brain gym on education
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The Effects of 'Brain Gym' as a General Education Intervention: Improving Academic Performance and Behaviors
Dissertation
Submitted to Northcentral University
Graduate Faculty of the School of Education in Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
by
Sherri S. Nussbaum
Prescott Valley, Arizona May, 2010
UMI Number: 3411166
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APPROVAL
The Effects of 'Brain Gym' as a General Education Intervention: Improving Academic Performance and Behaviors
by
Sherri S. Nussbaum
Approved by:
(TXf^ri Chair: Linda Collins, Ed.D.
r **) 9-o/Q Date
Member: Shad Bailey, Ed.D., Ph.D.
Member: Faith Andreasen, Ph.D.
Certified by
School Chair: Dermis Lessard, Ph.D 6/?/&*)
Date
ABSTRACT
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act {IDEA) and No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
now mandate that all at-risk students receive empirical, scientific research-based
interventions. 'Brain Gym' is a movement-based program designed to address a diverse
range of students' academic and behavior needs by promoting whole-brain learning.
However, the scientific research base supporting 'Brain Gym' is limited and findings are
inconclusive. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of Dennison's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements as a tier-one Response to Intervention (Rtl) and a class-wide general
education intervention on primary grade-level students' (the at-risk population as well as
the overall population) academic performance and behaviors as measured by the TAKS
Reading, TAKS Math, and BASC-II instruments. To accomplish this goal, an eight-month
quantitative posttest experimental study with random assignment of 364 second through
sixth grade students to classrooms and random assignment of participating classrooms to
control and experimental groups was implemented in a school district located in East
Texas. Based on two-tailed independent sample t tests at a 95% confidence level
(a = .05), at-risk students demonstrated statistically significant gains in reading,
t(66) = -2.13,p = .04, and math, t(7l) - -2.42,/? = .02, after receiving 'Brain Gym' as a
tier-one Rtl academic intervention. Similarly, students who received 'Brain Gym' as a
general education classroom management strategy demonstrated statistically significant
improvements in maladaptive behaviors (e.g., aggression, hyperactivity, inattention,
depression, anxiety, somatization, and atypicality), t(46) = -2.71, p = .01, and adaptive
behaviors (e.g., social skills, functional communication, and adaptability),
t(46) = -2.95, p = .01. Therefore, educators may confidently use 'Brain Gym' as a
i i i
tier-one Rtl reading and math intervention and a general education classroom
management strategy for primary grade-level students. Further research is needed to
explore the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' with secondary and special population students.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Linda Collins, dissertation chair, Dr. Faith
Andreasen, and Dr. Shad Bailey, committee members, for their support and guidance
throughout the dissertation processes. I would also like to thank Dr. Shelly Marmion,
professor at the University of Texas at Tyler, for advice related to the statistical
procedures utilized in this study. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the
school district, teachers, and students who faithfully participated in the activities
necessary to carry out this eight-month study. Finally, I would like to express a special
thank you to my loving family members for their support and prayers.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES viii
LIST OF FIGURES ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 Background 3 Statement of the Research Problem 6 Purpose of the Study 7 Theoretical Framework 8 Research Questions 11 Research Hypotheses 11 Nature of the Study 13 Significance of the Study 14 Definition of Terms 15 Summary 18
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 19 Student Academic Performance 21 Inclusion of Students with Special Needs in Performance Measures 23 Student Behaviors 24 Schedules: Movement versus Instruction 26 Biological Effects of Movement on Cognition and Behavior 29 Movement and the Quest for Educational Excellence 33 Midline Movements, Reflex Integration, Learning, and Behaviors 42 'Brain Gym' and Student Academic Performance and Behaviors 46 'Brain Gym' within the Realities of a School Setting 52 Problems with the Research Base 58 Summary 59
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 62 Research Method and Design 65 Participants 66 Materials 68 Operational Definition of Variables 73 Procedures 77 Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis 81 Methodological Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations 85 Ethical Concerns 88 Summary 89
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS 91 Fidelity of the 'Brain Gym' Intervention 92 Overview of Students' Academic Performance 93 Effects of'Brain Gym' on Students Academic Performance 94 Description of the Groups Participating in 'Brain Gym' Academic Measures 94
VI
Results o f Brain Gym' as an Academic Intervention 97 Overview of Students' Behaviors 101 Effects of'Brain Gym' on Students' Behaviors 102 Descriptions of Groups Participating in 'Brain Gym' Behavior Measures 103 Results of 'Brain Gym' as a Behavior Intervention 106 Summary 115
CHAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS... 117 Implications 118 Recommendations 124 Conclusions 127
REFERENCES 128
APPENDIXES 135 Appendix B Key Math Components 137 Appendix D Narrowband and Broadband Maladaptive Behaviors 140 Appendix E Three Day Rotation Plan (Meders, 2000) 142 Appendix F IRB Application 143 Appendix G Informed Consent for School District 149 Appendix H Informed Consent for Teachers 151 Appendix I Information Letter for Parents 154 Appendix J Information Letter for Students 155
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Statistics for 2008 TAKS Measures 97 Table 2 Group Statistics for 2009 TAKS Change Score Measures 98 Table 3 Statistics for 2009 TAKS Change Score Measures 100 Table 4 BASC-II Validity Scale 103 Table 5 Statistics for 2008 BASC-II Measures 106 Table 6 Group Statistics for 2009 BASC-II Change Score Measures 107 Table! Statistics 2009 BASC-II Change Score Measures 110
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Definition of variables 74 Figure 2. Conceptual model for the control group quantitative experimental design 74 Figure 3. Flowchart of the research procedures 78
IX
1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education published a report
entitled 'A Nation at Risk' that sounded an alarm initiating educational reform across the
United States (Guthrie & Springer, 2004). As a result, federal and state government
agencies have passed numerous mandates promoting educational reform. Consequently,
educators are struggling to meet the needs of students, comply with national and state
mandates, and alleviate national and parental concerns.
In the 1980's, Dr. Paul and Gail Dennison initiated research to identify effective
interventions to help individuals with learning and behavior difficulties and improve
academic achievement for at-risk students (Brain Gym International, 2008). In order to
accomplish this, Dennison and Dennison pooled information from multidisciplinary
fields such as human developmental biology, education, neuro-biology, optical therapy,
and physical and occupational therapy. As a result of the Dennison's research, Brain
Gym International was founded in 1987 (Brain Gym International, 2008). By 1991,
'Brain Gym' was endorsed by the National Learning Foundation as one of twelve
exemplary educational programs (Baker, 2005). 'Brain Gym' is an educational
kinesiology program that is currently utilized in 80 nations; 'Brain Gym' manuals and
texts have been translated into 40 languages (Brain Gym International, 2008).
Dennison's research, the wide-spread endorsement of 'Brain Gym', and the
existence of Brain Gym International Institute suggest that 'Brain Gym' may be a viable
component in addressing the nation's educational concerns. However, educators must
now look to empirical, scientific research-based interventions in the quest to promote
student excellence within the Response to Intervention (Rtl) framework (Fuchs & Fuchs,
2
2007). Research on 'Brain Gym' is limited, available studies have questionable research
integrity, and the results have not provided conclusive or consistent findings (Hyatt,
2007). Given these circumstances, more research is needed in order for teachers to
confidently and legally use 'Brain Gym' in the public school general education setting as
an academic and behavior intervention for struggling students.
In this chapter, the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' as an academic and behavior
intervention within the realities of the school environment will be explored. First, an
overview of the current circumstances facing the field of education will be presented. In
this section, an explanation of how two federal laws, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and
Individuals with Disabilities Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004), have resulted in setting high
standards and placed heavy demands on the nation's educational field will be discussed.
The ability of 'Brain Gym' to address these demands will also be presented in this
section. The research problem is summarized in the second section of this chapter and is
followed by an explanation of how the results of this study should help support educators
in the quest for educational excellence for all students. The theoretical and conceptual
premises underlying 'Brain Gym', as well as current controversies regarding the
program's applicability to schools, will be discussed in the next section. The subsequent
two sections will provide the reader with the research questions and hypothesis used in
this study. The seventh and eighth sections of this chapter will present the nature and
significance of this study. The ninth section will provide the reader with definitions of
key operational terms used in this paper. Finally, the key points of this chapter will be
summarized.
3
Background
Federal mandates in NCLB and the IDEA 2004 are setting high expectations for
student performance and holding educators responsible for making them a reality (Fuchs
& Fuchs, 2007). These two federal laws have changed how educators may approach and
measure student performance. The NCLB mandates outline lofty goals for all students
and holds schools accountable for meeting these goals (Yen & Henderson, 2002).
Furthermore, IDEA 2004 requires educators to utilize research-based interventions when
addressing academic and behavior concerns (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007).
The NCLB act requires states to provide measurements indicating that students
meet minimum proficiency in reading and mathematics through standardized
assessments. According to NCLB, states are required to test public school students in the
third through eighth grades and once in high school in reading and math. All students,
including students qualifying for special education services, must receive current grade
placement instruction and assessments. Thus, all students must be tested using
grade-level state assessments. The NCLB act mandates that all students must be
performing at a proficient level or higher on state assessments by 2014 (Yen &
Henderson, 2002). Furthermore, schools must make adequate annual progress towards
closing gaps between proficient performance on state assessments and actual student
performance. The federal government defines proficiency based on national assessment
cut-off scores (Pellegrino, 2007). National proficiency cut-off scores tend to be much
higher than state cut-off scores. National standards indicate more than 70% of the
students in the U. S. are performing below a 'Proficient' academic level (Pellegrino,
2007).
4
State assessments are considered high-stakes tests because major decisions
depend upon their results (Defer, 2002). For third, fifth, and eighth grade students,
promotion to the next grade depends on their scores. For high school seniors, graduation
is dependent on state assessment scores. Results of these assessments are published and
influence the future employment of educators. State assessment results are also used by
schools to gauge whether adequate yearly progress is being made. Furthermore, Title 1
schools not meeting these standards may lose federal funding (Yen & Henderson, 2002).
Given the seriousness of the situation, educators are searching for effective ways to
improve student performance on state reading and math tests.
One of the most significant changes in IDEA 2004 was adding mandated
guidelines that address the needs of at-risk students not eligible for special education
services (Smith, 2005). These guidelines require research-based educational interventions
and supports be implemented when students begin to show signs of struggling
academically or behaviorally (Smith, 2005). The IDEA 2004 act refers to this process as
'Response to Intervention' (Rtl).
Rtl seeks to prevent student failure and thereby reduce the number of students
identified for special education services (Smith, 2005). The Rtl process occurs in the
general education setting and uses general education resources rather than those of
special education (Smith, 2005). However, IDEA 2004 does allow school districts to
allocate 15% of special education funds to general education purposes such as
supplementing Rtl services (Prasse, 2006). The act mandates that Rtl be implemented in
schools nationwide. Rtl guidelines require all struggling students to receive
research-based interventions (Smith, 2005). In other words, when students begin to
5
struggle with academic tasks or school behaviors, interventions that are both effective for
meeting specific student needs and are grounded in research must be implemented.
The Rtl model has three levels of interventions. Tier-one includes class-wide
interventions designed to meet the needs of 80% of the students who are struggling
(Baker, Kamphaus, Home & Winsor, 2006). Tier-two and tier-three provide more intense
interventions designed to meet the needs of the remaining 20% of students with moderate
to severe concerns. Teachers report that 54% of the students in public schools are at-risk
of failing (Baker et al., 2006). Furthermore, at-risk schools report that over 59% of the
student body has moderate to severe academic and behavior concerns. With so many
students struggling in public schools, the requirements of Rtl will soon deplete the
resources (e.g., staff and funds available for Rtl services) of many school districts (Baker
et al., 2006). The magnitude of the problem demands effective, large-scale interventions
that will meet the diverse needs of struggling students.
Pressure is mounting for educators and students to achieve more and more. In
order to meet national and state mandates, educators are looking more closely at
educational research involving the actual impact of in-school interventions. Obstacles
facing educators include a limited base of educational research regarding the efficacy of
available interventions, limited information on how to efficiently implement
interventions, and difficulty maintaining the fidelity of the intervention over time (Glover
& DiPerna, 2007). School districts are looking for research to address these problems.
Although the educational research base has been growing over the past several years,
many questions remain unanswered (Glover & DiPerna, 2007).
6
Current research is revealing the positive influence that physical exercise has on
cognitive functioning and behaviors (Walker, 2008). 'Brain Gym' is a movement-based
program developed by the founders of the Brain Gym Institute, Paul and Gail Dennison
(Hannaford, 2005). 'Brain Gym' movements are designed to improve cognitive and
behavior performance across diverse populations. The existence of an established Brain
Gym Institute that provides training and licensing for 'Brain Gym' instructors, as well as
national and international use of the program indicates that there may be merit to these
claims. However, research on 'Brain Gym' is limited; available studies have questionable
research integrity, and results have not provided conclusive or consistent findings (Hyatt,
2007). There is little sound research available to guide school administrators, regional
educational service centers, and teachers interested in implementing 'Brain Gym' in the
school setting (Hyatt, 2007). The research conducted during this study examined the
efficacy of 'Brain Gym' and explored practical ways of introducing 'Brain Gym'
activities in today's school environment.
Statement of the Research Problem
Public school educators report that 54% of public school students are at-risk of
failing due to academic and behavior difficulties based on state defined minimum
standards (Baker et al., 2006). Federal mandates in NCLB have redefined minimum
standards, bringing the at-risk portion of the nation's public school students to 70%
(Pellegrino, 2007). According to IDEA 2004, empirical, scientific research-based
interventions must be available to all at-risk students (Baker et al., 2006). The purpose of
this mandate is to effectively address learning and behavior concerns in the general
education setting and reduce the number of students referred for special education
7
services. However, the growing number of at-risk students taxes the ability of most
public schools to adequately meet the demands of Rtl, even with the additional allocation
of 15% of special education funds (Baker et al., 2006). Furthermore, the majority of
at-risk students demonstrate multiple academic and behavior concerns (Glover &
DiPerna, 2007). Unfortunately, the research base for effective interventions is limited and
most available research-based interventions are designed to meet highly specific needs,
such as reading comprehension or reading fluency rather than multiple academic and
behavior concerns (Glover & DiPerna, 2007). For these reasons, educators are searching
for effective scientific research-based interventions to improve student academic
performance and behaviors that are capable of addressing a diverse range of student
needs.
Dennison proposes that 'Brain Gym' movement-based programs can effectively
meet the diverse needs of students struggling with academics and behavior problems with
only minimal loss of instruction time (Brain Gym International, 2008). Therefore, 'Brain
Gym' may be a viable component to address many of these educational needs.
Unfortunately, the current body of research does not provide conclusive support for the
claims of the Brain Gym Institute (Hyatt, 2007). This limits educators' ability to utilize
'Brain Gym' as an intervention in the Rtl process. This information identifies a need for
scientifically-based research evaluating the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' as an academic and
behavior intervention.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this quantitative experimental study was to examine the effects of
Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a tier-one Rtl and a class-wide general
8
education intervention on primary grade-level students' (the at-risk as well as the overall
population) academic performance and behaviors as measured by the TAKS Reading,
TAKS Math, and BASC-II instruments (Dennison, 2003). In order to accomplish this goal,
a posttest experimental design with random assignment of students to classroom and
random assignment of participating classrooms to control and experimental groups
utilizing two-tailed independent samples t test for data analysis was selected. The Three
Day Rotation Plan, a curriculum incorporating all 26 'Brain Gym' movements, was
implemented as the intervention (Meders, 2000). A sample of 126 participants was
estimated to be adequate given the study's design, with an alpha of .05 and a target of
80% power (Lenth, 2009). However, a sample size greater than 126 was utilized in order
to offset mortality of participants, which was a possible threat to validity based on the
longevity of the study (Gall & Gall, 2007). For convenience, participants were selected
from a public school district located in East Texas. This design meets the stringent
federal research guidelines set forth in IDEA 2004 (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007). This study
may help educators determine if 'Brain Gym' can provide an essential service as a
classroom management and academic intervention for the at-risk as well as the overall
populations of primary grade-level students within the general education setting and Rtl
framework.
Theoretical Framework
Dr. Paul Dennison introduced 'Brain Gym' and is the founder of the Brain Gym
Institute (Brain Gym International/Educational Kinesiology Foundation, 2008). Dennison
merged information from learning, applied kinesiology, and neuropsychology theories to
develop 'Brain Gym'. 'Brain Gym' is derived from the fundamental premise that learning
9
occurs as humans receive sensory stimuli and initiate movement (Hannaford, 2005). The
'Brain Gym' program includes 26 specific movements that activate the brain and body
for learning (Dennison, 2003).
Three major neuropsychology theories had significant influences on Dennison's
development of'Brain Gym': the Doman-Delacato theory of development, cerebral
dominance theory, and perceptual-motor training theory (Hyatt, 2007). According to the
Doman-Delacato theory of development, learning problems result when children have
unintergraded primary reflexes due to skipping motor developmental milestones, such as
crawling. The cerebral dominance theory proposes that dyslexia is a result of mixed
cerebral dominance. Perceptual-motor training theory emphasizes that learning
difficulties are a result of inefficient integration of visual, auditory, and motor skills.
Based upon these theoretical neuropsychological concepts, Dennison concluded that
movement can be used to promote neural pathway connections and mylination
throughout the sensory, intermediate, and motor neurons (Hannaford, 2005). This has
numerous potential benefits such as reflex and sensory integration, increased capacity for
cognitive functions (including learning and memory) and more efficient communication
throughout the human nervous system (Hannaford, 2005).
Dennison also relied heavily on theory from the field of applied kinesiology that
resulted from studies of the effects of midline movements on learning (Dennison, 2003).
Midlines are where two perceptual fields meet; there are three midlines in the human
body (Dennison, 2003). Researchers have found that learning has a direct relationship
with difficulty crossing these midlines (Surburg & Easen, 1993, 1999; Corso, 1997).
Studies also indicate that the ability to move across each midline is uniquely related to
10
specific academic tasks and behaviors. Furthermore, the findings of these studies
established that when individuals with learning difficulties participated in midline
movements, their cognitive skills and ability to cross midlines improved (Surburg &
Easen, 1999). Dennison used the results of midline movement studies to design specific
movement-based interventions which meet the unique academic and behavioral needs of
students. 'Brain Gym' movements promote whole-brain and body learning through using
movements that provide frequent opportunities to cross midlines (Dennison, 2003).
Dr. Dennison proposed that 'Brain Gym' movements have the potential to address
a wide range of academic and behavior concerns (Dennison, 2003). There is a substantial
amount of sound studies indicating that physical activity has positive effects on the brain
and cognitive functioning (Hillman et al., 2008). However, little is known regarding the
type, frequency, or intensity of physical activities that are most efficient and effective in
promoting cognition and brain health (Hillman et al., 2008). Research regarding 'Brain
Gym' is conflicting and inconclusive (Hyatt, 2007). In order to design effective
movement-based interventions, more research will need to be conducted regarding the
effects of specific movements on activities of the brain (Hillman et al., 2008).
Due to IDEA 2004 and NCLB and the large number of at-risk students, educators
are searching for empirically sound research-based interventions to address students'
academic and behavior concerns (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007). However, the educational
research base is limited (Baker et al., 2006). Furthermore, most research-based
educational interventions are highly specific and appropriate for addressing only 20% of
the at-risk student population's needs (Baker et al., 2006). Given the current demand for
effective interventions that are capable of meeting a wide range of academic and behavior
11
concerns, the wide-spread endorsement of 'Brain Gym' for meeting a diverse range of
student concerns and the limited educational research base indicates further research is
needed to validate 'Brain Gym' as an academic and behavior intervention within schools.
Research Questions
In order to address these needs, four research questions were considered:
1. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level (third through sixth grades)
student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests?
2. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education tier-one intervention within the Rtl process on primary grade-level (third
through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as measured by the TAKS
Reading and TAKS Math tests?
3. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level (second through sixth grades)
student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument?
4. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education tier-one intervention within the Rtl process on primary grade-level (second
through sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher
behavior rating instrument?
Research Hypotheses
A quantitative experimental design with random assignment of students to
classrooms and participating classrooms to experimental and control groups was used to
12
conduct this study. Therefore, each research question was answered by testing the
associated null hypothesis. The research hypotheses for this study are listed below:
Hlo: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have no significant effect on primary grade-level (third through sixth
grades) student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS
Math tests.
Hla: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (third through sixth grades)
student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests.
H2o: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education tier-one
intervention within the Rtl process, have no significant effect on primary grade-level
(third through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as measured by the
TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests.
H2a: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education tier-one
intervention within the Rtl process, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (third
through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as measured by the TAKS
Reading and TAKS Math tests.
H3o: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have no significant effect on primary grade-level (second through sixth
grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument.
H3a: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (second though sixth
grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument.
13
H4o: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education tier-one
intervention within the Rtl process, have no significant effect on primary grade-level
(second through sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II
teacher behavior rating instrument.
H4a: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education tier-one
intervention within the Rtl process, have a significant effect on primary grade-level
(second though sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II
teacher behavior rating instrument.
