differ according to the preferences of eachculture. Similarly, differences also seem to exist in the tone in which the rules are

written (rigidity vs flexibility) and in the type of manuals used (simple vs complex).Consequently, the frequent debate in the field of international marketing about

standardization/adaptation of the visual identity should not be limited to verbal andgraphic signs (e.g. name, logo, and color) but should also include the rules laid down fortheir use and the documents used to convey them (i.e. identity standards manual).The results we obtained in this area will be useful to all companies using a brand andidentity standards manual and in cultures different from their own because knowingthe most important rules for each culture will allow for more effective management ofbrand use.

That the manuals of multinational and local companies only differ in the secondarydimension (applications of brand) may indicate that the companies have notimplemented a process of adapting the manual to new cultures. Although somemanagers opt for standardizing the brand when developing a global marketing strategy,the results of this research indicate that in applying the brand at an international level, astrategy of adaptation should be followed, taking into account the particular nature ofeach culture and the characteristics of the people responsible for using the brand.

With regard to future lines of research, this paper concentrated only on analysingthe contents of a series of manuals from different countries, and as such, its resultswould be complemented with the use of another type of qualitative information. Thiscould take the form of surveying directors involved in corporate identity or designersfrom different cultures commissioned to apply the rules for brand use. In this sense, ofthe different cultural dimensions proposed by the literature, this research focused onlyon the difference between high- and low-context cultures. The study could be repeated

by applying the dimensions proposed by other authors, such as Schwartz (1999) andHofstede (1980).Finally, we should highlight some limitations. First, Type I errors could have been

introduced because of the number of tests we undertook and, therefore, we may haveobserved some statistical differences when there were none. Accordingly, ourconclusions must be regarded as tentative. Second, we limited the study to adescription of manuals and to collating opinions from experts in the sector. We madeno attempt to measure how effective the manuals were in maintaining coherence in theuse of the brand. It would be useful to measure coherence in use so as to define whichfactors that come into play in creating a manual contribute the most to improving andenhancing a consistent application of the brand.

References

Ahmed, N. (2000), Cross cultural content analysis of advertising from the United States andIndia, doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS,available at: www.bookpump.com (accessed February 2, 2006).

Al-Olayan, F.S. and Karande, K. (2000), A content analysis of magazine advertisement from theUnited States and the Arab world, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 69-82.

Bos, B., de Jong, C. and Schilp, E. (1991), Imagen. Manual de identidad corporativa, Manual deimagen corporativa, Gustavo Gili, Barcelona, pp. 163-211.


19


23/27

Carter, D.E. (1998), LogoPower: Creating World-class Logos and Effective Business Identities,Hearst Books International & David E. Carter, New York, NY.

Chajet, C. (1989), The making of a new corporate image, Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 10,pp. 18-20.

Cohen, J. (1960), A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales, Educational and PsychologicalMeasurement, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 37-46.

Costa, J. (1989), Imagen global. Evolucion del diseno de identidad, Ediciones CEAC, Barcelona.

Flavian, C. and Polo, Y. (1998), Alternative strategies in the Spanish large-scale retail foodsector, International Review of Retail, Distribution & Consumer Research, Vol. 8, pp. 13-28.

Gray, E.R. and Smeltzer, L.R. (1987), Planning a face-lift: implementing a corporate imageprogram, Journal of Business Strategy, Vol. 8, pp. 4-10.

Gudykunst, W.B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K. and Heyman, S. (1996),The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self-construals, and individualvalues on communication styles across cultures, Human Communication Research,Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 510-43.

Gutierrez Gonzalez, P.P. (2006), Teora y practica de la publicidad impresa, Campgrafic, Valencia.Hall, E.T. (1976), Beyond Culture, Anchor Press-Doubleday, New York, NY.

Hall, E.T. and Hall, M.R. (1990), Understanding Cultural Differences, Intercultural Press,Yarmouth, MA.

Hefting, P. (1991), En busca de una identidad. Algo tan obvio y a la vez tan complejo, Manualde imagen corporativa, Gustavo Gili, Barcelona, pp. 13-37.

Heinonen, K. and Strandvik, T. (2005), Communication as an element of service value, International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 186-99.

Hernandez Mogollon, R.M. (1997), La Imagen de las Empresas, Universidad de Extremadura,Salamanca.

Hofstede, G. (1980), Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Value,

Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.Holsti, O.R. (1969), Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities , Addison-Wesley,

Reading, MA.

Jo, S. and Jung, J. (2005), A cross-cultural study of the world wide web and public relations,Corporate Communications, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 24-40.

Jun, J.W. and Lee, H. (2007), Cultural differences in brand designs and tagline appeals, International Marketing Review, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 474-91.

Keeley, L. (2001), New! Improved! (uh huh, yeah sure, whatever. . . ): a look at the moderndynamic of brands, Design Management Journal, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 14-18.

Kohli, C., Suri, R. and Thakor, M. (2002), Creating effective logos: insights from theory andpractice, Business Horizons, Vol. 45, pp. 58-64.

Lewis, P. and Thomas, H. (1990), The linkage between strategy, strategic groups andperformance in the U.K. retail grocery industry, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 11,pp. 385-97.

Lin, C. and Jeffres, L. (2001), Comparing distinctions and similarities across websites ofnewspapers, radio stations, and television stations, J&MC Quarterly, Vol. 78 No. 3,pp. 555-73.

Madden, T.J., Hewett, K. and Roth, M.S. (2000), Managing images in different cultures: across-national study of color meaning and preferences, Journal of International

Marketing, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 90-107.

IMR26,2

194


24/27

Margulies, W.P. (1977), Make the most of your corporate identity, Harvard Business Review,Vol. 55, pp. 66-74.

Melewar, T.C. and Karaosmanoglu, E. (2006), Seven dimensions of corporate identity:a categorisation from the practitioners perspectives, European Journal of Marketing,

Vol. 40 Nos 7/8, pp. 846-69.Melewar, T.C. and Saunders, J. (1998), Global corporate visual identity systems: standardization,

control and benefits, International Marketing Review, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 291-308.

Melewar, T.C. and Saunders, J. (2000), Global corporate visual identity systems: using anextended marketing mix, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 34 Nos 5/6, pp. 538-50.

Melewar, T.C. and Wooldridge, A.R. (2001), The dynamics of corporate identity: a review ofa process model, Journal of Communication Management, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 327-40.

Melewar, T.C., Hussey, G. and Srivoravilai, N. (2005), Corporate visual identity: the re-branding

of France Telecom, Journal of Brand Management, Vol. 12 No. 5, pp. 379-94.

Muller-Brockmann, J. (1998), Historia de la comunicacion visual, Gustavo Gili, Barcelona.

Mut Camacho, M. and Breva Franch, E. (2004), De la identidad corporativa a la identidad

visual, IX Jornades per al Foment de la Investigacio, UJI, Castello.

Oejo, E. (1999), La imagen grafica de la marca, in Moline, M. (Ed.), La Fuerza de la Publicidad:Saber Hacer Buena Publicidad, Saber Administrar su Fuerza, Cinco Das, Madrid,pp. 168-75.

Okazaki, S. (2005), Searching the web for global brands: how American brands standardise theirweb sites in Europe, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 39 Nos 1/2, pp. 87-109.

Olins, W. (1991), Identidad corporativa. Proyeccion en el diseno de la estrategia comercial, Celeste,Madrid.

Pearce, J. II and David, F. (1987), Corporate mission statements: the bottom line, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 109-16.

Peyrefitte, J. and David, F.R. (2006), A content analysis of the mission statements of United

States firms in four industries, International Journal of Management, Vol. 23 No. 2,pp. 296-301.

Pratt, C.B. (1993), A cross-cultural study of news media preferences: African versus white USstudents, Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 314-31.

Reddy, M. (2002), Suffocating, Creative Review, Vol. 22 No. 5, p. 33.

Reger, R.K. and Huff, A.S. (1993), Strategic groups: a cognitive perspective, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 14, pp. 104-24.

Regouby, C. (1989), La Comunicacion Global. Como Construir la Imagen de una Empresa, Gestion2000, Barcelona.

Roellig, L. (2001), Designing global brands: critical lessons, Design Management Journal,Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 40-5.

Rogers, S.C. (1997), How to create a graphic identity for your practice, The CPA Journal, Vol. 67No. 2, pp. 42-5.

Ryans, J.K. Jr, Griffith, D.A. and White, D.E. (2003), Standardization/adaptation of internationalmarketing strategy. Necessary conditions for the advancement of knowledge,

International Marketing Review, Vol. 20 No. 6, pp. 588-603.

Sanz de la Tajada, L.A. (2000), Integracion de la Identidad y la Imagen de la Empresa: DesarrolloConceptual y Aplicacion Practica, ESIC, Madrid.

Satue, E. (1992), Los Demiurgos del Diseno Grafico, Mondadori, Madrid.