Nature of the Study
A quantitative experimental design, with random assignment of students to
classrooms and participating classrooms to experimental and control groups, was used for
this study to explore the effects of 'Brain Gym' movements on primary grade-level
students' academic performance and behaviors. The 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation
Plan was implemented as the independent variable. The dependent variables included
reading performance (comprehension, vocabulary, phonemic awareness, phonemes, and
fluency), math performance (problem solving skills, math reasoning, and critical
thinking), adaptive behaviors (adaptability, social skills, leadership, functional
communication, and study skills), and maladaptive behaviors (hyperactivity, aggression,
conduct problems, anxiety, depression, somatization, atypicality, withdrawal, learning
problems, and attention problems). Dependent variables were measured with the TAKS
Reading and Math tests and BASC-II behavior instrument. Independent samples
two-tailed / tests were used to determine if students who received the 'Brain Gym'
intervention demonstrated significant improvements on the TAKS Reading and Math tests
14
and BASC-II behavior ratings when compared to students who did not receive the
intervention.
Significance of the Study
This study will provide scientific, empirical information about the utility of 'Brain
Gym' in public schools. Previous studies of 'Brain Gym' are limited and show
conflicting results (Hyatt, 2007). Also, the existing body of 'Brain Gym' studies of
student academic performance and behaviors do not meet IDEA 2004 Rtl standards since
they did not employ empirical, scientific research-based designs. Therefore, the use of
'Brain Gym' as an intervention in the Rtl process is currently questionable.
To satisfy IDEA 2004 Rtl research standards, a control group quantitative
experimental research design was selected for this study. The effect of 'Brain Gym'
movements as a general education classroom intervention was analyzed to determine if
any significant effect occurred to the general education primary grade-level student
reading and math performance, or behaviors. The effect of 'Brain Gym' movements as a
tier-one intervention on the performance of students at-risk of failing due to reading,
math, or behavior concerns was also examined.
The results of this study should help educators make informed decisions regarding
'Brain Gym' as a class-wide and tier-one Rtl intervention. Because class-wide and
tier-one interventions are implemented in the general education classroom, and tier-one
interventions are designed to meet all but 20% of at-risk students' needs, the majority of
students should benefit from these interventions. Furthermore, 'Brain Gym' is capable of
meeting a wide range of needs, which further increases its potential for helping struggling
15
students (Dennison, 2003). Therefore, the results of this study should indicate if'Brain
Gym' may play a significant role in the quest for educational excellence for all students.
Definition of Terms
Atypicality. Atypicality is the tendency to behave in ways that are considered
odd or immature (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006).
'Brain Gym'. 'Brain Gym' is an educational movement-based program that
utilizes 26 movements designed to improve cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and
physical performance across diverse populations (Hannaford, 2005).
'Brain Gym' Dimensions. 'Brain Gym' movements are divided into three
dimensions associated with the three midlines found in human bodies: laterality,
centering, and focus (Dennison, 2003).
'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan. The Three Day Rotation Plan is a lesson
plan that incorporates the use of all 'Brain Gym' movements over a three-day period, in
seven-minute, twice-a-day increments (Meders, 2000).
Centering Dimension. The centering dimension consists of 'Brain Gym'
movements that require crossing the top-bottom midline (Dennison, 2003).
Focus Dimension. Focus dimension includes movements that require crossing
over the front-back midline (Dennison, 2003).
Frontal Midline. The frontal midline is a vertical line separating the front and
back sides of the body (Dennison, 2003; Tyldesley, 1989; VanDeGraff, 1984).
Laterality Dimension. The laterality dimension includes 'Brain Gym' movements
that require crossing over the right-left midline (Dennison, 2003).
16
Midlines. The human body has three midlines: sagittal, transverse, and frontal
midlines, where two perceptual fields meet (Dennison, 2003; Tyldesley, 1989;
VanDeGraff, 1984).
Primary (Tier-one Intervention). Primary intervention is supplementary
instruction provided in the general education classroom designed to meet the needs of
80% to 85% of students who are struggling to meet grade-level norms (National
Association of State Directors of Special Education, 2005).
Response to Intervention (Rtl). Response to intervention is a multi-tiered service
delivery model with increasing intensity used in the public school setting to provide
early, effective assistance for struggling students (Shavelson & Towne, 2002).
Sagittal Midline. The sagittal midline is a vertical line separating right and left
sides of the body (Dennison, 2003; Tyldesley, 1989; VanDeGraff, 1984).
Secondary (Tier-two Intervention). Secondary intervention entails more intense,
small group supplementary instruction provided in the general education setting designed
to meet the needs of 15% to 20% of students who continue to struggle to meet grade-level
norms after receiving primary interventions (National Association of State Directors of
Special Education, 2005).
Somatization. Somatization is the tendency to be overly sensitive or to complain
about relatively minor physical problems or discomfort. (Reynolds & Kamphaus,
2006).
Student Adaptive Behaviors. Student adaptive behaviors include activities of daily
living, adaptability, functional communication, social skills, and study skills that are
measurable and based on national norms (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006).
17
Student Academic Performance. Student academic performance is a measure of
essential knowledge and skills as defined by the state of Texas Education Agency (TEA),
covering core subject areas including language arts, reading, writing, social studies,
mathematics, and science (Texas Education Agency, 2008b).
Student Behaviors. Student behaviors include maladaptive and adaptive behaviors
that are measurable and based on national norms (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006).
Student Maladaptive Behaviors. Student maladaptive behaviors include
aggression, anxiety, attention problems, atypicality, conduct problems, depression,
hyperactivity, learning problems, somatization, and withdrawal that are measurable and
based on national norms (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006).
Student Math Academic Performance. Student math academic performance
contains three key components of math established by the National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics (NCTM) to measure students' math, including problem solving, math
reasoning, and critical thinking (NCTM, 2008).
Student Reading Academic Performance. Student reading academic performance
contains five key components of reading established by the National Panel of Reading
(NPR) including phonemes, phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension (National Panel of Reading, 2008).
Tertiary (Tier-three Intervention). Tertiary intervention is intense, individualized
supplementary instruction provided in the general education setting that is designed to
meet the needs of 3% to 6% of at-risk students who continue to struggle after receiving
secondary interventions (National Association of State Directors of Special Education,
2005).
18
Transverse Midline. The transverse midline may be visualized as a horizontal line
at the waist separating the upper and lower half of the body (Dennison, 2003; Tyldesley,
1989; VanDeGraff, 1984).
Summary
Educators are struggling to meet the needs of students, comply with numerous
mandates, and alleviate national and parental concerns (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007).
Dennison's statements about the potential of the 'Brain Gym' program to meet a diverse
range of students' needs, combined with its widespread endorsement suggest that 'Brain
Gym' could play a part in answering the nation's educational concerns (Brain Gym
Institute, 2008). However, educators must now look to empirical research-based
interventions in their quest to foster student excellence within the Rtl framework (Fuchs
& Fuchs, 2007). Sound 'Brain Gym' research is limited and the studies that are available
give conflicting results regarding the program's efficacy (Hyatt, 2007). More research is
needed before teachers can confidently and legally use 'Brain Gym'. Therefore, a control
group quantitative experimental research design was used to evaluate the effects of
Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements on academic performance and behaviors when
implemented as a general education intervention for primary grade-level students. The
results of this study should indicate if 'Brain Gym' might be viable in the search for
educational excellence in the Rtl process as outlined by IDEA 2004 and NCLB (Fuchs &
Fuchs, 2007). These findings could allow educators to make informed decisions about
applying of 'Brain Gym' within the general education primary grade-level setting.
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of 'Brain Gym' movements on
primary grade-level student academic performance and behaviors. To assess what is
currently known about this subject, an extensive peer-reviewed literature search was
conducted. The literature review included topics related to the study such as: federal and
state educational assessment/accountability guidelines defining student performance, and
developing student schedules that promote success. The review also included specific
topics related to the effects of movement include: biological effects of movement, effects
of movement on overall student success, the value of specific movements, and studies of
'Brain Gym' programs.
This chapter is organized into nine sections. The first section examines federal
and state educational mandates and incentives promoting educational reform. Literature
revealing how educators define and measure student academic performance and behavior
will be explored. This will include examining how educators are attempting to include
students with special needs in school improvement and accountability measures.
The second section focuses on research investigating the effects of varying the
percent of school time devoted to classroom instruction and movement-based activities
on student performance. These studies include discussions about how teachers value time
in relation to promoting academic performance and classroom management. This
research highlights the effects of movement on state assessment performance.
The third section is devoted to investigating research regarding the biological
effects of movement on cognition, emotions, and behaviors. The biological basis for the
findings of these studies was emphasized in these studies. The third section also includes
20
a comparative analysis of different movement-based programs/regimes to determine if
studies reveal any difference in efficacy based upon variables such as the type, frequency,
intensity, or duration of movements. In addition, the section provides a review of studies
investing the differential effects on student performance based upon integrating frequent
movement breaks with academic instruction, physical fitness, or increases in physical
education class time has differential effects on student performance.
The fifth section focuses on the ability to cross midlines in relation to reflex
integration, learning, behaviors, and optimal human development. Here, a comprehensive
review of research focusing on the three midlines found in humans is presented.
Literature noting the relevance of midline movement studies in relationship to 'Brain
Gym' is emphasized.
Research related to 'Brain Gym' as a school-based intervention is discussed in the
sixth and seventh sections. Literature focusing on the effect of 'Brain Gym' on student
performance and behavior is presented. Reactions of teachers, parents, and students after
implementing 'Brain Gym' as an intervention are also presented. The focus of this
section is to explore whether or not implementing 'Brain Gym' programs as an
intervention in public schools is realistic.
The last section presents a recount of studies highlighting shortcomings of the
current body of research related to 'Brain Gym'. A comprehensive literature review
questioning the validity of the 'Brain Gym' program will be included. In summary, this
chapter should help readers conceptualize what is known about student academic
performance and behaviors, the benefits of movement, and the efficacy of'Brain Gym' in
promoting academic excellence.
21
Student Academic Performance
National and state educational standards and societal norms play a significant role
in identifying and defining acceptable academic performance and school behavior. In
order for states to comply with NCLB and IDEA 2004 federal mandates, each state must
develop and implement academic content standards, assessment measures, and
performance standards (Kohl, McLaughlin, & Nagle, 2006). Standards guide curricula
and define what should be taught, to whom, how, and when. Assessments measure
student mastery of standards and most states utilize state-developed assessments to
measure and report student and school performance. Performance standards identify
content and mastery level considered to be adequate, as well as ranges for higher and
lower levels of performance. This section will provide an overview of research defining
student performance from an educational standpoint. Particular attention was given to
Texas educational policies since Texas was the demographic area of this study.
In order to improve student academic performance, national and state initiatives
have been created to facilitate improvements. According to Texas Education Agency
(TEA), state initiatives have been implemented to support student reading and math
proficiency. The TEA (2008a), reported that their initiatives provide support in the areas
of teacher training, identification of research-based instructional and assessment
materials, parent training and information, and reading and math academic resources for
students.
The TEA (2008a) initiatives have identified specific areas considered essential for
strengthening student reading and math skills. Essential areas for reading include the use
of research-based reading instruction and assessments, providing accelerated reading
instruction for students in first and second grades, and providing parents with information
about supporting reading skills at home. Essential areas for math include early
identification of splinter skills, instructional intervention, instructional support, and
professional development.
The TEA also participated in joint research efforts with national reading and math
panels (i.e., NPR and NCTM) to identify core components of reading and math
performance. Findings of TEA (2008a) and NPR (2008) indicated that student reading
performance depends upon five core components: phonemes, phonics, fluency,
vocabulary, and comprehension (see Appendix 1). The TEA (2008a) and NCTM (2008)
identified three core components related to student math performance including problem
solving skills, math reasoning, and critical thinking (see Appendix 2).
Scope and sequence curriculum guidelines of essential knowledge and skills by
grade-level were developed by TEA (2008a). According to TEA, these guidelines are
referred to as Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). In order to assess and
monitor student performance of TEKS, the state developed Texas Assessment of
Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) tests (TEA, 2008c).
According to TEA (2008b), there are five basic subject areas included in the
public education curriculum. These include reading, writing, mathematics, science, and
social studies. The TAKS measures student knowledge and skills in these five basic
subject areas in order to determine student proficiency and school ratings (TEA, 2008c).
Reading and math TAKS are administered annually to students in the third through ninth
grades. However, writing, science, and social studies TAKS are administered only to
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specific grade-levels. Scores are calculated electronically by the state and then sent back
to school districts.
The literature reviewed to this point reveals how educators define and measure
student performance. According to the literature, national and state mandates, state
assessments, reading and math initiatives, and TEKS (for the state of Texas) have
together defined student performance (TEA, 2008c). State assessments (such as the TAKS
used in this study) are considered valid and reliable measures of student performance
(TEA, 2008c).
Inclusion of Students with Special Needs in Performance Measures
Mandates in NCLB and IDEA 2004 promote inclusion of students with special
needs (e.g., emotional, autism spectrum, learning, mental retardation, other health
impairment, and other specified disabilities) in the general education classroom (Kohl,
McLaughlin & Nagle, 2006). The NCLB mandates require educators to teach and assess
all students, including those with special needs, using current grade placement curriculum
objectives (Kohl et al., 2006). Kohl et al. noted that the majority of students with special
needs received instruction and assessment below current grade-level placement before
these mandates. The mandates hold educators responsible for ensuring that these students
meet high expectations.
According to Kohl et al., students with academic or behavior concerns often
received instruction from certified special education teachers, in classes with a low
teacher-to-student ratio and specialized resources and supports. General education
classrooms typically contain a higher number of students and fewer individualized
resources and supports. As a result, both academic and behavior challenges have
increased dramatically, over the past five years, in the general education classrooms
(Kohl et al., 2006).
Federal mandates supporting inclusion have stipulated that special education
teachers provide inclusion support for students struggling in the general education setting
(Kohl et al., 2006). However, even with this added support, the majority of general
education teachers report feeling ill-prepared to handle the academic and behavior
challenges in the public schools (Kohl et al., 2006). Educators are looking for ways to
effectively meet these challenges. The literature in this section emphasizes the urgency
for academic and behavior interventions capable of meeting the needs of students with
special needs.
Student Behaviors
Wilhite, Braten, Frey, and Wilder (2007) conducted a teacher survey to identify
the most common classroom behavior concerns. The ten classroom behavior concerns
most often reported were acting out, aggression, hyperactivity, poor social relations,
defiance, immaturity, poor academic achievement, poor attention span, and inadequate
self-concept (Wilhite et al., 2007). Teachers emphasized that student behaviors have
changed over the past ten years; however, behavior strategies and classroom management
interventions remained relatively unchanged since 1972 (Wilhite et al., 2007). According
to Wilhite et al., teachers expressed frustration over the ineffectiveness of available
techniques and are seeking new ways of managing today's classrooms.
Educational laws passed within the decade and higher rates of students diagnosed
with behavior disorders are a few of the possible explanations for a new variety and
intensity of behavior issues in schools (Wilhite et al., 2007). Other factors, such as
25
changing family norms, have also likely contributed to changes in student behaviors
(Wilhite et al., 2007). The majority of mothers now work outside the home and the
number of single parent families has increased dramatically in recent years. Financial
pressures, limited time, and increased non-parenting responsibilities have left many
families exhausted, with little left over to offer to the children at the end of each day.
Young children not developmentally mature enough to process violence, inappropriate
language, disrespect towards authority, and sexuality are exposed to such behaviors
through the media at unprecedented levels. Further, the number of children diagnosed
with Autism, Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), Conduct Disorder, and
Oppositional Defiant Disorder has increased. Wilhite et al. found these variables have
had a significant impact on classroom behaviors.
Teachers have difficulty teaching in a disruptive classroom environment and
report loss of valuable instruction time addressing student misbehavior (Wilhite et al.,
2007). Wilhite et al. emphasized, federal mandates require teachers to address concerns
with behavior interventions supported by scientific research. Positive behavior strategies
are proactive (rather than reactive), are research-based, and meet Rtl criteria (Wilhite et
al., 2007). Positive, proactive strategies approach misbehavior differently than strategies
used by educators in the past decade (Sprick, Garrison & Howard, 1998). Instead of using
punitive, reactive approaches to behavior management, educators are to respond
positively and proactively.
Discipline and classroom management have historically focused on teacher needs
(e.g., the need for students to listen and remain seated during instruction time) rather than
the child's needs (e.g., the students natural needs to communicate, move, participate, ask
for help, and be active) (Sprick et al., 1998). Focusing on student deficits such as
hyperactivity, inattentiveness, and aggressive behaviors is no longer an acceptable
practice. Educators are to concentrate on student strengths such as being energetic,
verbal, and curious. In other words, the approach to classroom management should flow
from teaching students to meet personal needs in a socially appropriate manner (Sprick et
al., 1998). Dennison (1997) emphasized that 'Brain Gym' allows educators to proactively
address behaviors without the need for diagnosing/labeling children and resorting to
punitive disciplinary approaches.
Kohl et al. (2006) and Wilhite et al. (2007) both observed that the population of
students in the general education classroom has changed dramatically, largely due to
recent federal mandates and changes in society. Given these changes in the general
educational environment, pressure from accountability measures, and mandates requiring
research-based interventions be selected to meet students' needs it is no surprise that
teachers report feeling ill-prepared. Educators are turning to scientific research in an
effort to abide by federal and state mandates, improve student performance, and promote
educational excellence for all students. Unfortunately, the scientific research base
regarding effective academic and behavior intervention is limited. Consequently,
research-based general education interventions need to be identified and developed for
educators to manage classroom behavior and provide academic instruction efficiently and
effectively.
Schedules: Movement versus Instruction
In light of the responsibilities placed on teachers coupled with the academic and
behavior challenges of today's classroom, developing school schedules has become an
area of contention (Tremarche et al., 2007). Educators strive to find the best balance in
the schedule to help children achieve their potential. This section will explore research
related to the ongoing conflict between coveted instructional time and non-instructional
(movement-based) time during school hours in the challenge to maximize student
performance.
Hannaford (1995) conducted a quantitative experimental study to compare the
benefits of instruction time versus time devoted to movement-based activities for student
performance. The study included 500 students and involved an intervention that was
one-hour of movement-based activities per day. In order to accomplish this, the
experimental group's instruction time was reduced by one hour each day. No changes
were made to the control group schedule. Hannaford noted that the control group
therefore received one-hour of additional instruction time per day compared to the
experimental group. At the conclusion of the study, student academic scores were
compared to determine if any significant difference existed between the two groups.
Hannaford reported that the academic scores of the experimental group were significantly
higher than those of the control group. This research supports the concept that increasing
physical activity during the school day improves student academic performance, even
though academic instruction was reduced.
Tremarche et al. (2007) conducted a mixed method qualitative study to investigate
the factors teachers believed most influence student performance on state assessments.
Tremarche et al. found instructional time was perceived as the most important variable.
The researchers pointed out that teachers rated physical movement as making only a
minimal contribution to academic performance. Tremarche et al. remarked that these
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views have led to less time allotted to physical education, recess, and other physical
activities during the school day in the majority of districts nationwide.
Tremarche et al. (2007) conducted a follow-up, quasi-experimental quantitative
study to explore the effects of reduced time devoted to physical activities during the
school day. The researchers reported that many schools are reducing the time students are
engaged in physical activities, such as physical education, and increasing time devoted to
academic instruction in order improve academic performance. Another topic considered
was how movement affects student academic performance. In order to answer this
question, the researchers compared English and language arts and math state assessment
scores of fourth grade students in two comparable districts that devoted different amounts
of time to physical activities. Both districts provided physical education. However, one
devoted 28 hours per school year, while the other dedicated 56 hours per school year.
According to Tremarche et al.'s (2007) mixed method study, teachers surveyed
reported concern that increased time devoted to physical activity and reduced instruction
time would result in lower academic performance and state assessment scores. However,
when the team completed a quasi-experimental quantitative follow-up study and
compared two similar schools' state assessment scores, the school providing more
physical activity scored higher on state assessment tests. Tremache et al. emphasized that
shifting from instruction time did to physical activity time not result in lower academic
scores but rather significantly increased scores. The researchers cautioned educators
against reducing the time devoted to physical activity in hopes of increasing academic
performance.
In summary, studies conducted by Hall (2007), Tremarche et al. (2007), and
Hannaford (1995), support that student performance improved both academically and
behaviorally when time devoted to physical activity was increased. These studies
emphasize the value of movement to academic performance. This means that educators
concerns about time devoted to movement-based activities in lieu of instructional time is
unwarranted.
Biological Effects of Movement on Cognition and Behavior
There are numerous studies have demonstrated that movement produces
biological changes in the brains of animals and humans (Lui, Chen, & Yu, 2008;
Tremarche, Robinson, & Graham, 2007; Hall, 2007). These researchers used a control
group experimental research design to evaluate the biological effects of movement.
Findings from these studies indicate the observed changes in the brain had positive
effects on cognitive performance, emotional well-being, and behavior.
Animal research allows for direct examination of the effects of physical activity
on the cells of the brain. There are numerous studies of animals investigating the
biological effects of movement. For example, Lui, Chen, and Yu (2008) examined the
biological effects of exercise on learning and memory in mice. Lui et al. proposed that
cognitive functions involve specific proteins and neurological factors in the
hippocampus, the area of the brain which facilitates memory and learning. The findings
indicated that the exercise regime (running on a treadmill) did indeed promote an
increase in specific proteins and neurological factors when the hippocampus region of the
brains of mice was examined. However, Lui et al. emphasized that these findings only
imply that exercise improves learning and memory by up-regulating proteins and
neurological hippocampus factors. Only up-regulation of specific proteins and
neurological hippocampus factors were measured and not learning and memory, so
further research is needed (Lui et al., 2008).