19


25/27

Schmitt, B.H. (1995), Language and visual imagery: issues of corporate identity in East Asia,Columbia Journal of World Business, Vol. 30 No. 4, pp. 28-36.

Schwartz, S.H. (1999), A theory of cultural values and some implications for work, Applied Psychology: An International Review, Vol. 48 No. 1, pp. 23-47.

van den Bosch, A.L.M., de Jong, M.D.T. and Elving, W.J.L. (2004), Managing corporate visualidentity: use and effects of organizational measures to support a consistentself-presentation, Public Relations Review, Vol. 30 No. 2, pp. 225-34.

van den Bosch, A.L.M., de Jong, M.D.T. and Elving, W.J.L. (2006a), Managing corporate visualidentity. Exploring the differences between manufacturing and service, and profit-makingand nonprofit organizations,Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 43 No. 2, pp. 138-57.

van den Bosch, A.L.M., Elving, W.J.L. and de Jong, M.D.T. (2006b), The impact of organisationalcharacteristics on corporate visual identity, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 40Nos 7/8, pp. 870-985.

van Raaij, W.F. (1997), Globalisation of marketing communication?, Journal of EconomicPsychology, Vol. 18 Nos 2/3, pp. 259-70.

van Rekom, J. (1997), Deriving an operational measure of corporate identity, European Journalof Marketing, Vol. 31 Nos 5/6, pp. 410-22.

Vila, N. (2004), Marketing mix and the internet: globalisation or adaptation, Journal ofEuromarketing, Vol. 13 No. 4, pp. 31-58.

Villafane, J. (1999), La Gestion Profesional de la Imagen Corporativa, Piramide, Madrid.

Wang, C. and Chan, A. (2001), A content analysis of conceitedness vs separateness themes usedin US and PRC print advertisements, International Marketing Review, Vol. 18 No. 2,pp. 145-59.

Whitbread, D. (2001), The Design Manual, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney.

Whitelock, J. and Fastoso, F. (2007), Understanding international branding: defining the domainand reviewing the literature, International Marketing Review, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 252-70.

Wilson, A. (1997), The culture of the branch team and its impact on service delivery andcorporate identity, The International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 15 No. 5, pp. 163-76.

Wong, H.Y. and Merrilees, B. (2007), Multiple roles for branding in international marketing, International Marketing Review, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 384-408.

Wurtz, E. (2006), Intercultural communication on web sites: a cross-cultural analysis of websites from high-context cultures and low-context cultures, Journal of Computer-mediatedCommunication, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 274-99.

About the authorsBegona Jorda-Albinana is a Collaborating Professor at the Department of Graphic Engineering ofthe Higher Technical School of Design Engineering of the Valencia Polytechnic University.She received a PhD in Fine Arts by the Valencia Polytechnic University in 2003 and has carried

out research on topics such as visual identities, graphic and multimedia design. She is a memberof AENORs (ISO member) Committee 54 (Graphic Arts). Begona Jorda-Albinana is thecorresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]

Olga Ampuero-Canellas is a research intern at the Department of Graphic Engineering of theHigher Technical School of Design Engineering of the Valencia Polytechnic University. Shereceived her PhD in Social Communications (Advertising and Public Affairs) and her researchinterests include graphic design, visual identities, marketing and packaging design.

Natalia Vila is a Lecturer in Marketing in the Department of Marketing in the School ofEconomics at the University of Valencia. She has carried out research on topics such as

IMR26,2

196


26/27

competitive positioning, identification of strategic groups/competitive groups and theapplication of multidimensional scaling in marketing. Her research work has been publishedin diverse referee journals (i.e. Journal of Marketing Management, Journal of Strategic Marketing,

European Journal of Innovation Management, Qualitative Market Research: An International

Journal, Journal of Euromarketing, The Marketing Review ) and Spanish refereed journals. Shehas presented papers at several conferences such as EMAC, AM and AMS.Jose Ignacio Rojas-Sola received an MS in Chemical Engineering at the University of Seville in

1991 and a PhD in Mechanical Engineering at the National University of Education at Distancein 1995. He is the Head of the Research Group Engineering Graphics and Industrial Archaeologyfrom 1996 funded by Autonomous Government of Andalusia, Spain, and he is the author of morethan 85 research papers including ten referee journal publications, several books and numerouslectures.


19

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected] visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints


27/27

Reproducedwithpermissionof thecopyrightowner. Further reproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission.

brand identity documentation

Documents