Hillman, Erickson, and Krammer (2008), conducted an extensive literature review
of human and non-human animal studies exploring cognitive functions, physiology of the
brain, and varying amounts of physical activity. According to Hillman et al., non-human
experimental research findings document that physical activity promotes neuroplasticity,
vascularity, production of synapses, neurons, and up-regulation of several neurotropic
factors in the brains of mice. The increased number of blood vessels observed resulted in
more nutrition being delivered to the brain. The greater number of synapses and neurons
seen was believed to allow for more efficient cognitive processing. Hillman et al.
reported that the most consistently reported observations resulting from anatomical
research are increases in cell reproduction and survival in the hippocampus. The
hippocampus region of the brain is associated with learning and memory functions.
Hillman et al. pointed out that these findings have been replicated by numerous
peer-reviewed studies.
According to Hillman and his colleagues' literature review (2008), multiple
experimental studies using neuro-imaging to observe biological functions of the human
brain have documented that physical activity has a positive influence on cognition.
Hillman et al. reported that functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRJ) reveals that
physical activity is positively related to increases in prefrontal and temporal grey matter,
as well as anterior white matter volume, which is associated with human cognitive
performance. Findings also reveal that physical activity had a larger effect on executive
31
control functions when compared to other cognitive processes (Hilman et al., 2008).
Executive control functions include the ability to attend as well as inhibit responses to
stimuli. Participants in these studies demonstrated decreases in behavioral conflict
(Hilman et al., 2008). The findings of these studies indicate that physical activity has
positive effects on cognition as well as behavior in humans.
Human research has also incorporated the use of electroencephalograms to
explore the relationship between physical activity and cognitive functions. Two such
studies using experimental quantitative studies were conducted by Dustman (1990) and
Lardon and Polich (1996). According to their results, alpha, beta, and theta spectral bands
had greater electro-cortical activity in physically active individuals. These findings are
important because spectral frequency has a positive relationship with attentionality,
processing speed, and executive control.
Hall (2007) conducted research investigating the effect of movement on the
production of brain chemistry. He specifically explored the effects of movement on
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF); the chemical required for neurons in the brain
to communicate with one another and improves retention, understanding, comprehension,
memory, retrieval, and fluency of information. Hall found BDNF production is triggered
by movement. Conversely, sitting for more than 20 minutes depleted (Hall, 2007) the
production of BDNF.
According to Hall (2007), the brain needs oxygen and glucose from nutrients in
order to function. Nutrients are supplied through blood flow and movement increases this
flow. Hall found that increases in blood oxygen delivery to the brain dramatically
enhanced cognitive efficiency. The importance of blood flow to the brain is demonstrated
by the fact that a lack of oxygen-rich blood flow to the brain results in loss of
consciousness within seconds.
Researchers have found that cognitive efficiency is associated with neuron and
cell density in the brain (Hall, 2007). Stress increases the production of Cortisol, a
compound known to kill brain cells and also reduce the body's ability to produce new
ones (Hall, 2007). However, movement regulates Cortisol levels. Movement has also been
found to increases the brain's base-line production of new neuron growth (Hall, 2007).
These findings emphasize that movement reduces stress and increase neuron density in
humans, which influences emotional regulation, behavior, and cognition.
Hall (2007) conducted numerous experimental quantitative studies of the effects
of movement on students. In these studies, academic instruction introducing new
materials was combined with movement-based activities. Students who participated in
these activities demonstrated greater gains in academic performance, reduced stress, and
physical fitness when compared to the control group. Hall explained that for learning to
occur, new information must be engrained in the brain's neural networks. Hall also cited
numerous studies showing that the cerebellum is the area of the brain that processes both
movement and learning. Understanding and retaining new information is improved when
neural links are connected between previously acquired and new information. Hall
reported that that combining known movements with new information improved learning.
Movement recruits sensory fibers that carry impulses from muscles to the brain. These
impulses engrain information in the neural networks of the brain. Hall explained that
when movement is intergraded with exposure to new information, brain activity increases
33
in areas of the brain associated with learning, increasing the engraining process and make
learning more concrete (e.g., less easily forgotten).
Tremarche, Robinson, and Graham's (2007) report that physical movement has
many cognitive, emotional, and behavioral benefits educators should consider. Brain
research, the development of neuroscience, and medical technology substantiate that
physical activity has positive influences on cognitive activities. Tremarche et al. reported
that technologies such as MRI, Positron Emission Tomography (PET), and nuclear
(nMRI) have produced major advances in understanding the biological basis of cognitive
functioning. Results from MRI, PET, and nMRI scans reveal that teaching new
movements to students accesses previously unused parts of the brain. Tremarche et al.
emphasized that movement increases brain neurotransmitters, endorphins, neural network
development, and facilitates transport of oxygen and nourishment to the brain. Increased
neurotransmitters, endorphins, and neural networks promote emotional well-being,
behavior regulation, and cognition efficiency. Advances in medical imaging have
provided greater understanding of the biological basis of cognitive functions and
behaviors. In summary, the body of literature concerning the biological effects of
movement demonstrates positive influences on a numerous biological factors associated
with cognition and behavior (Lui, 2008, Hall, 2007, Tremarcher et al. 2007).
Movement and the Quest for Educational Excellence
As shown above, there is significant research supporting the benefits of
movement on cognition and behaviors. However, it is important to distinguish between
movement-based activities promoting physical fitness (e.g., exercise and sports activities
unusually done in physical education classes) and those promoting brief movement
breaks during instruction time (e.g., 'Brain Gym' and 'Smart Moves'). This section will
review current research that compares the efficacy of physical education and adding
frequent movement breaks with academic instruction in order to determine if a specific
method of movement-based activity is more effective in promoting academic
performance and positive school behaviors.
The relative degree of physical fitness is defined by factors such as body mass
index, muscle mass, endurance, and strength. Martin and Chalmers (2007) conducted a
correlation study to investigate the relationship between physical fitness and academic
performance. The study involved 5,847 students in third through eighth grades, in a
Seattle school district. Student's academic performance was measured with the Iowa
Test of Basic Skills. The President's Challenge, a White House-sponsored program that
encourages all age groups to incorporate activity into their daily lives, was utilized to
measure physical fitness. Findings of this study indicated that physical fitness accounted
for only 3.6% of variance in academic performance (Martin & Chalmers, 2007). In other
words almost all (96.3%) variance in academic performance was not related to students'
physical fitness. The researchers noted that physical fitness is promoted through physical
education and health classes and physical fitness benefits students by improving overall
health and motor skills. However, Martin and Chalmers reported that physical fitness did
not appear to significantly influence academic performance.
Dwyer, Blizzard, and Dean (1996) conducted a study that summarized the results
of two quantitative experiments conducted by Dwyer. The purpose of this study was to
determine the effects of exercise on academic performance and behaviors. The team
referenced Dwyer's original study (1979) and his two-year follow-up study (1983). These
35
two studies were conducted in South Australia by Dwyer with 519 fifth grade students
from seven schools. Three classes from each school were randomly selected and assigned
to one of three groups: control group, skill group, or fitness group. The skill and fitness
groups received different levels of physical exercise, while the control group's daily
school routine was unchanged (Dwyer et al., 1996). Activity for the control group
consisted of 30 minutes of physical education three times per week. The two
experimental groups received different levels of daily physical activity. The skill group
was given 75 minutes of physical activity dispersed in short intervals (10 to 15 minutes)
over the course of the school day. However, the fitness group received one 75-minute
period of intense physical activity daily in order to raise the heart rate and promote
fitness.
The initial 1979 study used a 14-week quantitative experiment to investigate the
effects on student academic performance and behaviors of providing students with
different levels and intervals of physical activity (as described above) throughout the
school day (Dwyer et al., 1983). Data were gathered through pretest and posttest
measures of academic related behaviors, social behaviors, mathematics performance, and
reading performance. The Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior (KAB) Child Scale was
selected to measure social and academic work behaviors. Academic performance was
assessed using the Australian Council of Educational Research (ACER) arithmetic and
the GAP Reading Comprehension Test, also developed in Australia. Analysis of
covariance was used to process the data. According to Dwyer et al. (1996), the results of
the 1979 study indicated that even though instruction time was decreased for both
experimental groups by 14%, there were no significant differences between control and
experimental groups academic performance measures over the test period. However, the
exercise groups demonstrated significant improvements in classroom behavior when
compared to the control group.
In 1983 Dwyer's follow-up study using a quantitative experiment to explore the
longitudinal effects of the study initiated in 1978. Academic math and reading
performance indicators for the 1983 study were measured on state-wide examinations.
The KAB Scale was again utilized to measure social and academic work behaviors.
Independent sample t tests were used to determine if group means significantly differed.
The two-year study results did indicate that both experimental groups scored statistically
higher on the state-wide reading and math assessments when compared to the control
group. Dwyer et al. (1996) also reported that the skills and fitness groups' behavior
scores were significantly higher when compared to the control group. The skill group's
academic-related behaviors and social skills had the largest improvements when
compared to the and control groups.
According to Dwyer et al. (1996), the results of these two studies indicate that
dispersing physical activity throughout the day benefits student behaviors more than
providing one period of aerobic physical activity per day. Further, reducing academic
instruction time by 14% per day in order to devote time during the school day to physical
activity did not reduce student academic performance. The researchers concluded that
academic gains at the end of the two-year period were likely due to improvements in
school related behaviors and social skills. The findings of these two studies (Dwyer,
1979; Dwyer, 1983) shed light on the type of movement-based programs that benefit
students most; namely physical activity dispersed throughout the instructional day
(Dwyeretal., 1996).
Hall (2007) conducted a quantitative experiment to explore the effects of frequent
movement breaks on student academic performance and student behaviors. Results
indicated that providing instruction in small intervals with frequent breaks promotes
learning and retention. Hall concluded that integrating physical movement with academic
instruction improves student academic performance, emotional well-being, and
behaviors. Movement breaks help to reduce student stress and decrease disruptive
behaviors. Integration, in this context, simply means combining two or more subjects in
order to help students with different learning styles (e.g., visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic) better understand and retain new information. Hall also reported that
requiring students to sit for more than 20 minutes reduces beneficial compounds and
nutrients in the brain that are necessary for learning. However, integrating movement
with academic instruction that allows for movement (in at least 20-minute intervals) will
maintain adequate chemical and nutrient levels so learning can occur. According to Hall,
integrating movement with academic instruction is an effective, research-based major
teaching intervention.
Classroom management skills are included in teacher preparation curriculums
(Mulrine et al., 2008). However, the number of office referrals, detentions, assignments
to disciplinary units, and out-of-school suspensions has risen over the past few years.
According to Mulrine et al., educators are faced with levels and varieties of misbehaviors
that have not previously been seen in classrooms. For example, they reported that the
38
number of children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional
defiant disorder, and conduct disorder has drastically increased.
Mulrine, Prater, and Jenkins (2008) conducted a quantitative experimental study
that examined the effects on students' behaviors and academic performance of integrating
frequent movement-based breaks during daily lessons and transitions. Mulrine et al.
referenced studies that indicate there is a positive influence of movement on spatial
relationship concept formation, development of language, emotional well-being,
attention, and memory. The researchers identified common classroom misbehaviors and
classroom management concerns of teachers. They then examined the effects on students'
behaviors, ADHD symptoms, and academic performance of providing frequent structured
movement breaks during academic instruction and transitions throughout the school day
routine. Pre-intervention and post-intervention data were collected and compared to see
if significant differences in behavior and academic performance existed.
Mulrine et al. (2008) combined instruction and movement with between-subject
transitions and rainy-day activities as a classroom management and teaching strategy.
The research intervention included structured movements described as lesson energizers,
transition exercises, and rainy-day structure activities. Lesson energizers consisted of
10-minute physical activities combined with math, science, language arts, and social
studies instructions. Transition activities were described as routine, structured physical
activities which signal to students that one activity is stopping and a new one is starting.
An example of a transition activity could include a chant combined with hand clapping
and foot stomping patterns telling students that reading lessons are over and it is time to
start math lessons. Rainy-day activities provide students with alternative physical
activities when outdoor recess is not feasible. Rainy-day activities may include physically
active games and movement-based exercises accompanied by music.
This study showed that providing instruction in short intervals improved student
learning. However, classroom instruction time generally consisted of lengthy teacher
instruction in lecture format that required students to learn a large amount of information
and allowed little or no student movement or interaction. Furthermore, Mulrine et al.
observed that student motivation is linked to attention, comprehension, and memory.
Passive instruction (lecture style) reduced the motivation and natural curiosity needed to
enhance learning. The investigators recommended breaking up instruction into short
intervals in order maximize student learning.
The findings of Mulrine's et al. (2008) experiment indicate that alternating
frequent short intervals of structured movement with classroom instruction and transition
times throughout the school day has a positive influence on ADHD behaviors, conduct
and oppositional behaviors, ability to cope with stress, self-image, social skills,
motivation for learning, and overall academic performance. The authors emphasized that
physical activity is a valuable teaching strategy that improves student behaviors,
motivation to learn, and academic performance.
Halla-Poe (2002) utilized the Feldenkrais Method of learning, which relies on
sensory-motor techniques in order to improve brain and body integration and promote
learning for students with emotional and behavior challenges. Educators incorporating
the Feldenkrias Method embed movement into instruction time. This blending has
multiple benefits, such as providing an opportunity to learn by engaging multiple senses,
promoting whole-brain learning, and enhancing brain and body integration. Halla-Poe
cited several case studies which supported the efficacy of these kinesthetic methods for
improving emotional stability and behaviors in students with emotional disabilities and
significant disruptive behavior disorders.
Ayers (2005) reported that correlation case studies indicated that sensory
integration difficulties are often associated with disruptive behaviors. Movement and
gross motor play promote whole-brain as well as sensory integration. According to
Ayers, providing children with such opportunities stimulates brain wiring, which has a
positive effect on sensory integration, behaviors, social skills, and learning. According to
Terry Brazelton, M.D., Professor Emeritus of Pediatrics at Harvard University's School
of Medicine, Ayers (2005) is one of the leading authorities in the United States on
sensory integration. Disruptive behaviors interfere with learning and socialization.
The influence of movement on maladaptive behaviors associated with ADHD was
studied by Baker (2005). The methodology was a quasi-experimental design with pretest
and posttest data collection. The experimental group received mini-exercise breaks
throughout the school day and the control group did not receive an intervention.
According to Baker, the experimental group had significant behavior improvements
compared to the control group.
The effects of physical activity on cognition of children and teens ages 4 to 18
were investigated by Siley and Etnier (2003) using a meta-analysis. Their findings
indicated that students' cognitive processes have a positive relationship with physical
activity. Perceptual skills, intelligence quotient, academic achievement, verbal tests, math
tests, and academic readiness were also associated with physical activity. However, Siley
and Etnier did not find any relationship between memory and physical activity. Siley and
41
Etnier observed that children aged 4-7 and 11-13 years showed a higher correlation
between cognitive processes and physical activities than children 8-10 and 14-18 years.
Hillman, Erickson, and Krammer (2008), referencing numerous correlation
studies that found either a positive association or no association between physical activity
and academic performance in school-aged children, suggested that differences in results
were due to the way in which academic performance was measured and/or the longevity
of the studies. None of the cited studies found a negative relationship between physical
activity and academic performance. Further, Hillman et al. reported that these studies
indicated that reducing instructional time required to increase the amount of time devoted
to physical activity did not lead to a decline in student academic performance.
Although a substantial number of sound experimental studies were cited indicated
that physical activity has a positive effect on the brain in general and cognitive
functioning in particular Hillman et al. (2008) pointed out that little is known regarding
the type, frequency, or intensity of physical activities that are most efficient and most
effective in promoting cognition and brain health. To design effective movement-based
interventions, more research will be needed regarding the effects of specific movements
on brain activity. These studies uniformly noted that dispersing movement activities
throughout the day had a positive influence on adaptive and maladaptive behaviors.
However, 'Brain Gym' was not used as the intervention and, therefore, generalizations
about its efficacy cannot be made based on these reports. In summary, the findings of
studies related to instructional time verses time devoted to movement-based activities
indicate that combining small intervals of academic instruction and movement breaks
improves student behaviors and academic performance.
Midline Movements, Reflex Integration, Learning, and Behaviors
Research related to midline movements and reflex integration was reviewed to
investigate the effect of promoting integration of primitive reflexes and the ability to
cross over midlines with movement-based activities. Midlines are where two perceptual
fields meet and the human body has three; right-left, front-back, and top-bottom
(Dennison, 2003; Tyldesley, 1989; VanDeGraff, 1984). Reflexes are involuntary
responses to stimuli and humans are born with primitive reflexes that disappear with age
when development is typical (Goddard, 1996). Several studies have been conducted
investigating the inability to cross midlines and unintergraded primitive reflexes to
determine if these factors are associated with learning and behavior deficits in humans.
Findings of these studies will help to evaluate the value of such activities in improving
learning and behavior.
Goddard (1996), from the Institute for Neuro-Physiological Psychology, indicated
that primitive reflexes present at birth generally intergraded by the age of 15 months.
Goddard also reported that postural reflexes develop as primitive reflexes are intergraded.
Postural reflexes allow higher motor skills, such as fine muscle coordination, perceptual
processing, and ocular motor function to develop. When developmental delays occur, a
series of developmental events are stalled and detrimental effects on physical and
cognitive processes result. Children with developmental delays have higher rates of
academic difficulties compared to children meeting developmental milestones at typical
rates; and unfortunately, the prevalence of children entering school with developmental
delays is growing (Goddard, 1996).
43
Children having unintergraded reflexes generally appear awkward, are accident
prone and lethargic, have rigid posture (Goddard, 1996; Masgutova, 1999). Masgutova,
founder of the Institute of Movement Development and Reflex Integration (Poland),
stated that children with unintergraded reflexes have difficulty crossing the midlines and
often do not know where their body is in s'PACE', have sensory sensitivities, and
experience high levels of stress. The presence of primitive reflexes such as asymmetrical
tonic neck reflex (ATNR) and tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) after one year of age are
indicative of developmental delays (Masgutova, 1999). The ATNR reflex is also known
as the 'fencing reflex' because of its resemblance to the fencing position (Goddard,
1996). When the face is turned to one side, the arm and leg extend on the side the face is
turned to and the arm and leg on the opposite side bend. The TLR reflex is seen when
newborns are placed on their backs. The TLR reflex results in the torso and neck arching
very stiffly backwards, the legs and feet straighten when coming together and toes point,
and the arms bend towards the chest and fists clinch (Masgutova, 1999).
Jordan-Black (2005) conducted a quasi-experimental study to evaluate the effects
of movement on primitive reflex integration (ATNR and TLR) and academic
performance. In order to promote reflex integration an educational kinesiology program,
Primary Movement, was implemented as an intervention for two years. The program
included basic movements such as crawling, rolling side-over-side, and jumping. There
were 683 children, ages three to five, included in the study. Standardized assessments
were used to provide base-line data and ensure there were no pre-existing differences
between groups and evaluate student academic performance at the end of the study.
Academic measures included math, reading, and spelling performance. Data were
44
evaluated to determine if the program had significant effects on reflex integration and
academic performance. Results indicated that students who received the movement-based
program had significantly greater improvements in academic performance and ATNR
reflex integration than those who did not (Jordan-Black, 2005). This is important because
the findings of this study revealed that persistence of ATNR and TLR had a high
association with academic delays, bone and joint problems, and physical movement
difficulties. Over time, unintergraded ATNR and TLR can cause scoliosis and hip socket
dislocation (Jordan-Black, 2005).
Surburg and Easen (1999) and Woodard and Surburg (1999) at Indiana State
University conducted several correlation studies exploring the relationship between an
inability to cross midlines and cognitive functioning. Woodard and Surburg (1999)
studied different abilities to cross the three midlines and the relationship to cognitive and
developmental abilities. Their findings indicated that individuals with learning
difficulties, mental retardation, and developmental delays had significantly more
difficulty crossing midlines than those who had no delays; they referred to the inability to
cross midlines as midline-crossing inhibition (Woodard & Surburg, 1999). Surburg and
Eason (1999) initiated another correlation study to examine midline-crossing inhibition.
The results of this study mirrored those of Woodard and Surburg's investigation.
However, Surburg and Eason also determined that students without learning disabilities
could cross midlines easily.
Corso (1997) conducted a five-year, longitudinal correlation study to explore the
relationship between academic performance and crossing the sagittal, transverse, and
frontal midlines. The sample included 28 children struggling with reading and writing in
45
the general education setting. Corso found a statistically significant relationship between
the ability to cross midlines and reading and writing performance. Inability to cross the
frontal (front-back) midline was associated with letter reversal and confusion over
whether to begin reading from the left or right side of the page. Poor organizational skills
and difficulty with transitions were related to being unable to cross the transverse
(top-bottom) midline. Inability to cross the sagittal (left-right) midline was associated
with difficulty processing written and spoken language.
In summary, several studies posited that unintergraded primitive reflexes in
humans have detrimental effects on physical, cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and
sensory processes (Masgutova, 1999; Goddard, 1996; Jordan-Black, 2005). Findings of
these studies revealed that there is a high association between unintergraded reflexes,
inability to cross the three midlines, deficits in academic performance, and behavior
concerns. Researchers have also found, when individuals struggling with midline
movements and cognitive skills are given frequent opportunity to participate in
movements that cross midlines significant improvements in cognitive, behaviors, and
midline movement skills occurred (Surburg & Easen, 1993, 1999; Corso, 1997).
Furthermore, the ability to move across each midline was found to be uniquely related to
specific academic tasks and behaviors (Corso, 1997). These results suggest that research
regarding midline movements may be useful in designing specific interventions to meet
the unique academic/behavioral needs of students and has dramatic implications for
educational kinesiology as an intervention within the Rtl process.
'Brain Gym' and Student Academic Performance and Behaviors
'Brain Gym' programs are used throughout the United States and overseas to
meet teacher and student needs (Hannaford, 2005). 'Brain Gym' was endorsed in 1991 by
the National Learning Foundation as one of twelve exemplary educational programs
(Baker, 2005). However, educators must now look to empirical research-based
interventions in their quest to promote student excellence within the Rtl framework
(Fuchs and Fuchs, 2007). This section, explores independent research findings
concerning the ability of 'Brain Gym' programs to promote student performance.
Paul Dennison introduced 'Brain Gym' during the 1980s and is the founder of the
Brain Gym Institute (Brain Gym International/Educational Kinesiology Foundation,
2008). Dennison (2003) described 'Brain Gym' as a set of specific movements that
activate the brain and body for learning. Dennison promotes whole-brain and body
learning using midline movements. This concept that learning engages the whole mind
and body is considered to be one of the core principles of brain-based education (Caine et
al., 1999). The ability to physically cross midlines is linked to cognitive processes
required for learning (e.g., how humans perceive and respond to the world around them)
and 'Brain Gym' movements provide frequent opportunity to cross midlines (Goddard,
1996). As noted earlier, Dennison (2003) defined midlines as the place where two
perceptual fields meet. The human body has three midlines sagittal, transverse, and
frontal midlines (Dennison, 2003; Tyldesley; 1989; and VanDeGraff, 1984). Midlines
may be visualized as vertical lines separating the left and right sides (sagittal), upper and
lower half (transverse), and front and back sides (frontal midlines) of the body
(Dennison, 2003).
47
There are numerous studies supporting the idea that the ability to crossover a
given midline facilitates specific cognitive tasks (Goddard, 1999; Diamond, 1999;
Masgutova, 1999; Ayers, 1971). Dennison (2003) identified three dimensions of
movements (laterality, centering, and frontal) that correspond to each of the midlines
found in the human body. Dennison reported that the laterality dimension, the ability to
cross the right-left midline, engages both (right and left) hemispheres of the brain. The
ability to cross the right-left midline is linked to informational intelligence and processing
spoken and written language (Kephart, 1971; Dennison, 2003). Dennison asserted that the
centering dimension, or crossing the top-bottom midline, engages the frontal lobe and
hind brain. The ability to cross the top-bottom midline is associated with instinctual
behaviors such as fight-or-flight, rational thought, and abstract thinking (Dennison, 2003;
Masgutova, 1999). Dennison stated that the focus dimension, or crossing the front-back
midline, engages the midbrain. The ability to cross the front-back midline is associated
with attention and focus, which are necessary for learning (Hailman & Abell, 1980;
Dennison, 2003).
In order for humans to cross the three midlines, primitive and postural reflexes
must be intergraded (Hannaford, 2005; Masgutova, 1999). According to Masgutova and
Hannaford, 'Brain Gym' movements are effective for remediating development delays
because the 26 midline movements promote integration of primitive reflexes necessary
for higher developmental processes to occur. Therefore, utilizing the three 'Brain Gym'
dimension movements engages the whole brain and body so optimal growth,
development, and learning may occur.
Ferree (2001) conducted a study to compare the effects of 'Brain Gym', light
aerobic activities, and social skills on student academic performance and behavior. Ferree
used an experimental design with pretest and posttest measures based on nationally
standardized assessments. Students were randomly assigned to a 'Brain Gym' group, a
light aerobic group, or a social skills group. The results indicated that both exercise
groups had significant improvements over the social skills group. However, Ferree
emphasized that the only conclusion that could be drawn from the findings is that
physical activities have a positive effect upon student academic performance and
behaviors.
The effects of 'Brain Gym' lateral movements combined with 'Pre-fit' play
activities on numeracy and literacy with third grade students were studied by Walker
(2008). The research employed a quantitative quasi-experimental design. The findings
indicated that guided physical activities significantly improved primary grade-level
students' math and reading performance. However, Walker noted that since the study
combined both 'Brain Gym' and 'Pre-fit' play activities for the intervention, further
research would be needed to determine if the same results occur when 'Brain Gym' is the
sole intervention.
Witcher (2001) examined the effects of'Brain Gym', gender, socioeconomic
status, and previous performance on kindergarten students' phonological awareness.
Witcher's study is significant because it had a sound quantitative experimental design,
robust statistical analyses, measurement instruments that were psychometrically valid for
measuring the research constructs, appropriate teacher training, and the 'Brain Gym'
intervention (six basic movements) was implemented with fidelity. Witcher found that
the 'Brain Gym' movements did not have a significant effect on kindergarten students'
phonological awareness.
Voss (2006) conducted a control group quasi-experimental study with pretest and
posttest measures to evaluate the effects of 'Brain Gym' on 58 sixth grade students'
academic achievement and stress. Measures of student stress were gathered using the
School Situation Survey, a standardized self-report instrument, and survey reporting
teacher observations. Academic performance measures were gathered using the State
Testing and Recording (STAR) standardized achievement test. Students in the control
group participated in 'Brain Gym' activities twice daily over the two-week examination
period. Findings revealed no academic or stress related behavior gains for students
participating in 'Brain Gym' activities when compared to the control group. The findings
of Voss' (2006) and Witcher's (2001) studies shed doubt on the claims of Dennison
regarding the efficacy of the 'Brain Gym' program for improving academic performance
for behaviors.
According to Dennison (1981) and Hannaford (2005), 'Brain Gym' is effective in
meeting the needs of students with academic concerns. Dennison reported that students
with learning disabilities in the areas of reading and writing have benefited from 'Brain
Gym' interventions. Dennison supported these claims by referencing several case studies
of students with identified learning disabilities who have demonstrated significant
improvements after receiving 'Brain Gym' interventions (Dennison, 1981).
Hannaford (2005) discussed the dominance factor theory and made substantial
reference to neuroscience as support for the value of kinesthetic movement in the
learning process. The dominance factor is borrowed from Orton-Gillingham's
50
multi-sensory and phonics-based reading programs that are recommended by numerous
educators. Hannaford concurred that 'Brain Gym' utilizes whole body integrative
movements to promote learning and significantly improves performance for students with
learning challenges.
Spalding (2004) conducted qualitative quasi-experimental study with teacher
interviews and observations. This study used all 26 'Brain Gym' movements as the
intervention. The intervention was implemented for eight weeks with 63 six to ten year
old students. Participants in the study were general education students identified as
demonstrating learning, physical, or behavior concerns and in need of support. Student
observations were used to gather data. The findings indicated the majority of students
(67%) participating in 'Brain Gym' movements demonstrated no or varied
(improvements as well as declines) change in academic performance and behaviors.
However, students that were unable to crossover midlines at the beginning of the study
and learned to do so during the study demonstrated higher rates of reading, math,
handwriting, and behavior gains. These students also displayed greater improvements in
behavior and physical posture and awareness of s'PACE'. These findings provide insight
into the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' as a primary intervention in the Rtl process since the
study included students identified as at-risk of failing. The results of this study indicated
that the majority of at-risk students demonstrated no or varied change after receiving
'Brain Gym'; however, academic and behavior improvements were seen for students who
were unable to cross midlines and gained the skills to do so during the study.
Trahan and Carpenter (2005) conducted a quantitative quasi-experiment using
pretest and posttest reading scores based on standardized assessments to evaluate the
51
effect of 'Brain Gym' on student performance. This study had several strengths
including: sound 'Brain Gym' training, adequate teacher supports, program
implementation according to 'Brain Gym' protocol, and intervention fidelity throughout
the study. The results indicated that classes with the 'Brain Gym' intervention
demonstrated statistically significant reading gains compared to the control group. The
authors also noted that office referrals for misbehavior decreased dramatically in
classrooms having the intervention. This study was conducted through a state regional
educational service center in Texas and, due to findings, the center planned to promote
'Brain Gym' for the school districts in the region. Results of Trahan and Carpenter's
(2005) studies supported 'Brain Gym' as an effective intervention. 'Brain Gym' was
implemented within the general education setting across diverse populations in these
studies. Therefore, these findings provide insight into the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' as a
general education intervention. However, the researchers cautioned that these findings are
only supportive and recommended further experimental work.
In summary, the literature review resulted in no to little support regarding the
effect of 'Brain Gym' on student performance, with the majority of studies finding no
significant effect (Spalding, 2004; Voss, 2006; Witcher, 2001). The study indicating that
'Brain Gym' had positive effects was only supportive according the researchers (Trahan
& Carpenter, 2005). Several studies combined 'Brain Gym' with other movement-based
activities and gains could only be attributed to the positive benefits of physical activity.
Based on these findings, the existing body of literature reveals no to weak support of the
positive benefits of 'Brain Gym' on student academic performance and behaviors.
'Brain Gym' within the Realities of a School Setting
Kratochwill and Hoagwood (2005) wrote of an ongoing tension in education
between the relevance of science versus service, and the notions of efficacy versus
effectiveness. This debate is widening as Rtl comes on the scene. The educational field
needs to address research as an intergraded science focusing on implementation
effectiveness (Kratochwill & Hoagwood, 2005). Factors such as methodology and
conceptualization as well as portability of the intervention should be considered in
designing effective programs. Therefore, evaluating 'Brain Gym' as an intervention
within schools using each component described by Kratcohwill and Hoagwood as
contributing to intervention efficacy (i.e., methodology, conceptualization, providing
service, and portability to the school) will be addressed in this section.
Neuro-biological research relying on the latest technology, midline research, and
brain-based learning studies have played major roles in developing the methods and
concepts of movement-based interventions. Hillman et al. (2008) reviewed multiple
studies exploring the biological basis of learning which establish the ability of physical
activity to promote cognitive functioning and brain health. Numerous educational
kinesiology programs (e.g., 'Brain Gym', 'Smart Moves', 'Primary Moves', and 'Pre-fit')
are available to educators. However, Hillman et al. noted that little is known concerning
which movements are most effective.
Midline research has established a direct relationship between specific midline
movements and specific patterns of learning difficulties and behavior concerns (Corso,
1999; Surburg & Eason, 1999; Woodard & Surburg 1999). Therefore, this line of inquiry
may shed light on which movements are most appropriate for addressing specific student
53
needs. These studies found that movement-based interventions crossing the three
midlines were more effective in addressing the needs of struggling students. 'Brain Gym'
is based on movements that focus on crossing-over the midlines frequently (Dennison,
2003). Therefore, 'Brain Gym' may be more effective in promoting student performance
than similar programs not focusing on midline movements.
Research in the field of brain-based learning integrates neuroscience research and
educational techniques in order to approach teaching from a child-centered standpoint.
This considers the natural learning processes at various stages of development. According
to Caine et al. (1999), brain-based research has 12 major principles. Allowing students to
move and engage the motor cortex for more brain oxygenation is one of these principles.
Caine et al. (1999) also noted that brain-based education core principles assume learning
involves the whole body. In other words, learning includes movement, biochemistry,
attention, and nutrition. Brain-based core principles also propose that learning involves
focused attention and peripheral perception (Caine et al., 1999). In addition, brain-based
education principles state that emotions play a significant role in attention, memory, and
meaning. Hannaford (2005) concluded that the 'Brain Gym' program aligns itself with
brain-based learning core principles by promoting whole-brain body learning that
facilitates balanced emotions, attention and focus, and sensory integration by
incorporating movement into classroom instructional time.
Bringing an intervention to the school can be challenging. According to
Danielson, Doolittle, and Bradley (2007), even effective, scientific research-based
interventions fail in the school environment due to lack of support or other extraneous
variables. Kaufman et al. (2008) reported that Caine and Caine (1997) spent four years
working in two schools in order to help teachers move from an information delivery to a
learner-centered approach with minimal success. At the end of that time, Caine and Caine
concluded the impact of an intervention is dependent upon intervention efficacy, fidelity
of implementation, support from administration, teacher attitudes, and funding.
There is substantial research focusing on promoting school change that recounts
these warnings and disappointments. Gaining the support of teachers, students, and
parents, teacher training, careful planning for the process of implementation, and
sustained support are important elements that link research to practice (Danielson et al.,
2007). Therefore, examining factors that may be obstacles to implementing 'Brain Gym'
or other movement-based interventions will prove helpful in evaluating intervention
efficacy.
Teacher attitudes towards movement-based programs must be considered.
Tremarche et al. (2007) found that teachers view instructional time as the determining
component of student performance. Furthermore, they noted that teachers rate physical
activity as contributing only minimally to student academic performance, despite
research to the contrary. Baker (2005) pointed out that many teachers view disruptive
behaviors and academic difficulties as the result of students' poor attitudes and resort to
punitive measures for classroom management.
Baker (2005) noted that not only teachers' attitudes but those of students' impact
the effectiveness of interventions. According to Baker, students who evaluate an
intervention negatively may compromise its integrity by refusing to participate
appropriately. For example, students who rely on peer pressure to assert their presumed
position of leadership tend to respond to change negatively and often attempt to disrupt
55
the process. Based on this information even research-based educational kinesiology
programs designed to improve student academic performance or classroom behavior may
meet resistance.
Spaulding (2004) conducted a qualitative study exploring teacher and student
reactions after 'Brain Gym' was implemented for eight weeks in the general education
classroom. The study included 16 teachers and 63 students from 11 public and private
schools in Colorado and Minnesota. Teachers initially reported concern about
implementing the program. Concerns included loss of instructional time, reactions of
students and parents to 'Brain Gym' activities, students acting silly and getting out of
control during the activities, teachers feeling overwhelmed by adding 'Brain Gym' as a
daily activity, and teachers viewing the program as just another fad pushed by
administration. After implementation, teachers participating in the study gave positive
responses when asked about the effects of 'Brain Gym' in the classroom. Teachers
reported that they felt 'Brain Gym' was an important facet of the curriculum. Teachers
reported that the majority of students (54%) demonstrated varied improvements (gains as
well as declines), 13% showed no change, and 33% had improvements in academic
performance and behaviors. Teachers described students as calmer and better able to
maintain appropriate focus when using 'Brian Gym'. Teachers also reported that
accidents decreased, classroom behaviors improved, peers become more supportive of
each other, and students' self-esteem and leadership skills improved. In addition, teachers
reported personal benefits.
At the conclusion of the study, teacher and student attitudes regarding 'Brain
Gym' were favorable despite their initial reluctance (Spaulding, 2004). Participating
students generally had a positive reaction to 'Brain Gym' and the majority believed the
activities were helpful and enjoyable. Students reminded teachers when 'Brain Gym'
activities were skipped and asked permission to use the movements during testing times.
Parents of children in the study said family members received instruction and explanation
about 'Brain Gym'. Only a few of the older boys thought the activities were silly and
refused to participate. Spaulding observed that teacher reluctance towards 'Brain Gym'
was transformed into praise as the two-month study progressed. Teachers in the study
even elected to continue using it as an integral component of the curriculum after the
study. The majority of students in the study also elected to continue using the activities.
Bringing 'Brain Gym' into schools also means facing practical issues such as the
time, expense involved with materials, physical space required, and modification of the
intervention for students with special needs (Kratochwill & Hoagwood, 2005). The
foundational movements of'Brain Gym', called 'PACE', require about five minutes to
complete (Dennison, 1989). The 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan is a curriculum
that includes all 26 movements and requires approximately 8-10 minutes twice daily to
complete (Meders, 2000). Educators who prefer to use 'Brain Gym' as a pre-learning
activity engage students in approximately three minutes of specific movements designed
to promote the upcoming task (Dennison, 1989). According to Hannaford (2005), one of
the unique features of 'Brain Gym' is the diversity of ways educators may implement the
program making it appropriate for a variety of circumstances.
'Brain Gym' activities may easily be completed in the classroom environment
with minimal expense for materials. Movements may be completed during circle time
while students sit or lay on the floor or at their desk while students to stand by their desk
or remain seated in their chair. Each of the movements is adaptable for students with
physical disabilities (Hannaford, 2005). There are no required materials other than access
to water and a visual aid for completing the 'Alphabet Eights' movement (Dennison,
1989).
Training may easily be provided to teachers in a faculty meeting and students
gathered in classrooms, physical education classes, or music classes (Trahan &
Carpenter, 2005). Furthermore, 'Brain Gym' movements are simple and easy to follow so
students transferring in after the training period are able to participate by watching and
mimicking the activities. According to the 'Brain Gym' website (2009), licensed
instructors across the United States offer the introductory 'Brain Gym' course regularly.
The introductory course provides instruction about the three midlines, guidelines about
how to complete all 26 movements, and information about how to perform 'Brain Gym'
basic balances. The course is usually taught over three days and costs $350 to $400 per
person (Brain Gym Institute, 2009), but many school districts contract with a licensed
'Brain Gym' instructor at group rates in order to provide teacher training.
In summary, midline studies, neurobiological studies, and brain-based learning
research support the methodology and conceptualization 'Brain Gym' (Cores, 1999;
Surburg & Eason, 1999; Woodard & Surburg 1999). Studies conducted by Trahan and
Carpenter (2005) and Spaulding (2004) explored 'Brain Gym' as a school intervention.
The results of these studies indicated that it is feasible to successfully transport 'Brain
Gym' as a service to students and teachers in schools. These studies suggest that 'Brain
Gym' should be compatible with school environments.
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Problems with the Research Base
Numerous studies have evaluated Dr. Dennison's claims regarding the
effectiveness of 'Brain Gym'. This section will provide a critical analysis of the research
base related to 'Brain Gym' programs. All research has limitations that must be
considered in order to establish grounds for further studies that will eventually provide
solid conclusions regarding the ability of 'Brain Gym' programs to promote student
performance. Hyatt's (2007) literature review explored the theoretical basis for 'Brain
Gym' and critically evaluated previous peer-reviewed studies supporting the program.
Hyatt (2007) reported that 'Brain Gym' seeks to rectify neurological deficits
resulting from developmental delays and/or disruptions. The program's interventions
target neurological re-patterning, cerebral dominance factors, and perceptual-motor
training. Neurological re-patterning is taken from the Doman-Delacato theory of
development which proposes that learning problems result when children skip motor
developmental milestones, such as crawling. Hyatt wrote that the cerebral dominance
theory proposes that dyslexia is a result of mixed cerebral dominance and is based on
Orton's theories. Hyatt noted that Orton's theory is the basis of Orton-Gillingham
multi-sensory and phonics-based programs currently in wide use in schools. Hyatt also
reported that the perceptual-motor training theory proposes that learning difficulties are a
result of inefficient integration of visual, auditory, and motor skills. According to Hyatt,
this theory holds that learning disabilities may be ameliorated by teaching students the
underdeveloped perceptual skill. Hyatt emphasized that all three theories have been
highly criticized and cautioned against using 'Brain Gym' as an intervention. However,
Hyatt discussed several positive points regarding the theoretical basis of 'Brain Gym',
such as the current use of Orton-Gillingham programs.
Hyatt (2007) also critically examined research articles published in peer-reviewed
journals in favor of 'Brain Gym'. Hyatt indicated that some major areas of concern
included inadequate descriptions of teacher training, utilization of assessment instruments
that are not psychometricaHy sound and valid for the constructs being measured, failure
to adequately describe the specific 'Brain Gym' program used in a study, using an
intervention that combines 'Brain Gym' with other programs, and failure to implement
the interventions with fidelity. Hyatt's article should help researchers avoid making
similar mistakes when developing a research design.
Hyatt (2007) cautioned researchers to critically evaluate even peer-reviewed
journal articles about 'Brain Gym'. Hyatt pointed out several concerns regarding the
efficacy of the 'Brain Gym' program. Hyatt's concerns included controversial findings of
previous 'Brain Gym' studies as well as the quality of published 'Brain Gym' research
and studies from related fields opposing the theoretical basis of the 'Brain Gym'
program. Hyatt concluded that 'Brain Gym' is not an effective educational intervention,
warned educators against using the program, and referred to it as a hoax. Thus, there is a
need for high-quality research utilizing standardized assessment tools to evaluate the
efficacy of the 'Brain Gym' program.
Summary
'Brain Gym' is a kinetic-based program designed to improve student academic
performance and school behaviors by integrating frequent breaks for movement with
academic instruction and transitions throughout the school day (Hannaford, 2005).
Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements are designed to frequently cross over the three
midlines of the human body. The ability to cross midlines is associated with specific
areas of the brain and particular academic tasks (Dennison, 2003; Hannaford, 2005).
Midline research supports Hannaford's conclusions by suggesting a direct relationship
between specific midline movements and distinct patterns of learning difficulties and
behavior concerns (Corso, 1999; Surburg & Eason, 1999; Woodard & Surburg 1999).
However, Hillman et al. (2008) reported there is little known regarding the type,
frequency, or duration of movements that are most effective. Further, Kratochwill and
Hoagwood (2005) concluded that intervention efficacy depends upon science and service
as well as portability of the intervention to the setting. Therefore, guidance on selecting
educational kinesiology movements and programs to meet the specific needs of students
and teachers within the school environment is limited.
The review of literature revealed that movement has a positive influence on
student academic performance and behaviors. However, research is inconclusive
regarding the efficacy of 'Brain Gym'. Areas of weakness included the combination of
'Brain Gym' with other movement programs, conflicting research findings, lack of
replication, and limited studies utilizing sound research designs. Review of literature
investigating 'Brain Gym' as a school intervention provided no to weak support for the
program's efficacy in addressing student needs (Witcher, 2001; Voss, 2006; Spalding,
2004). Only one study reported favorable findings; however, researchers indicated results
only imply a relationship and do not prove cause and effect (Trahan & Carpenter, 2005).
The majority of studies combined 'Brain Gym' with other programs, such as social skills
training, physical exercise, or other movement-based activities; (Ayers, 2005; Baker,
61
2005; Ferree, 2001; Halla-Poe, 2002; Walker, 2008). The findings of these studies
supported that physical activity has positive effects on student performance, but no
conclusions could be drawn regarding the efficacy of the 'Brian Gym' program. In each
of these nine studies, improvements could only be attributed to movement rather than
'Brain Gym' specifically.
Hyatt's (2007) critical evaluation of'Brain Gym' research revealed substantial
concern regarding the efficacy of the program. Hyatt emphasized the high level of
criticism directed at the three basic theories underlying the 'Brain Gym' program. For
example, the Doman-Delacato theory has been rejected by the American Academy of
Pediatrics and the American Academy of Neurology (Hyatt, 2007). Hyatt also found that
the vast majority of published 'Brain Gym' studies used questionable research methods
including: selecting assessment instruments not psychometrically sound and valid for the
constructs being measured, lack of specificity about the 'Brain Gym' movements used in
a study, and not implementing the interventions faithfully. Hyatt's literature review of
'Brain Gym' research sheds significant doubt on the founding premise of the program as
well as existing supportive studies.
The review of literature indicates that Dennison's claims regarding 'Brian Gym'
program are unsupported by the current body of research and remain largely
uninvestigated. Furthermore, the existing body of research does not meet IDEA and
NCLB mandates specifying that only scientific research-based interventions may be used
to meet the needs of struggling students. After an extensive review of research, the
question remains: What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements on
student academic performance and behavior?
62
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this quantitative experimental study was to examine the effects of
Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a tier-one Rtl and a class-wide general
education intervention for primary grade-level students' (at-risk as well as overall
populations) academic performance and behaviors as measured by the TAKS Reading,
TAKS Math, and BASC-II instruments. Dennison proposed that his movement-based
program, 'Brain Gym', can effectively meet the needs of diverse students struggling with
academic and behavior problems with minimal loss of instruction time (Brain Gym
International, 2008). Federal laws now require educators to employ only empirical,
scientific, research-based interventions (i.e., experimental research producing observable
measurable results) in order to meet the academic and behavior needs of at-risk general
education students (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007). Several sound experimental studies
demonstrating the positive effects of physical activity or movement on cognitive
functions, emotional well-being, and behavior exist (Hall, 2007; Lui, 2008; Tremarche et
al., 2007). However, the current scientific research regarding 'Brain Gym' is limited and
their findings are inconclusive (Hyatt, 2007).
These difficulties limit 'Brain Gym' use in schools. Another concern is that the
research base regarding effective school-based interventions is limited, especially for
interventions capable of meeting a diverse range of student needs when implemented on a
large-scale, such as the typical general education classroom (Baker et al., 2006). This
study was developed due to the demand for interventions able to meet a diverse range of
student needs on a large scale, federal laws requiring empirical, scientific research-based
Rtl interventions, and the fact that previous related studies did not use an experimental
63
design. Therefore, a quantitative experimental design with random assignment of students
to classrooms and classrooms to control and experimental groups was developed to test
hypotheses related to four research questions, which are:
1. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level (third through sixth grades)
student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests?
Hlo: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have no significant effect on primary grade-level (third through sixth
grades) student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS
Math tests.
Hla: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (third through sixth grades)
student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests.
2. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education tier-one intervention within the Rtl process on primary grade-level (third
through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as measured by the TAKS
Reading and TAKS Math tests?
H2o: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education tier-one
intervention within the Rtl process, have no significant effect on primary grade-level
(third through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as measured by the
TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests.
H2a: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education tier-one
intervention within the Rtl process, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (third
through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as measured by the TAKS
Reading and TAKS Math tests.
3. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level (second through sixth grades)
student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument?
H3o: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have no significant effect on primary grade-level (second through sixth
grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument.
H3a: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide
intervention, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (second though sixth
grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument.
4. What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general
education tier-one intervention within the Rtl process on primary grade-level (second
through sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher
behavior rating instrument?
H40: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements implemented as a general education
tier-one intervention within the Rtl process have no significant effect on primary
grade-level (second through sixth grades) at-risk student behavior as measured by the
BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument.
H4a: Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education tier-one
intervention within the Rtl process, have a significant effect on primary grade-level
(second though sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II
teacher behavior rating instrument.
65
This chapter will be presented in nine sections. First, research method and design
will be discussed. Rationale for selecting specific methods will be provided in this
section. Next, the demographics and selection of participants and their placement in
groups will be discussed. In the third section, detailed descriptions of the materials
utilized will be provided. Operational definitions of independent and dependent variables
will be presented in the fourth section. The fifth and sixth sections will give specific
details related to the execution of this study, which includes a detailed account of how the
independent variable was implemented. This is followed by an explanation of how the
dependent variables were measured, processed, and analyzed. Methodological
assumptions and limitations related to the research design, as well as delimitations that
arose during the study will be discussed in the seventh section. The eighth section will
explain ethical concerns associated with this study and how they were addressed. A
summary of major points will close the chapter.
Research Method and Design
A quantitative experimental design with random assignment of students to
classrooms, and participating classrooms to control and experimental groups was used to
evaluate the effects of 'Brain Gym' on the academic performance and behaviors of public
school general education primary grade-level students (at-risk and overall populations),
as defined by the TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, and BASC-II. Posttest data was collected
following eight months of intervention using the 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan
(Meders, 2000). Change scores were calculated, and data were analyzed using two-tailed
independent samples t test with a 95% confidence level. This approach was chosen for
five major reasons. First, IDEA 2004 and NCLB require that interventions used to address
struggling students needs m public education be empirical research-based (Fuchs &
Fuchs, 2007). Quantitative experimental design utilizing robust statistics meets Rtl
criteria, by providing observable and measurable data using. Secondly, a control group
quantitative experimental design is one of the most rigorous methods of research because
it establishes the intervention as the cause of the observed outcome, while correlation and
causal-comparative studies establish only that a relationship exists (Bordens & Abbott,
2005). Third, decisions about the design of this study were based on minimizing and
balancing the probability of Type I and Type II errors, such as setting alpha at .05,
selecting two-tailed rather than one-tailed t test, and ensuring the sample size for each
measure was above 30 (Heiman, 2003). Fourth, the use of change scores minimized any
pre-intervention differences between control and experimental groups. Fifth, the majority
of previous studies regarding the effects of 'Brain Gym', midline movement, and other
movement-based interventions on cognition, emotion, and behavior have selected
quasi-experimental or experimental designs. Therefore, using a similar design for this
study will help add substance when evaluating the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' on academic
performance and behaviors.
Participants
The participants included 364 primary grade-level (second through sixth grades)
students who attend a rural school district in East Texas. The district was chosen for
convenience. Students in grades 7-12 were not included in the sample due to their
frequent schedule changes. Consistently implementing the research intervention in these
grades would likely not be possible.
The participating school district for this study was located in East Texas on the
outskirts of a mid-sized city. Recent demographic information from the participating
school district indicated the district had approximately 2,865 students, of which 52%
were males. The student ethnicity distribution was 72% White, 19% Black, 8% Hispanic,
0.7% Asian, and 0.5% American Indian/Alaskan. The socioeconomic makeup of the
student population qualified the district for Title One funds. Approximately 13.6% of the
students who attend the district have individual educational plans.
Students in the participating school district were randomly assigned to appropriate
grade-level classes before the first day of school by the district office and classrooms
were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups in October 2008. The size of
the sample is related to the amount of statistical power and, in theory, a sample of 30 is
required for adequate power when robust statistical analysis is used (Heiman, 2003).
Projective power analysis, based on calculations developed by Lenth (2009), indicated
that a sample size of 126 participants would yield 80% power. The study included 364
primary grade-level students. The class-wide academic measures included 297
participants since 67 subjects were dropped from the study due to transfers in and out of
the district, taking an alternative form of the TAKS, or absences during the testing
periods. The number of participants identified as at-risk in reading and math included
only a small portion of the total number of subjects in this study. Therefore, Rtl academic
intervention measures included 68 at-risk students for reading and 73 for math measures.
Each BASC-II rating takes approximately 30 minutes to complete and because teachers'
time is limited they completed behavior ratings for only three students. As a result, the
actual sample size for classroom behavior measures was 48 students, while Rtl behavior
68
intervention measures included 30 at-risk students. Therefore, all behavior and academic
measures included more than 30 subjects.
Materials
Materials used in this study will be described in this section. Materials included
TAKS Reading tests, TAKS Math tests, BASC-II teacher rating form, The 'Brain Gym'
Three Day Rotation Plan ('Brain Gym' Curriculum) curriculum and illustrated posters,
water bottles, the Data Management and Communication {DMAC) database, and
Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) software. This section will include
descriptions of the TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, and BASC-II instruments used to provide
measures of the dependent variables for this study. The independent variable, the 'Brain
Gym' Curriculum, will also be discussed. Materials required for implementing the
curriculum will also be reviewed. Finally, DMAC and SPSS, used to gather and analyze
the data for this study, will be described.
The dependent variables for reading and math performance were measured using
the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests. The Texas Education Agency/Student
Assessment Division manages and oversees developing, administering, scoring and
analyzing the statewide TAKS assessment test (TEA, 2008c). The TAKS test is a
standardized instrument used to assess grade-level essential knowledge and skills in the
core academic areas of reading, language arts, writing, social studies, math, and science
(TEA, 2008b). Science, writing, and social studies are assessed only in specific
grade-levels. The TAKS reading and math tests are administered to students in grades
3-12 annually late in the spring semester. The TAKS tests are administered under
standardized guidelines throughout Texas and grade-level students receive identical
69
assessments and multiple choice response forms (TEA, 2008b). Based on this
information, the TAKS tests have sound reliability.
State standardized tests, such as TAKS, are considered high stakes tests since
school, teacher, and student accountability measures depend heavily on the results (TEA,
2008c). For some grade-levels, promotion is tied to the scores. The state therefore allows
students three attempts to meet the minimum results. The first administration of the TAKS
Reading and TAKS Math tests were used for this study.
The TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests are designed to assess all areas of
knowledge and essential skills required for students to be proficient in reading and
mathematics 'on grade-level', as defined by Texas Education Agency (Texas Education
Agency, 2008b). The TAKS Reading test measures key reading components as defined by
the National Panel of Reading (National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development, 2008; see Appendix A for definitions). The TAKS Math test is aligned with
three key math components defined by National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2008; see Appendix B for definitions).
The TAKS tests are state-normed instruments administered under standardized guidelines
(Texas Education Agency, 2008b). Based on this information, the TAKS Reading and
TAKS Math tests are valid instruments for providing measures of students' reading and
math academic performance, have sound psychometric properties, and are reliable and
valid instruments for providing academic measures of interest in this study.
Dependent variables for adaptive and maladaptive behaviors were measured using
the Behavior Assessment Scale for Children, Second Edition, Teacher Rating Form
(BASC-II, TRF) as the teacher rating instrument. Teacher time is limited and the BASC-II
70
requires approximately 20 minutes per student to complete, so only a small portion of the
research sample was included in the behavior ratings (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006).
Teachers participating in the study completed the BASC-II for three randomly-selected
students, giving a sample size of 48 students. This sample thereby met the theoretical
minimum size needed for sufficient power (Heiman, 2003). Teacher ratings were
completed in October 2008 and May 2009.
The BASC-II, Teacher Rating Scale {BASC-II, TRS) is a nationally-normed and
standardized instrument (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006). Reliability for the BASC-II, TRS
is as follows: internal consistency reliability = .80, test re-test reliability = .89, and
inter-rater reliability = .71 (Kamphaus & Frick, 2002). Validity of the BASC-II, TRS
instrument is good, based on very high correlations with other teacher rating scales
(Kamphaus & Frick, 2002). The instrument incorporates a Likert rating scale to measure
behaviors (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006) and has sound psychometric properties
(Kamphaus & Frick, 2002).
The BASC-II, TRS is an omnibus rating scale designed to measure student
behaviors (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006), which are measured across 15 narrowband
scales: Aggression, Anxiety, Attention Problems, Atypicality, Conduct Problems,
Depression, Hyperactivity, Somatization, Withdrawal, Activities of Daily Living,
Adaptability, Functional Communication, Leadership, Social Skills, and Study Skills.
The narrowband scales are grouped into six broadband scales: Externalizing Problems,
Internalizing Problems, Behavior Symptom Index, Learning Problems Adaptive Skills,
and Study Skills. These scales are then categorized as Maladaptive or Adaptive
Behaviors (see Appendixes C and D).
71
The BASC-II, TRS contains three validity scales including Fake Bad, Response
Pattern, and Consistency (Kamphaus & Frick, 2002). The validity scales measure,
respectively, negative bias, stereotypical or unusual response patterns, and inconsistency
of responses to the same type questions. Validity scales provide measures indicating if
teacher ratings are likely to be a true representation of student behaviors (Kamphaus &
Frick, 2002). T-scores for each narrowband and broadband scale were compared, and the
coefficient of similarity was calculated between the raters' scores to ensure inter-rater
reliability.
The 'Brain Gym' Curriculum was selected for the study because it incorporates
all 26 'Brain Gym' movements (Meders, 2000). The program was accepted and endorsed
by the Brain Gym Institute Board (Brain Gym International, 2008) and is considered
valid for evaluating the effects 'Brain Gym' movements. The program includes a
curriculum and illustrated posters of the movements. Providing classrooms with the
curriculum and illustrated posters promotes integrity of the intervention and therefore
reliability for the study.
Other materials associated with the 'Brain Gym' Curriculum included water
bottles and 'Alphabet Eights' posters for students. Water bottles with the 'Brain Gym'
logo were supplied for participants. The 'Alphabet Eights' posters were supplied to a
small portion of the research classrooms. As all subjects did not receive a poster, the
movement was not implemented consistently. However, 'Lazy Eights' movement was
used to replace 'Alphabet Eights' since these 'Brain Gym' movements are similar and
cross the midlines (see Methodological Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations in
this chapter for details). Teachers were also given calendars to track the consistency of
implementation over time and classroom participation in the intervention.
Software applications included the BASC-II Assist Plus non-scannable software
and Scoring Assistant and SPSS Student Version 16.0 (SPSS 16.0) were used. The
BASC-II TRF may be scored by hand, non-scannable software, or scannable software
(Pearson Inc., 2009). The non-scannable software requires computer entry, but calculates
standard scores and interprets results. The scannable version of the program is more than
twice the cost of the non-scannable, but eliminates computer entry error. The BASC-II
Assist Plus non-scannable software was selected for this study and allows for data to be
entered twice as a precaution against entry errors (Pearson, Inc., 2009). In order to
ensure reliability, this option was used.
The SPSS is the most widely use desktop statistics program in the world (SPSS,
Inc., 2007). Data analysis tools include spreadsheet applications, statistical procedures,
and graphics. The program is capable of performing t tests, ANOVA, and
crosstabulations. The SPSS 16.0 was selected for data analysis owing to its wide use,
excellent reputation, ability to perform the statistical procedures used in this study,
relatively low cost, and recency of the version.
The DMAC database retrieved TAKS reading and math scores. The program is a
web-based software suite designed to help educators develop and manage curriculum and
assessment data in Texas schools (Region VII Educational Service Center, 2009) and is
available to educators through state-supported regional educational service centers
located across Texas. The TAKS standardized scores were retrieved from the DMAC
database housed at the Region VII Educational Service Center, Kilgore.
73
Operational Definition of Variables
Definitions for variables used in this study are given in this section. The study
contained one independent variable and four dependent variables. The independent
variable was the 'Brain Gym' intervention implemented in the experimental group.
Dependent variables included academic reading performance, academic math
performance, adaptive behaviors, and maladaptive behaviors. Dependent variables were
measured using standardized instruments including the TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, and
BASC-II, TRS. Figure 1 presents the variables, their operational definitions, and the range
of possible values assignable to each of the constructs for the study. Figure 2 presents the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables in a conceptual construct
model.
Variables
Student Academic Reading Performance
Student Academic Math Performance
Student Adaptive School Behaviors
Student Maladaptive School Behaviors
Operational Definitions
Dependent Variable (Yi)
Dependent Variable (Y2)
Dependent Variable (Y3)
Dependent Variable (Y4)
List of Possible Values
Possible values of 0-2800 for TAKS
Possible values of 0-2800 for TAKS
Possible values of 0-120
Possible values of 0-120
Figure 1. Definition of variables.
Yl Reading Performance
(comprehension, fluency, vocabulary, phonemes, phonemic awareness)
Y2 Math Performance
(problem solv ing, math reasoning, critical thinking )
Y3 Student Adaptive Behaviors
(adaptability, social skills, leadership, functional communication, study skills)
Y4 Student Maladaptive Behaviors
(hyperactivity, aggression, conduct problems, anxiety, depression, somatization, atypicality,
withdrawal, learning problems, attention problems)
Figure 2. Conceptual model for the control group quantitative experimental design.
X
Brain Gym
Three Day-Rotation Plan
75
'Brain Gym'. The independent variable (X) for this study had the possible values
of implemented or not implemented. The 'Brain Gym' program utilized in this study was
the 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan (Meders, 2000).
The 'Brain Gym' Curriculum is designed for implementation in classrooms and
can be found on the Brain Gym Institute web site (see Appendix E) and includes six
lesson plans that are done morning and afternoon for three days on a rotation. Each lesson
requires approximately eight minutes per session to complete. The lesson plan includes
illustrations and instruction for completing each of the 26 'Brain Gym' movements.
Student Academic Reading Performance. Dependent Variable (Yi), had possible
values of 0-2800 for TAKS Reading standard scores and these were used to measure
reading academic performance for students included in the study. As noted above, since
TAKS reading tests assess all five key components of reading established by the NPR to
measure student reading proficiency the scores were considered a valid measure of
student academic reading performance (NPR, 2008; see Appendix A for definitions).
The TAKS Reading test is available in three alternate forms allowing students to
have three opportunities to meet the minimum standards required for grade promotion
(TEA, 2008c). The TAKS tests are administered each April and May under standardized
conditions which vary according to grade-level. Students who receive a score of less than
2100 are given two additional opportunities to meet minimum standards. All TAKS scores
used in this study were from first administration results.
Student Academic Math Performance. Dependent Variable (Y2), had possible
values of 0-2800 for TAKS Math standard scores. The TAKS Math tests were used to
measure math academic performance for students included in the study because they are
based on the three key components of math established by the NCTM to measure
students' math proficiency (NCTM, 2008; see Appendix B for definitions). Therefore, the
TAKS Math test is considered to be a valid measure of student math performance.
The test is available in three alternate forms allowing students to have three
opportunities to meet the minimum standard score (2100) required for grade promotion
(TEA, 2008c). Math scores used in this study are from first administration results.
Student Adaptive Behavior. Dependent Variable (Y3) had possible values of
0-120. The BASC-II, TRS, a standardized nationally-normed instrument, measured
student adaptive behaviors. This instrument provides ratio level data in the form of
T-scores and percentiles. T-scores have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
Adaptive behaviors are categorized as: Daily Living Skills, Adaptability, Functional
Communication, Social Skills, Leadership, and Study Skills (see Appendix C). Scores for
adaptive behaviors below 40 are considered to be At-risk, and below 30 are Clinically
Significant (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006).
Student Maladaptive Behavior. Dependent Variable (Y4), had the possible values
of 0-120. The BASC-II, TRS was used to measure maladaptive student behaviors. This
instrument provides ratio level data as T-scores and percentiles. T-scores have a mean of
50 and a standard deviation of 10. Maladaptive behaviors are: Aggression, Anxiety,
Attention Problems, Atypicality, Conduct Problems, Depression, Hyperactivity, Learning
Problems, Somatization, and Withdrawal (see Appendix D for descriptions). Scores for
maladaptive behaviors above 60 are considered to be At-risk, and above 70 are Clinically
Significant (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006).
77
Procedures
This section will present the procedures carried out in order to conduct the
research. The procedures will be presented in the chronological order in which they were
presented during the eight-month study. Once Institutional Review Board approval was
obtained, informed consent letters were secured from the participating school board and
its teachers. Information letters were then given to parents and students, and the study
was initiated (see Ethical Assurances section of this chapter for details). Students in the
participating school district were randomly assigned by the school district to appropriate
grade-level classes at the beginning of the school year; participating classrooms were
randomly assigned to control and experimental groups and pre-intervention measures
were gathered before beginning the intervention in October 2008. Then intervention was
conducted for the experimental group from October 2008 through May 2009. At the end
of May, data from post-intervention measures were gathered (see Data Collection,
Processing, and Analysis section of this chapter for details). A flowchart giving the
chronological order of the procedures is presented in Figure 3.
Examining theEffects of Brain Gym Interventions on Student Academic Performance and Behaviors
Random Assignmentof Students to Classrooms & Random assignment of Classrooms to Groups
Experimental Group Control Group
Pretest Standardized
Assessment Scores
(2008 TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, & BASC-II)
Pretest Standardized
Assessment Scores
(2008 TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, & BASC-II)
Training for Staff & Students and
Implement Brain Gym for Experimental Group
Posttest Standardized
Assessment Scores
(2009 TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, & BASC-II)
Posttest Standardized
Assessment Scores
(2009 TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, & BASC-II)
Statistical Analysis Two-tailed independent samples t test for 2008 measures.
(to identify any significant pre-existing group's differences) Two-tailed independent samples / test for 2009 difference scores measures
(to identify significant posttest groups differences)
Interpret theEffects of Brain Gym on Student
Academic Performance and Behaviors
Figure 3. Flowchart of the research procedures.
79
The 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan (Meders, 2000) was chosen as the
intervention. Training for the intervention was introduced October 23, 2008 for a month.
Three students were randomly selected from each experimental group classroom to be
'Brain Gym' student leaders. A licensed 'Brain Gym' instructor taught the 'Brain Gym'
Curriculum movements to the student leaders. They, in turn, taught classmates with the
instructor present. Training for the student leaders was provided over four weeks divided
into four, 30-minute sessions.
Four basic movements were taught to student leaders during the first week. These
movements are referred to as "foundational movements" or 'PACE', and are completed
before other movements (Meders, 2000). Student leaders for each classroom then taught
classmates the 'PACE' movements. Once 'PACE' was implemented in the classrooms
and the class had become familiar with it over the course of a week, additional
movements were taught to student leaders.
Student leaders were introduced to additional day-one morning and afternoon
movements included in the 'Brain Gym' Curriculum during the second week. Student
leaders were given a week to review 'PACE' with the class and teach classmates day-one
movements. During the third week, the instructor taught student leaders the movements
included in day-two morning and afternoon of the 'Brain Gym' Curriculum. Student
leaders returned to class and led classmates in day-two activities. The class practiced
day-two movements again on the following day. For the remainder of the third week, the
class alternated between day-one and day-two movements.
The 'Brain Gym' instructor taught student leaders day-three morning and
afternoon movements in the fourth week. 'Alphabet Eights', part of 'Brain Gym'
Curriculum day-three afternoon movements, was omitted due to limited materials. This
movement was replaced with the 'Lazy Eights' because the movements cross the same
midlines (see Methodological Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations section of this
chapter for details). Student leaders returned to class and led classmates in the day-three
activities. The class practiced day-three movements again on the following day. For the
remainder of the study, the class alternated between day-one, day-two, and day-three
movements.
In order to ensure integrity of the intervention, the instructor provided additional
coaching in each experimental classroom, while student leaders trained classmates
throughout the four-week implementation process. Classrooms were also provided with
detailed illustrations of the daily movements, music that guided the class through the
movements, and contact information for the 'Brain Gym' instructor in the event that
additional classroom supports were needed. Teachers submitted a monthly calendar to the
researcher, recording the morning and afternoons that the class completed the 'Brain
Gym' activities. Over the course of the eight-months, the 'Brain Gym' instructor and
researcher periodically visited classes in order to promote fidelity of the intervention.
Several concerns arose during the intervention. First, the original plan was to
provide 'Brain Gym' training to teachers included in the experimental group and allow
teachers to implement to intervention. However, their time constraints resulted in
scheduling conflicts. This obstacle, as noted above, was overcome by allowing student
participation in training and leading classroom 'Brain Gym' activities. Second, the
'Alphabet Eights' movement requires a laminated poster for each student. Students use
the poster to trace each letter of the alphabet on an 'Alphabet Eights' pattern without
81
picking up their finger between letters. Lack of sufficient posters resulted in omitting the
'Alphabet Eights' movement for the majority of students in the study. However, this
movement was replaced with a similar movement, the 'Lazy Eights' (see Methodological
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations section of this chapter for details). Third,
providing water to students was challenging since classrooms did not have water
fountains and students did not consistently bring water bottles to school. To solve this
problem, individual water bottles were provided for each student and the classrooms were
provided with fresh water daily throughout the study.
In April/May 2009, post-intervention measures were gathered (see Data
Collection, Processing and Analysis section of this chapter for details). At the conclusion
of the study, teachers in the experimental group chose to meet informally with the
researcher to discuss their impressions of using 'Brain Gym' in the classroom. Students
were also allowed to vocalize how they felt about the 'Brain Gym' program and ask
questions.
Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis
The first research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison 's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements as a general education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level
(third through sixth grades) student academic performance as measured by the TAKS
Reading and TAKS Math tests? " The second research question asked, "What is the effect
ofDennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general education tier-one intervention
within the Rtlprocess on primary grade-level (third through sixth grades) at-risk student
academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests? " In
order to answer these questions, data were collected using 2008 and 2009 TAKS Reading
and Math tests.
After TAKS tests are administered, they are sent to TEA for scoring and the
results are mailed to the school districts and downloaded into DMAC. Students who
scored below 2100 on the 2008 TAKS test were identified as at-risk. Two-tailed
independent samples t tests were used to analyze 2008 standard scores to determine if any
significant differences between the control and experimental groups existed before
implementing the intervention. Then change scores were calculated to determine if there
were significant differences between the groups following the intervention. Change
scores were calculated by finding the differences between the 2008 and 2009 standard
scores.
The third research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison 's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements as a general education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level
(second through sixth grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher
behavior rating instrument?'''' The fourth research question asked, "What is the effect of
Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a general education tier-one intervention
within the Rtlprocess on primary grade-level (second through sixth grades) at-risk
student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument? " In
order to answer these questions, data were collected utilizing the BASC-II, TRS.
The BASC-II, TRS was completed by two teachers who provided instruction for
students participating in the study. The BASC-II, TRS data were input into the BASC-II
Scoring Assistant, a program developed by Riverside Publishing (2008). Validity scales
83
were examined in order to determine if the ratings were likely to be an accurate reflection
of the students' behaviors.
The BASC-II requires 20-30 minutes to complete, so it was not feasible to rate all
364 students included in the study. To maintain the minimum power when robust
statistical procedures are utilized (Heiman, 2003) three students in each participating
classroom were randomly selected and rated by teachers. The BASC-II teacher ratings
were completed in October 2008 and May 2009 on the BASC-II, TRF. Ratings were
completed and returned for 48 students in the research sample. The 2008 BASC-II
standard scores were utilized to identify and minimize any pre-existing significant
differences between the control and experimental groups. Change scores were calculated
to determine if there were significant differences between the groups following the
eight-month intervention. Change scores were calculated by finding the differences
between the 2008 and 2009 BASC-II standard scores.
In order to process and analyze the data, SPSS 16.0 was used. Students in the
control group were coded with a zero and experimental groups were coded with a one.
The TAKS standard scores and BASC-II standardized T-scores were recorded as raw data.
Pre-intervention measures were the April and May 2008 TAKS reading and math and
October 2008 BASC-II standard scores. Academic and behavior measures were calculated
by finding the change between 2009 and 2008 TAKS tests and BASC-II standard scores.
Two-tailed independent samples / tests for data analysis and a sample size of at
least 30 was utilized for this study in order to decrease the likelihood of making Type I
and Type II errors when evaluating research hypotheses. Rationale for the research
design is built on several statistical premises: Two-tailed t tests evaluate the hypothesis
without adding the possibility of error in predicting whether scores will increase or
decrease (Heiman, 2003); Robust statistical procedures such as t tests produce results that
have only a negligible amount of error in estimating the probability of a Type I error;
Increasing statistical power produces results that have only a negligible amount of error
in estimating the probability of a Type II error. A sample size of 30 is required for
adequate power and increasing the sample size to 121 added substantially to statistical
power for the study (Heiman, 2003). Academic measures for this study included 68
at-risk students for reading measures, 73 at-risk students for math measures, and 48
participants for classroom behavior measures. Therefore, no measure contained fewer
than 30 subjects. Furthermore, an alpha level of .05 was selected for statistical analysis in
the study since .05 is considered the maximum acceptable rate for Type I errors without
increasing the likelihood of a Type II error (Bordens & Abbott, 2005). Furthermore,
specific assumptions must be met for accurate use of robust statistical analyses such as
t tests. The design of this study included instruments and statistical procedures to ensure
the t test assumptions were met (see Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis section of
this chapter for details). This information should add confidence that the research design
used in this study is acceptable when making decisions regarding rejecting or accepting
the research hypotheses.
Independent samples two-tailed t tests were run to determine if there were
significant differences between the experimental and control groups' means on academic
or behavior measures. Participants were randomly assigned to appropriate grade-level
classes by the school district and participating classrooms were then randomly assigned
to either control or experimental groups. The groups are considered to be independent, so
85
independent samples t tests are appropriate. According to Heiman (2003), accurately
utilizing t tests requires several assumptions: dependent variable measures must yield
ratio level data; data must have a normal distribution; samples must have homogeneity of
variance; groups' size should not be massively unequal. Therefore, the data were
analyzed to determine if / test assumptions could be considered met.
Statistical procedures for data analysis included descriptive statistics, Levene 's
Test for Equal Variance, and appropriate independent samples two-tailed t tests. The
SPSS 16.0 set to a significance level of .05 was used for all statistical. Pre-intervention
measures were examined to see if there were significant differences between the
experimental groups' means. Where there were no significant pre-existing differences
between the experimental and control group, any significant differences between the
groups' means on post-intervention measures were deemed to be due to the effects of the
'Brain Gym' intervention. Where significant differences occurred on post-intervention
measures, groups' statistics were then compared to see if the 'Brain Gym' intervention
had positive or negative effects on student performance.
Methodological Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
This section will include the assumptions associated with the research design,
limitations of the study, and delimitations. Any assumptions associated with the
application of the results to the population will be discussed at the outset. This will
include a brief review of the research sample and research design in order to evaluate
where generalizations are appropriate. Next, research limitations and any external or
internal threats to validity of the study will be presented. Any delimitations that resulted
during the study, and how they were resolved, will conclude the chapter.
86
Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) cautioned against making assumptions beyond the
scope of the actual research. In this study, the effects of'Brain Gym' as a classroom
behavior intervention and as an academic intervention within the Rtl process for at-risk
students beginning to show signs of struggling were measured and evaluated. However,
the effects of'Brain Gym' for secondary grade-level students, special population
students, and academic concerns other than reading and math were not evaluated.
Therefore, any generalizations of the findings of this study to these populations should be
made with caution.
The study was implemented to evaluate the effects of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym'
movements on general education primary grade-level students' academic performance
and behaviors. However, the purpose of this study did not include comparing and
contrasting 'Brain Gym' to other movement-based programs. Also, the study did not
evaluate if other movement-based programs also effectively cross the three midlines of
the human body. Although other educational kinesiology programs, such as 'Smart
Moves', use movement to enhance learning and positive behaviors, applying results of
this study to other movement-based interventions that address student needs is research.
Two factors that posed a threat to the internal validity of this research occurred
over the course of the study. First, one teacher revoked consent to participate in the study
before beginning the intervention. Second, during the intervention, one of the 'Brain
Gym' movements was replaced with another of the 'Brain Gym' Curriculum's 26
movements.
One teacher in the experimental group dropped out of the study prior to
implementation of the intervention. The teacher was a first-year teacher and felt
87
overwhelmed by the job's regular responsibilities. The entire campus was included in the
sample so this teacher's decision did not result in large differences between control and
experimental group sizes. Therefore, omitting the class from the experimental group
sample did not compromise research integrity.
Because all experimental group classrooms did not receive an 'Alphabet Eights'
poster, the movement was unable to be implemented consistently. However, in these
classrooms, the 'Lazy Eights' movement replaced it. The movements are similar and
cross the same midlines (Dennison, 2003). Therefore, it is unlikely that replacing the
'Alphabet Eights' with the 'Lazy Eights' in some of the experimental groups' classrooms
had a significant impact on student reading and math academic performance or behaviors.
Potential threats to validity included experimenter bias, treatment fidelity,
strength of treatment effect, mortality, and interaction of pretest measures on the final
results, and sample size. Sample size limitations were noted for the behavior measures
and at-risk academic measures when projected power calculations indicated that 126
participants were needed to have 80% power. Power is needed when the null hypothesis
is accepted to ensure that the possibility of making a Type II error is minimized (Heiman,
2003). Treatment effect increases as sample size increases, so academic measures that
may be affected by this include at-risk academic measures and all behavior measures.
The behavior measures portion included only 42 participants for classroom measures and
30 at-risk students. The academic measures component included only 68 at-risk students
for reading and 73 at-risk students for math. Therefore, the sample size may not have
been sufficient to confidently reject the null hypothesis for these groups, especially when
analysis of the results indicated that the null hypothesis should be accepted.
88
Studies have identified external threats to validity due to experimental treatment,
interaction of any pre-intervention measures, and research mortality for post-intervention
measures (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). However, treatment effects were minimized by
informing teachers in the control group of the opportunity to receive the 'Brain Gym'
intervention at the conclusion of the study. Pretest measures were not likely to influence
the results since students are required to take the TAKS tests annually. Since the
intervention was implemented for eight months, mortality was a concern and 67 students
were dropped from the study.
Other threats to validity include researcher bias, treatment validity, and
insufficient strength of the treatment. Researcher bias was likely to be minimal since
students were trained by a 'Brain Gym' instructor and then implemented the intervention.
Treatment fidelity concerns were addressed by providing teachers with a 'Brain Gym'
curriculum, a means of monitoring the intervention, and documentation of the
implementation for teachers. The study's longevity helped to improve the strength of the
treatment.
Ethical Concerns
Ethical considerations for the study included: obtaining IRB acceptance; ensuring
the participating school district and teachers received and understood the meaning of
informed consent and were aware that consent was voluntary and may be revoked at
anytime; protecting teacher privacy rights to prevent any feelings of workplace coercion;
protecting student privacy rights related to their performance on the standardized
assessments; and allowing parents and students to verbalize any concerns about
participating in the study. Parties included in the consent process were Northcentral
89
University's IRB, the participating school district, campus administrators, teachers,
students and their parents.
Providing information that allows potential participants to make informed
voluntary decisions is essential to the consent process (Jacob & Hartshorne, 2008). For
this study, the consent process included seeking approval of the school district's
curriculum director, superintendent, and school board. The district was informed of the
nature and purpose of the research and representatives were informed that consent may
be withdrawn at any time before or during the study. The district agreed and signed the
consent form in October 2008.
Once the district had consented, an information sheet was provided to the
appropriate teachers and administrators. The teacher information sheet included basic
information about the research, assured educators that participation is voluntary,
informed the participants that consent may be revoked at any time, and explained how
privacy would be protected. All teachers and administrators who received an information
sheet signed to agree to participate in the study. Parent and student information sheets
were then provided for students in classrooms involved in the study. The information
sheets allowed educator, parent, and student concerns to be addressed prior to the study.
No concerns were reported during the study.
Summary
This study was designed to determine the effect 'Brain Gym' has on general
education primary grade-level student academic performance (in reading and math) and
behaviors. In order to accomplish this, an experimental quantitative model was used and
several chronological steps were followed: the IRB Board accepted the research proposal
90
and consent was obtained from the school district and teachers participating in the study
(see Appendixes F, G, and H); information letters were provided for the participating
students and their parents in order to address any objections or concerns before the
intervention was implemented (see Appendixes I and J). No concerns were raised. After
these steps were completed, the 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan was started. Data
was collected, processed, and analyzed. Standardized state and nationally-normed
instruments, including TAKS math and reading tests and the BASC-II Teacher Rating
Form, were used to provide academic and behavior measures. The SPSS 16.0 with a
significance level of .05 was used to process and analyze the data. Statistical analysis of
the data included the use of descriptive statistics, Levene's Test of Equal Variance, and
independent samples two-tailed t tests to determine if the intervention had any significant
effect on general education primary grade-level students' academic performance (reading
and math) or behaviors. Caution should be exercised in making generalizations beyond
the scope of this study, including generalizations of the finding to secondary grade-level
students, special populations, and academic subjects other than reading and math, or to
other movement-based programs.
91
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
The purpose of this quantitative experimental study was to examine the effects of
Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a tier-one Rtl and a class-wide general
education intervention on primary grade-level student (at-risk as well as overall
populations) academic performance and behaviors as measured by the TAKS Reading,
TAKS Math, and BASC-II instruments, (see Appendixes A, B, C, and D). Teachers report
that 54% of the students in public school are struggling academically (Baker, Kamphaus,
Home & Windsor, 2006). Teachers also report that student behaviors are one of the
greatest obstacles to providing effective instruction (Baker et al., 2006). Tier-one Rtl
interventions are designed to effectively address 80-85% of struggling students' academic
and behavior concerns and are implemented in the general education classroom (National
Association of Special Education Directors, 2005). Therefore, the Three Day Rotation
Plan was implemented in participating primary grade-level general education classrooms
over an eight-month period. Implementing 'Brain Gym' in participating classrooms
allowed for an evaluation of the program's effects as a class-wide intervention and as an
intervention within the Rtl process for at-risk primary grade-level general education
students.
Findings from this study will be presented in this chapter and may help educators
determine if 'Brain Gym' can provide an essential service for classroom management and
also be an academic intervention for at-risk and overall populations of primary
grade-level students within the general education setting and Rtl framework. Results of
the teachers' 'Brain Gym' activity logs will be discussed first in order to verify the
fidelity of intervention implementation. Next, the effects of'Brain Gym' on reading and
92
math performance for the overall general education and at-risk students will be described.
Beginning with a review of the research questions and hypotheses associated with the
academic measures (including an overview of academic measures, description of the
classroom and at-risk experiential and control group participants) the discussion will
continue with results of the TAKS reading and math tests an associated data analysis will
be given. The effects of 'Brain Gym' as a classroom behavior management strategy and
tier-one behavior intervention for students demonstrating behavior concerns will then be
covered. Included in this portion will be research questions and hypotheses associated
with the behavior measures, an introduction to them, a description of the overall
classroom and at-risk control and experimental group participants, a review of the results
of the BASC-II teacher rating instrument, and a review of data analysis. The chapter will
conclude with a summary of the major findings.
Fidelity of the 'Brain Gym' Intervention
Teacher logs were used to record classroom 'Brain Gym' activities as
implemented during this study. The intent was for the intervention to last eight months in
order to give students ample time to realize the full benefits of the program, while
allowing time for adjustments to the realities of a school environment. The results of the
teachers' 'Brain Gym' logs indicate the level of fidelity to the intervention, which greatly
influences potential effects of using 'Brain Gym' as an intervention in schools. Therefore,
this information is vital to interpreting results of this study.
Teachers' 'Brain Gym' logs indicate that students in the experiential group
participated in 'Brain Gym' activities 75-95% of the recommended time over the course
of the study. Two teachers implemented the intervention 80% of the time, and one had a
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95% level. The majority of teachers implemented 'Brain Gym' 85% of the time. During
the eight-month study, monthly averages ranged between 80% and 90%; weekly ranges
were 75-100%. According to teachers' logs, students in the experimental group generally
participated in morning and afternoon 'Brain Gym' activities. Therefore, using the results
presented in this section is likely to yield an accurate picture of the effects of 'Brain
Gym' as an intervention.
Overview of Students' Academic Performance
In order to evaluate the effects of 'Brain Gym' on at-risk as well as overall
populations of general education primary grade-level students' academic performance,
two research questions were developed and their associated hypotheses were tested. The
first research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison 's 26 'Brain Gym'
movements as a general education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level (third
through sixth grades) student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading
and TAKS Math tests? " To answer the first question it was hypothesized that,
"Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide intervention,
have no significant effect on primary grade-level (third through sixth grades) student
academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests. " The
second research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison's 26 'Brain Gym'
movements as a general education tier-one intervention within the Rtlprocess on
primary grade-level (third through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as
measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math test? " To answer this question it was
hypothesized that, "Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education
tier-one intervention within the Rtl process, have no significant effect on primary
grade-level (third through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as
measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests. "
Effects of 'Brain Gym' on Students Academic Performance
The TAKS tests provided measures of student reading and math performance (see
Appendixes A and B). The 2008 TAKS reading and math standard scores were gathered
to determine if any significant differences between the control and experimental groups
existed prior to implementing the 'Brain Gym' intervention. From October 2008 through
May 2009, the 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan was implemented in participating
classrooms in the experimental group. Each classroom in the research sample had some
students who were beginning to show signs of struggling and in need of tier-one (i.e.,
appropriate for implementing in the general education classroom) reading and math
interventions. 'Brain Gym' as a class-wide intervention allowed for examination of its
effects on participating general education classrooms and on participants at-risk of failing
reading or math. At the conclusion of the study, April and May 2009 TAKS reading and
math scores were gathered. The change between 2009 and 2008 TAKS results was
calculated and were examined to determine if there were significant differences between
the control and experimental groups' reading and math performance.
Description of the Groups Participating in 'Brain Gym' Academic Measures
Class-wide academic measures included all general education students in the
participating classrooms. Therefore, the general education group consisted of students
proficient in reading and math as well as those struggling in these subjects. The control
group (n = 136) and the experimental group (n = 161) were of similar size. The 2008
TAKS Reading standard scores for the class-wide control group had an average of
95
2234.22 and the experimental group had an average of 2235.80. The 2008 TAKSMath
standards score averaged 2240.91 for the control group and 2225.14 for the experimental
group. These averages are well above the score of 2100 required to meet minimum
standards set by the State of Texas (TEA, 2008c). The sample for class-wide intervention
contained both students who are proficient in reading and math and those who are
struggling so it was expected that the average for this group exceed minimum standards.
Tier-one reading and math interventions are appropriate for students who are
beginning to show signs of struggling in these areas. The 2008 TAKS reading and math
test scores identified at-risk students. Students who scored below 2100 on the 2008 TAKS
tests were included in the at-risk group. As the sample for tier-one intervention included
only students in the participating classrooms who were struggling in these areas, the
sample size for tier-one measures was considerably smaller than that for class-wide
measures. The number of participants at-risk for failing math (n = 73) was slightly higher
than reading (n = 68). The at-risk control group was 27 students for reading measures and
30 for math; the at-risk experimental group included 41 students for reading measures
and 43 for math. These differences are not considered to be large enough to threaten the
accurate use of robust statistics such as t tests (Heiman, 2003).
The at-risk group's standard scores on 2008 TAKS tests averaged 1994.09 on
reading measures and 1996.60 on math measures, which were well below the score of
2100 required to meet minimum for each scale (TEA, 2008c). The sample for tier-one
interventions contained only students struggling in reading and math, it was expected the
average for this group would be lower than the required minimum standards.
Students in the general education and at-risk control and experimental groups'
distribution of standard scores were normal with no significant skew or kurtosis for the
reading or math measures (see Table 1). Table 1 also shows that the variance between the
academic measures for each of the groups was similar according to the results of
Levene 's Test for Homogeneity of Variance (or, Test for Equality of Variances). The
results of these statistical procedures combined with the fact that the groups were of
similar size indicated that ratio level data met assumptions necessary for accurate use of
t tests.
According to the results of the independent samples two-tailed t tests with equal
variance assumed, there were no significant differences between control and
experimental 2008 TAKS reading or the math standard scores (see Table 1). Therefore,
the control and experimental groups' reading or math performance on the TAKS test did
not have significant pre-existing differences before implementing 'Brain Gym' as an
intervention. Any significant differences between the groups' performance on the 2009
TAKS tests are thus not likely due to pre-existing differences.
97
Table 1
Statistics for 2008 TAKS Measures
Mean Stand. Deviation Skewness Stand. Error of Skew Kurtosis Stand. Error of Kurtosis Test
Reading Math
Reading Math
F
0.178 1.370
0.539 0.928
General Education Group Reading
2235.070 184.890
0.053 0.141
-0.134 0.282
Sig.
0.673 0.243
0.466 0.339
Math 2232.390
200.300 0.384 0.141 0.126 0.281
t 4f General Education Group
-0.073 0.677
At-risk Group -1.371 0.093
295 296
66 71
At-risk Reading
1994.090 90.150 -0.594 0.291 0.593 0.574
Sig.
0.942 0.499
0.175 0.926
Group Math
1996.600 93.480 -0.833 0.281
-0.252 0.555
MDiff.
-1.574 15.769
-30.430 2.089
Note. Statistics are based on 2008 TAKS standard scores. F = Levene's test for homogneity of variance, t = two-tailed independent samples t test with/> < .05 significance and equal variance assumed, significance. M Diff. = mean difference.
Sig.=
Results of 'Brain Gym' as an Academic Intervention
General education primary grade-level students (at-risk and overall sample of
participants) receiving 'Brain Gym' over an eight-month period demonstrated greater
improvements in reading and math when measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS
Math, compared to students who did not receive the intervention (see Table 2).
Table 2
Group Statistics for 2009 TAKS Change Score Measures TAKS Group N M SD SEM
General Education Group Con 136 44.630 143.285 12.287 Exp 161 60.010 150.371 11.851 Con 137 -3.610 152.080 12.993 Exp 160 1.170 146.663 11.595
At-risk Group Con 27 48.000 132.232 25.448 Exp 41 122.440 146.382 22.861 Con 30 -9.930 130.612 23.846 Exp 43 62.300 121.970 18.600
Note. Statistics are based on 2009 TAKS change scores. Con = control group. Exp = experimental group.
In order to determine if the improvements in reading and math were statistically
significant, assumptions needed for accurate use of t tests were evaluated. The control
and experimental groups' distribution of change scores were normal with no significant
skew or kurtosis for the reading or math measures (see Table 3). Furthermore, as shown
in Table 3, the variance between these academic measures for each group was similar,
according to the results ofLevene 's Test for Homogeneity of Variance. The results of
these statistical procedures, and the fact that the groups did not significantly differ in size,
indicated that ratio level data met assumptions necessary for accurate use of t tests.
In order to test the null hypotheses, results of two-tailed independent samples
t tests with equal variance assumed, were examined. According to t test results, academic
gains were statistically significant at a = .05 for the general education at-risk reading
0(66) = -2.13,/? = .04) and math (r(71) = -2.42,/? = .02) measures (see Table 3).
Therefore, the null hypothesis for the at-risk academic measures was rejected and the
alternative hypothesis, "Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education
Reading
Math
Reading
Math
class-wide intervention, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (third through
sixth grades) student academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and
TAKS Math tests, " was accepted at a 95% confidence level.
According to t test results, academic gains were not statistically significant at
a = .05 for general education class-wide reading (7(295) = -.90, p = .37) and math
(t(295) = -.28, p - .78) measures (see Table 3). Results of t tests indicated that the null
hypothesis should be accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected for the class-wide
group's reading and math measures. However, examining the data revealed that
within-group variability for class-wide group was higher than originally predicted,
resulting in weak statistical power (i.e., 1 - /? = .11). Furthermore, the effect size for this
group was negligible (r2pt = .002) and represented only .01% of what is needed for
minimal power (Heiman, 2003). Sufficient power to confidently accept the null
hypothesis for the general education groups' reading and math class-wide measures was
lacking and meant there was an 89% probability of making a Type II error if the null
hypothesis were accepted. Though the experimental group did experience greater
improvements than the control group even with small effect size and weak statistical
power, accepting the null hypothesis for the class-wide (including students mastering
reading and math as well as those struggling with these subjects) group's reading and
math academic measures was problematic.
Table 3
Statistics for 2009 TAKS Change Score Measures
Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Stand. Error of Skew Kurtosis Stand. Error of Kurtosis
Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Stand. Error of Skew Kurtosis Stand. Error of Kurtosis Test
Reading Math
Reading Math
F
0.465 1.693
0.617 0.332
i
52.960 147.122
0.275 0.141 0.270 0.282
92.880 144.653
0.295 0.291 0.588 0.574
Sig.
0.496 0.194
0.435 0.566
General Education Group
At-risk
t
Group
df General Education Group
-0.897 -0.275 At-risk -2.130 -2.418
Group
295 295
66 71
-1.030 148.952
0.175 0.141 1.427 0.282
32.620 129.730
0.647 0.281 1.461 0.555
Sig.
0.370 0.784
0.037 0.018
MDiffi
-15.381 17.365
-74.439 -72.236
Note. Statistics are based on 2009 TAKS change scores. F = Levene's test for homogneity of variance. Sig. = significance. / = two-tailed independent samples / test with/? < .05 significance and equal variance assumed. M Difl = mean diflerene.
In summary, general education primary grade-level students receiving 'Brain
Gym' for eight months demonstrated greater gains in reading and math as measured by
TAKS tests, compared to students who did not receive the intervention. These gains were
statistically significant at a = .05 for students at-risk of failing reading and math.
Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted
with a 95% level of confidence for these measures. Reading and math gains for the
general education class-wide academic measures were not statistically significant so the
null hypothesis was accepted and the alternative hypothesis was rejected. However, the
within-group variability for the general education group was higher than originally
101
predicted, resulting in weak statistical power (I - B = . 11) and small effect size for this
group (i.e., r2pt = .002). This means there was an 89% probability of making a Type II
error. The experimental group did experience greater improvements than the control
group; however, because the effect size was small, accepting the null hypothesis for these
class-wide academic measures was questionable. The results demonstrate that 'Brain
Gym' did improve primary grade-level general education and at-risk students' reading
and math performance. However, these improvements were statistically significant only
for students identified as at-risk in reading or math and in need of Rtl academic
interventions.
Overview of Students' Behaviors
In order to evaluate the effects of 'Brain Gym' on at-risk as well as overall
populations of general education primary grade-level student academic performance, two
research questions were developed and the associated hypotheses were tested. The third
research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as
a general education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level (second through sixth
grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating
instrument?" To answer this question, it was hypothesized that, "Dennison 's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide intervention, have no significant
effect on primary grade-level (second through sixth grades) student behaviors as
measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument. " The fourth research
question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a
general education tier-one intervention within the Rtl process on primary grade-level
(second through sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II
teacher behavior rating instrument? " In order to answer the fourth research question it
was hypothesized that, "Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education
tier-one intervention within the Rtlprocess, have no significant effect on primary
grade-level (second through sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the
BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument. "
Effects of 'Brain Gym' on Students' Behaviors
The BASC-II teacher rating instrument provided measures of students' Adaptive
(adaptability, social skills, leadership, functional communication, study skills),
Externalizing (aggression, conduct problems, and hyperactivity), Internalizing (anxiety,
depression, and withdrawal), Behavior Symptoms (somatization and atypicality), and
School Problem (attention and learning problems) behaviors (see Appendixes A, B, C,
and D). Behaviors are divided into adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. Adaptive
behaviors include the Adaptive Behavior scale, and maladaptive behavior includes the
Externalizing, Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, and School Problem behavior scales.
Teachers participating in the study completed the BASC-II rating for three randomly
selected students in their classroom in October 2008. These BASC-II standard scores
were gathered to determine if any significant differences between control and
experimental groups existed before starting the 'Brain Gym' intervention. In October
2008 through May 2009, the 'Brain Gym' Three Day Rotation Plan was implemented in
participating classrooms in the experimental group. Each classroom in the research
sample contained some students who were beginning to show signs of struggling and in
need of tier-one (general education classroom) behavior interventions. Implementing
'Brain Gym' as a class-wide intervention therefore permitted examining the effect of
'Brain Gym' on participating general education classrooms as a whole and on
participants demonstrating behavior concerns. Teachers were asked to complete BASC-II
ratings in May 2009 for the students rated in October 2008. The change between 2009
and 2008 BASC-II standard scores were then calculated for each student. These change
scores were examined to determine if there were significant differences between control
and experimental groups' adaptive and maladaptive behaviors at the conclusion of this
study. All participants were included in the class-wide measures; however, only
participants identified as at-risk were included in tier-one intervention measures.
The BASC-II teacher rating forms contain three validity scales: F-index, Response
Pattern, and Consistency. These scales fall within Acceptable, Caution, or Extreme
Caution ranges. When validity scales fall within the Acceptable range, ratings are likely
to be a true representation of a student's behaviors and interpretations may be made with
confidence (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2006). The majority of the BASC-II teacher ratings
(92.71%) had validity scales within the Acceptable range. The validity scales had such a
high percentage of ratings in the Acceptable range so it is likely that behavior measures
for this study are valid (see Table 4).
Table 4
BASC-II Validity Scale
F-Index Response Pattern Acceptable 89 95 Caution 5 1 Extreme Caution 2 0_ Note. Validity scales include the BASC-II 2008 and 2009 ratings.
Descriptions of Groups Participating in 'Brain Gym' Behavior Measures
Class-wide measures included all general education students participating in the
study. According to the 2008 BASC-II teacher ratings, control and experimental groups'
Consistency 92 4 0
means were within the Average range (see Table 5). These groups' pre-intervention
behaviors were within normal limits compared to same-age peers. These results were
expected since the sample contains both students who were functioning well and those
who were demonstrating behavior concerns. Class-wide behavior measures included
approximately 13% of the primary grade-level general education students. The control
group included 22 students and the experimental group contained 26 students, so the
groups' sizes were similar.
The October 2008 BASC-II teacher ratings were used to identify students that
were at-risk and in need of tier-one interventions. The BASC-II Adaptive behavior scores
between 40 and 31 are considered to be within the At-Risk range and below 30 are
considered to be Clinically Significant. Maladaptive behaviors (Externalizing,
Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, and School Problem behaviors) scores between 60
and 69 are considered to be within the At-Risk range; above 70 are considered to be
Clinically Significant. According to Reynolds and Kamphaus (2008), students with
scores in the At-Risk and Clinically Significant ranges are considered to be in need of
behavior intervention. Therefore, students with 2008 BASC-II ratings within the At-Risk
or Clinically Significant ranges were included in at-risk groups to evaluate the effect of
'Brain Gym' as a tier-one behavior intervention.
Because the sample for tier-one intervention included only students struggling
with behaviors, the sample size was considerably smaller than the sample size for
class-wide intervention. There were 30 students identified on the 2008 BASC-II ratings as
struggling with behavior concerns. The control group included 12 students and the
experimental group included 18 students demonstrating behavior concerns. This
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difference is not considered large enough to pose a threat to the accurate use of robust
statistics such as / tests.
Tier-one control and experimental groups' average scores on the 2008 BASC-JI
ratings for behavior measures were within the At-Risk range (see Table 5). Since the
sample for tier-one interventions contained only students demonstrating behavior
concerns, it was expected that the averages for this group would fall within the At-Risk to
Clinically Significant range. This means the students included in the at-risk group were
demonstrating noticeably higher levels of behavior concerns than same age peers.
The general education and at-risk control and experimental groups' distribution of
Externalizing, Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, School Problems, and Adaptive
behavior standard scores were normal with no significant skew or kurtosis (see Table 5).
Also, as shown in Table 5, Levene 's Test for Homogeneity of Variance indicated that
group variance was similar. The results of these statistical analyses, and the fact that the
groups were similar in size, ratio level data meant assumptions necessary for accurate use
of/tests.
According to the results of the independent samples two-tailed / tests with equal
variance assumed, there were no statistically significant differences between these
groups' behavior measures on the 2008 BASC-II (see Table 5). This meant no significant
differences existed between control and experimental groups' Externalizing,
Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, School Problems, or Adaptive behaviors before
implementing 'Brain Gym' as an intervention. The general education and at-risk control
and experimental groups' behaviors were not significantly different before implementing
the intervention so any significant differences between groups on these measures at the
end of the study are likely due to the effect of 'Brain Gym'.
Table 5
Statistics for 2008 BASC-II Measures
Mean Stand. Deviation Skewness Stand. Error of Skew Kurtosis Stand. Error of Kurtosis
Mean Stand. Deviation Skewness Stand. Error of Skew Kurtosis Stand. Error of Kurtosis Test
Adaptive External Internal School Problems BSI
Adaptive External Internal School Problems BSI
F
0.597 0.545 0.011 0.087 0.118
0.786 0.248 1.103 0.939 0.029
Adaptive
44.540 11.357 0.081 0.343
-1.006 0.674
37.730 8.473 0.955 0.427 1.054 0.833
Sig.
0.444 0.464 0.919 0.769 0.732
0.383 0.623 0.303 0.341 0.865
External Internal Sch. Prb. General Education Group
57.730 14.805 0.841 0.343
-0.184 0.674
49.520 11.078
1.003 0.343
-0.075 0.674
At-risk Group 65.000 13.948 0.456 0.427
-0.576 0.833
t
54.430 11.258 0.427 0.427
-0.833 0.833
df General Education Group
1.973 -1.343 -1.692 -1.906 -1.167
46 46 46 46 46
At-risk Group 0.210 0.164 0.056 0.158 0.459
28 28 28 28 28
55.920 11.438 0.476 0.343
-0.759 0.674
61.700 9.617 0.230 0.427
-1.213 0.833
Sig.
0.054 0.186 0.097 0.063 0.249
0.835 0.871 0.955 0.875 0.650
BSI
55.920 15.241 0.918 0.343
-0.045 0.674
63.800 14.153 0.524 0.427
-0.347 0.833
MDiff
6.301 -5.710 -5.325 -6.147 -5.133
0.700 0.900 0.250 0.600 2.550
Note. Statistics are based on 2008 BASC-II standard scores. Sch. Prb. = School Problems. BSI = Behavior Symptoms Index. F = Levene's test for homogneiry of variance, t = two-tailed independent samples t test with/? < .05 significance and equal variance assumed. Sig. = significance. M DifF. = mean differene.
Results of 'Brain Gym' as a Behavior Intervention
General education primary grade-level students (at-risk participants and overall
sample of participants) who received 'Brain Gym' demonstrated greater improvements in
behaviors, as measured by the BASC-II teacher ratings, compared to students who did not
receive the intervention (see Table 6).
Table 6
Group Statistics for 2009 BASC-II Change Score Measures Scale
Adaptive
Externalizing
Internalzing
School Problems
BSI
Adaptive
Externalizing
Internalzing
School Problems
BSI
Group
Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp
Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp Con Exp
N M SD General Education Group
22 26 22 26 22 26 22 26 22 26
-0.050 7.000
-2.140 6.650
-1.680 3.960 0.360 7.080
-0.050 6.120
At-risk Group 12 18 12 18 12 18 12 18 12 18
3.900 9.150 1.500 9.000
-0.700 4.750 2.500 9.000 4.800 8.300
7.662 8.718 9.785 9.204 8.952 7.544 8.878 7.520 9.771 7.881
8.364 8.573
10.427 8.772
12.979 7.820
10.840 6.759
10.840 7.618
SEM
1.634 1.710 2.086 1.805 1.908 1.480 1.893 1.475 2.083 1.546
2.660 1.917 3.297 1.961 4.104 1.748 3.428 1.511 3.428 1.703
Note. Statistics are based on 2009 BASC-II change scores. BSI = Behavior Symptoms Index. Con = control group. Exp = experimental group.
In order to determine if the improvements in behaviors were statistically
significant, assumptions needed for accurate use of t were evaluated. The control and
experimental groups' distribution of change scores were normal with no significant skew
or kurtosis for Externalizing, Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, School Problems, and
Adaptive behavior measures for both the general education and the at-risk groups (see
Table 7). As shown in Table 7, the variance between these behavior measures for each of
the groups was similar according to the results of Levene 's Test for Homogeneity of
Variance. Based upon these results and the fact that the groups did not significantly differ
in size, ratio level data met assumptions necessary for accurate use of t tests.
In order to test null research hypotheses, results of two-tailed independent
samples t tests, with equal variance assumed, were examined. According to t test results,
behavior improvements were statistically significant at a = .05 for the general education
class-wide behavior measures: Externalizing (7(46) = -3.20, p < .01), Internalizing
(7(46) = -2.37, p = .02), School Problems (7(46) = -2.84,;? = .01), Behavior Symptoms
(7(46) = -2.42,;? = .02), and Adaptive (7(46) = -2.95,;? = .01) behaviors (see Table 7).
Therefore, the null hypothesis for the class-wide behavior measures was rejected and the
alternative hypothesis, "Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education
class-wide intervention, have a significant effect on primary grade-level (second though
sixth grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating
instrument." was accepted with a 95% level of confidence.
The effect size for the at-risk group was small (r2pb = .07) indicating that results
may not appear to be significant even when they actually are. According to t test results,
the at-risk behavior group's results were mixed when the null hypothesis was tested.
Behavior improvements were statistically significant at a = .05 for students
demonstrating at-risk levels of School Problem (7(28) = -2.07, p < .05) and Externalizing
(7(28) = -2.07, p < .05) behaviors (see Table 7). Findings indicated that School Problem
and Externalizing behavior improvements for the at-risk group were statically significant
at the 95% confidence level. However, behavior improvements were not statistically
109
significant at a = .05 for students identified as at-risk in the areas of Internalizing
(/(28) = -1.44,p = .16), Behavior Symptoms (7(28) = -1.03,/? = .31), and Adaptive
(f(28) = -1.59, p = .12) behaviors (see Table 7). Examination of data revealed that
within-group variability for these measures was higher than originally predicted resulting
in weak statistical power (7 - /? = .25). This means that there is a 75% probability of
making a Type II error (accepting the null hypothesis when it actually should have been
rejected). The experimental group did experience greater improvements than the control
group even though the effect size was small and statistical power was weak, so accepting
the null hypothesis for the at-risk group's maladaptive and adaptive behavior measures is
questionable. Evaluation of the research hypothesis for the at-risk behavior measures was
confounded due to mixed results.
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Table 7
Statistics 2009 BASC-II Change Score Measures
Mean Stand. Deviation Skewness Stand. Error of Skew Kurtosis Stand. Error of Kurtosis
Mean Stand. Deviation Skewness Stand. Error of Skew Kurtosis Stand. Error of Kurtosis Test
Adaptive External Internal School Problems BSI
Adaptive External Internal School Problems BSI
F
0.879 0.016 0.252 0.309 0.001
0.220 0.586 1.343 1.896 1.660
Adaptive
3.770 8.902 0.871 0.343 1.350 0.674
7.400 8.744 0.897 0.427 0.655 0.833
Sig.
0.353 0.900 0.618 0.581 0.977
0.643 0.450 0.257 0.179 0.208
External Internal Sch. Prb. General Education Group 2.630
10365 -0.121 0343 0393 0.674
1.380 8.611 0.729 0.343 5.058 0.674
At-risk GrouD 6.500 9.853
-2.060 0.427
-0.189 0.833
/
2.930 9.958 0.398 0.427 4.134 0.833
df General Education Group
-2.947 -3203 -2372 -2.837 -2.418 At-risk* -1.591 -2.074 -1.439 -2.067 -1.029
46 46 46 46 46
3roun 28 28 28 28 28
4.000 8.759
-0.673 0344 0266 0.674
6.830 8.567
-1205 0.427 1.808 0.833
Sig.
0.005 0.002 0.022 0.007 0.020
0.123 0.047 0.161 0.048 0312
BSI
3.290 9.237 0.554 0.343 0.675 0.674
7.130 8.792 0.655 0.427
-0.281 0.833
MDiff.
-7.045 -8.790 -5.644 -6.713 -6.161
-5.250 -7.500 -5.450 -6.500 -3.500
Note. Statistics are based on 2009 BASC-II change scores. Sch. Prb. = School Problems. BSI = Behavior Symptoms Index. F = Levene's test for homogneity of variance, t = two-tailed independent samples t test with/? < .05 significance and equal variance assumed. Sig. = significance. M Diff. = mean difference.
Evaluation of Findings
The goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym'
movements on primary grade-level general education students' academic performance
and behaviors as measured by TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, and BASC-II. To properly
evaluate the study's findings, it is important to examine it from a retrospective viewpoint,
compare the results with the findings of related research and theories from multiple
I l l
disciplines, and appraise the applicability of conclusions drawn from other fields to
education.
Confounding variables are inherent in research and should be considered when
evaluating the results of a study. Possible confounding variables for this study included
underestimating within-group variability for class-wide academic and at-risk behavior
measures, mortality since the study lasted eight months, and interaction caused by
pretesting for the behavior ratings. These variables were unlikely to yield positive results
in this study when there were none due to the high level of confidence built into the
research design (a = .05) when rejecting the null hypothesis. However, underestimating
within-group variability played a significant role for measures where the null hypothesis
was accepted.
Students who participated in 'Brain Gym' activities demonstrated greater
improvements than those who did not receive the intervention; however, these
improvements were not significant for class-wide reading and math or tier-one
Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, and Adaptive Behavior measures. Within-group
variability for these measures was much greater than originally predicted resulting in
small effect size (r2pb = .002 for academic measures, r2
pb = .07 for behavior measures)
and weak statistical power (1 - ft = . 11 for academic measures; 1 - /? = .25 for behavior
measures). Therefore, the probability of making an error is 89% when utilizing the results
of this study to determine that 'Brain Gym' has no significant effects on general
education students' reading and math performance. The probability of making an error
regarding the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' on at-risk students' anxiety, depression,
withdrawal, somatization, atypicality, and adaptive skills is 75%. The confounding
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variables associated with underestimating within-group variability limit interpretation and
applicability of the findings of this study for these measures.
Improvements in student performance were statistically significant for classroom
behaviors and at-risk reading, math, Externalizing, and School Problem behavior
measures. These findings indicate that educators can be 95% confident that primary
grade-level general education students who received 'Brain Gym' as a classroom
intervention will demonstrate significant gains in classroom behaviors. There is also a
95% probability that students who are at-risk of failing reading or math, or demonstrate
inappropriate levels of aggression, conduct problems, learning difficulties, hyperactivity,
or attention problems will experience significant gains compared to similar students who
do not receive 'Brain Gym'.
These findings are supported by two previous quasi-experimental studies that also
found 'Brain Gym' had significant positive effects on students' academic performance
and behaviors as measured by the TAKS tests and standardized behavior ratings
(Spalding, 2005; Trahan & Carpenter, 2004). Furthermore, midline movement theory and
perceptual-motor training theory support the findings of this study and provide plausible
explanations as to why 'Brain Gym' movements (which cross the midlines) have a
positive effect on students' academic performance and behaviors. Midline movement
studies conducted in the 1990s and resultant theory indicate that providing frequent
opportunity to cross the three midlines of the human body improves cognitive functions
and emotional regulation (Cores, 1999; Surburg & Eason, 1999; Woodard & Surburg
1999). In addition, perceptual-motor training theory predicts that movement increases the
number of neural pathway connections and thereby results in increased capacity for
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cognitive functions and more efficient communication throughout the nervous system
(Hannaford, 2005).
In order to appraise the applicability of the findings of this study it is important to
consider educators' perception of the potential value of movement-based programs.
Teachers rated instruction time as the most important variable influencing student
academic performance (Tremarche et al., 2007). Educators also expressed concern that
'Brain Gym' activities would increase classroom disruptive behaviors (Spaulding, 2005).
Therefore, educators are reluctant to implement movement-based programs such as
'Brain Gym' due to negative perceptions regarding the impact on student academic
performance and behavior. Contrary to teacher beliefs, the findings of this study indicated
that primary grade-level general education students who receive 'Brain Gym' as a
classroom intervention demonstrate greater improvements in academic performance and
behaviors compared to similar students who did not receive the intervention. Therefore,
reducing the amount of time devoted to academic instruction in order to complete 'Brain
Gym' activities twice daily (approximately 20 minutes per day) over the course of the
academic school year did not negatively impact academic performance or student
behaviors.
At the end of the school year (conclusion of the study) students elected to meet
with the researcher to discuss the Brain Gym program. Students requested that 'Brain
Gym' activities continue for the next school year. They reported the 'Brain Gym'
movements were beneficial in school and outside of school, with 81% of the students
reporting that the movements helped them to sleep, maintain focus and concentration,
recall information, solve problems, and improve athletic skills. Students rated specific
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'Brain Gym' activities as more beneficial including; water, cross-crawl, lazy eights,
hook-ups, brain buttons, energy yawn, calf pump, and double doodles. Teachers also
reported that students elected to use 'Brain Gym' activities during testing and other
stressful times. Based upon this information, it appears that students found the program to
be beneficial.
These findings are supported by studies conducted by Hillman and his colleagues'
extensive review of research in 2008 concluding, reduction of instructional time to
increase the time devoted to movement-based activity does not lead to a decline in
student academic performance. Furthermore, Spaulding's study found that students
participating in 'Brain Gym' activities demonstrated improved classroom behaviors. The
results of these studies, as well as this current study emphasize the value of movement in
promoting academic performance and positive behaviors. The findings of this study may
alleviate educators' concerns regarding potential negative effects of implementing
movement-based programs such 'Brain Gym' in the general education classroom
environment.
According to the results of this study, 'Brain Gym' has significant positive effects
on at-risk students' reading, math, aggression, conduct problems, hyperactivity,
inattention, and learning problems. The design of this study complies with Rtl research
guidelines in IDEA 2004. Therefore, educators may confidently and legally utilize Brian
Gym within the Rtl process to address at-risk students reading, math, externalizing
behaviors, and school problem behaviors.
The findings of this study impact the field of education in numerous areas,
including reading, math, classroom management, school behavior concerns, Rtl, and
115
educational kinesiology. These findings, along with the findings of previous studies and
established theory, imply that movement-based programs such as 'Brain Gym' have the
potential to promote school success for many students. While change in the educational
field is generally a slow process, the findings of this study may help promote positive
change in the educational environment through increased awareness and use of diverse
teaching methods including educational kinesiology programs such as 'Brain Gym' in the
general education classroom setting.
Summary
The purpose of this quantitative experimental study was to examine the effects of
Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements as a tier-one Rtl and a class-wide general
education intervention on primary grade-level students' (at-risk and overall populations)
academic performance and behaviors as measured by the TAKS Reading, TAKS Math,
and BASC-II instruments (Dennison, 2003). In order to accomplish this, the 'Brain Gym'
Three Day Rotation Plan was implemented in experimental group classrooms twice
daily, with teachers reporting implementation approximately 85% of the recommended
time over duration of the eight-month study. According to statistical analysis, there is a
95% probability that no significant pre-existing differences were present between the
control and experimental groups' reading or math performance or behaviors prior to
implementing the 'Brain Gym' intervention. While extraneous variables may have an
impact on these measures, educators can reasonably assume that any significant
differences on these measures at the conclusion of the study were likely due to the effects
of the activities.
116
The results of this study demonstrated that primary grade-level general education
students who received 'Brain Gym' as an intervention experienced greater gains in
academic performance and behaviors compared to similar students who did not receive
the intervention. These gains were statistically significant at the 95% confidence level for
classroom behaviors and tier-one reading, math, aggression, conduct problems,
hyperactivity, inattention, and learning problems. Thus, there is a 95% probability that
when 'Brain Gym' is offered as a primary grade-level classroom intervention, students'
behaviors will significantly improve. Also, there is a 95% probability that students
struggling with reading, math, aggression, conduct problems, hyperactivity, inattention,
and learning problems will experience significant gains in the areas of concern.
Unfortunately, gains were not statistically significant for the general education groups'
academic measures or at-risk groups' Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, or Adaptive
behavior measures. Within-group variance was much higher than originally estimated
and effect size was small (r2pb — .002 for academic measures, r2
pb = .07 for behavior
measures); resulting in a high probability of making a Type II error (fi = 89% for general
education academic measures and 75% for these at-risk behavior measures). Therefore,
no conclusions may be made with confidence regarding the general education groups'
academic measures or the at-risk groups' Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, or Adaptive
behavior measures. This information should assist educators in making informed decision
regarding the use of 'Brain Gym' as an academic and behavior intervention within the
primary grade-level general education setting.
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CHAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS
Dennison proposes that 'Brain Gym' can effectively meet diverse needs of
students straggling with academic and behavior problems, while having minimal loss of
instructional time (Brain Gym International/Educational Kinesiology Foundation, 2008).
This has important implications because educators report that 54% of American students
in public education are at-risk of failing due to academic and behavior difficulties, and
over 70% of students are performing below federally-defined levels of proficiency (Baker
et al., 2006; Pellegrino, 2007). Federal law now stipulates that empirical scientifically
research-based interventions must be available to all students when early signs of
struggling are observed (Baker et al., 2006). Though the benefits of movement on
cognition, emotions, and behaviors have been well-documented by numerous sound
experimental studies, the research base supporting the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' on student
academic performance and behaviors is limited and inconclusive (Hyatt, 2007; Martin &
Chalmers, 2007).
In order to meet the current needs of the public education system and satisfy
federal research guidelines, a control group experimental design using two-tailed
independent samples t tests (a = .05) was conceived to explore the efficacy of 'Brain
Gym' in meeting students' academic and behaviors needs. The purpose of this
quantitative experimental study was to examine the effects of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym'
movements as a tier-one Rtl and a class-wide general education intervention on primary
grade-level students' (at-risk as well as overall populations) academic performance and
behaviors measured by the TAKS Reading, TAKS Math, and BASC-II instruments These
results may help educators determine if 'Brain Gym' can provide an essential service as a
118
classroom management and academic intervention for several populations of primary
grade-level students within the general education setting and Rtl framework. In other
words, the findings should help educators determine if 'Brain Gym' may play a viable
role in the quest for educational excellence for all students.
There are several limitations innate in the purpose and design of this study that are
worth noting. This study included only primary grade-level general education students so
applicability of 'Brain Gym' to students with special needs or secondary grade-level
students is unknown. Academic measures included only reading and math. While
performance in reading and math influences student performance in other subject areas,
generalizations of the findings to other subjects should be made with caution. In addition,
this study evaluated only the efficacy of 'Brain Gym'; therefore, the findings of this study
may not be applicable to other movement-based programs.
In this chapter, the implications, recommendations, and conclusions of this study
will be discussed. The implications section will provide a recap of the research problem,
review the findings of this study, and discuss how these findings compare with the results
of related studies. This section will also offer plausible applications of this study.
Limitations associated with this study and recommendations for future research will then
be discussed. A summary of the chapter will be presented along with final conclusions.
Implications
Federal laws now require all students to pass state standardized assessments at a
federally-defined proficiency level by 2014 and educators must provide scientific
research-based interventions in order to meet this requirement (Pellegrino, 2007).
Unfortunately, the number of students struggling academically and behaviorally is
119
growing at an alarming rate and the current educational research base is inadequate to
meet the demand for sound interventions (Glover & DiPerna, 2007). Though Dennison
claims his 'Brain Gym' program is effective in meeting a diverse range of students'
needs, the research base supporting such claims is limited (Hyatt, 2007). Therefore, four
major research questions were developed and the null hypothesis for each question was
tested in order to evaluate the effects of Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements on
general education primary grade-level students' academic performance and behaviors.
The first research question asked, "What is the effect of Dennison's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements as a general education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level
(third through sixth grades) student academic performance as measured by the TAKS
Reading and TAKS Math tests? " In order to answer this question the null hypothesis,
"Dennison's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide intervention,
have no significant effect on primary grade-level (third through sixth grades) student
academic performance as measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests," was
tested. Academic measures indicated participants who received 'Brain Gym' as an
intervention experienced greater gains in TAKS reading and math test scores than students
who did not receive the intervention. The gains on the TAKS Reading (t(295) = -.90, p =
.37) and TAKS Math (t(295) = -2%,p = .78) tests were not statistically significant at a .05
level for the general education students' group (including both students who are
succeeding and at-risk of failing reading and math) indicating the null hypothesis should
be accepted for these measures. However, retrospective examination of data revealed that
the within-group variability for the general education participants was much higher than
originally predicted and therefore the effect size was small (r2pb = .002), resulting in weak
120
statistical power (7 - B = .11). Thus, the probability of accepting the null hypothesis when
it should have been rejected is 89% for the general education academic measures. These
factors significantly limit interpretations of the findings for this group and no conclusions
may be confidently made regarding the effects of 'Brain Gym' as a classroom
intervention for use with the overall population of general education primary grade-level
students.
The second research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison 's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements as a general education tier-one intervention within the Rtlprocess on
primary grade-level (third through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as
measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests? " In order to answer this question
the null hypothesis, "Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education
tier-one intervention within the Rtl process, have no significant effect on primary
grade-level (third through sixth grades) at-risk student academic performance as
measured by the TAKS Reading and TAKS Math tests, " was tested. Academic measures
indicated the at-risk students who received 'Brain Gym' as a tier-one Rtl intervention
experienced statistically significant greater gains on TAKS reading and math test scores
than students who did not receive the intervention. Therefore, the null hypothesis was
rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted for at-risk students' reading
0(66) = -2.13,p = .04) and math (7(71) = -2.42, p = .01) measures. Educators can be 95%
confident (i.e., a = .05) that 'Brain Gym' is an effective Rtl intervention for addressing
academic needs of general education primary grade-level students identified as at-risk for
failing reading or math.
121
The third research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison 's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements as a general education class-wide intervention on primary grade-level
(second through sixth grades) student behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher
behavior rating instrument? " In order to answer this question the null hypothesis,
"Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education class-wide intervention,
have no significant effect on primary grade-level (second through sixth grades) student
behaviors as measured by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument, " was tested.
Behavior measures indicated the participants receiving 'Brain Gym' as an intervention
experienced greater improvements in behavior than students who did not receive it. These
gains were statistically significant for all adaptive and maladaptive behavior measures for
the general education group. Based upon the results of this study, the null hypothesis was
rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted for the general education students'
maladaptive behaviors (t(46) = -2.71, p = .01) and adaptive behaviors
(/(46) = -2.95, p = .01). This means that educators can be 95% confident (i.e., a = .05)
that 'Brain Gym' is an effective classroom behavior management intervention in
reducing primary grade-level general education students' aggression, conduct problems,
hyperactivity, depression, anxiety, somatization, inattention, learning problems,
atypicality, and withdrawal. Furthermore, educators can be 95% confident that 'Brain
Gym' is an effective classroom behavior intervention for improving primary grade-level
students' adaptive behavior skills.
The fourth research question asked, "What is the effect ofDennison's 26 'Brain
Gym' movements as a general education tier-one intervention within the Rtlprocess on
primary grade-level (second through sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured
by the BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument? " In order to answer this question the
null hypothesis, "Dennison 's 26 'Brain Gym' movements, as a general education
tier-one intervention within the Rtlprocess, have no significant effect on primary
grade-level (second though sixth grades) at-risk student behaviors as measured by the
BASC-II teacher behavior rating instrument, " was tested. Behavior measures indicated
the participants who received 'Brain Gym' as an intervention experienced greater
improvements in behavior than students who did not receive the intervention. However,
the findings for the at-risk students' behavior measures were mixed. Gains were
statistically significant for the School Problems (/(28) = -2.07, p < .05), and Externalizing
(/(28) = -2.07, p < .05) behavior measures. However, 'Brain Gym' did not appear to
significantly improve behavior for students struggling with Internalizing Behaviors
(7(28) = -1.44,;? = .16), Behavior Symptoms (/(28) = -\.03,p = .31), and Adaptive
Behaviors (/(28) = -1.5 9,/? = . 12) which implies that the null hypothesis should be
accepted for these measures. However, examination of data revealed within-group
variance was much higher than predicted and the effect size was small (r2pb = .07),
yielding insufficient statistical power (i - ft - .25) to adequately guard against making an
error when accepting the null hypothesis. This means that there is a 75% probability of
accepting Ho when it should be rejected. These factors significantly limit interpretations
of the findings for this group. Therefore, no conclusions may be confidently made
regarding the effects of 'Brain Gym' as an Rtl intervention for addressing anxiety,
depression, somatization, withdrawal, atypical, or adaptive behaviors based upon the
findings of this study. Because gains were statistically significant for the at-risk groups'
Externalizing and School Problem behavior measures, the findings imply that the null
hypothesis should be rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted for students'
identified as at-risk in these areas. Based upon these findings, educators can be 95%
confident (a = .05) that 'Brain Gym' is an effective Rtl intervention for students
struggling with aggression, conduct problems, hyperactivity, inattention, and learning
problems.
The findings of this study are supported by two earlier 'Brain Gym' studies
conducted by Spalding and Trahan and Carpenter (Spalding, 2004; Trahan & Carpenter,
2005). These studies employed similar research designs (quasi-experimental design),
similar samples (general education primary grade-level students), and measurements
(academic and behavior measures). Therefore, where findings of these studies are
confirmed by the findings of this study, confidence may be added to interpretations.
Trahan and Carpenter utilized a quantitative quasi-experimental design to evaluate the
effects of 'Brain Gym' movements on general education primary grade-level students'
academic performance and behaviors. According to Trahan and Carpenter, classes
participating in 'Brain Gym' movements twice daily demonstrated statistically significant
gains on standardized reading assessments and the number of disciplinary office referrals
significantly decreased when compared to classes not participating in the 'Brain Gym'
program. Spaulding conducted a qualitative quasi-experimental study to evaluate the
efficacy of 'Brain Gym' as an Rtl academic and behavior intervention for primary
grade-level at-risk students and found that 'Brain Gym' movements had a positive effect
on at-risk students' academic performance in reading, math, handwriting, classroom
behavior, ability to maintain focus, and physical posture. Spaulding's and Trahan and
Carpenter's studies substantiate the findings of this study. The findings of this study,
along with the findings of these two studies provide persuasive evidence that 'Brain
Gym' is effective as a classroom management strategy and Rtl academic intervention for
at-risk students' reading and math needs. These studies also support the premise that the
limitations in this study that compromised statistical power likely led to confounding the
results, where gains were not statistically significant.
There are several notable limitations regarding the application of the findings of
this study. This scope of this study did not address whether or not educators should use
'Brain Gym' over other movement-based programs. Further, the effects of 'Brain Gym'
on special populations and secondary grade-level students were not evaluated. In
addition, academic performance measures only included students' reading and math
performance. Therefore, conclusions regarding the efficacy of'Brain Gym' in meeting
special education students or secondary grade-level students needs, how the program may
impact student performance in subject areas other than reading and math, and whether
'Brain Gym' programs are more effective than other movement-based programs may not
be drawn from the findings of this study. Further research is needed to answer these
questions.
Recommendations
The findings of this study suggest that 'Brain Gym', when implemented as a
tier-one intervention within the Rtl framework and as a class-wide general education
intervention, has the potential for addressing a diverse range of students' reading, math,
and behavior concerns. Rtl guidelines require educators to use research-based
interventions, but it does not require identifying the most effective intervention.
Therefore, the focus of this study was on the effects of 'Brain Gym' rather than
125
comparing effects of different movement-based programs on student performance.
Understanding how movement-based programs compare and contrast would be valuable
information for educators when selecting movement-based interventions. Further
research comparing the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' and other movement-based interventions
may help guide educators' decision-making process when selecting an educational
kinesthetic program as a general education intervention.
The efficacy of 'Brain Gym' as a general education classroom intervention and
Rtl tier-one intervention for primary grade-level students' academic performance and
behaviors were evaluated in this study. There are few studies evaluating the efficacy of
'Brain Gym' as an intervention with secondary students or with special populations.
Research regarding Dennison's claims about the efficacy of specific 'Brain Gym'
movements in meeting highly specialized students' needs (for example the 'Lazy Eights'
movement for addressing writing) is limited. Studies such as these may have the potential
of increasing the applicability of'Brain Gym' to secondary students, special populations,
and as secondary or tertiary interventions within the Rtl process.
This study indicated that students who received 'Brain Gym' as an intervention
demonstrated greater improvements on all behavior and academic measures compared to
those who did not receive the intervention. However, where these gains were not
statistically significant, the effect size was small and statistical power was weak. In order
to correct this dilemma, the sample size for this study would need to be considerably
larger than organically predicted. Therefore, no conclusions regarding at-risk students
Internalizing, Behavior Symptoms, and Adaptive behaviors or general education
students' academic performance were able to be confidently made since the probability of
126
making an error when rejecting Ho was high. Based on these findings, future studies with
larger sample sizes are warranted to determine the efficacy of 'Brain Gym' regarding
these measures.
Finally, IDEA 2004 and NCLB mandates require that only empirical
research-based interventions be used to meet the needs of all students showing signs of
struggling academically or behaviorally (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007). The educational research
base is limited so teachers are in a quandary when attempting to locate Rtl interventions.
The design of this study meets IDEA 2004 federal research criteria. Findings indicate that
'Brain Gym' is effective in significantly improving at-risk students reading and math
performance when implemented as a tier-one Rtl intervention. Furthermore, findings
demonstrate that 'Brain Gym' significantly improves classroom behaviors when
implemented as a general education intervention. Therefore, educators should consider
'Brain Gym' as a viable tool to improve primary grade-level students' performance.
In order to support educators' efforts to identify research-based intervention, the
United States Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences established the
What Works Clearinghouse (WWC). According to WWC (2009), its goal is to provide
educators with a centralized and trusted source of scientific evidence for evidence-based
best practices in education (What Works Clearinghouse, 2009). Educational research may
be submitted to WWC for review and, if stringent research standards are met, the
intervention is then posted on WWC's web-site. 'Brain Gym' is not currently on the
WWC list of research-based interventions so submitting 'Brain Gym' research supporting
the efficacy of the program would have the potential to promote its awareness and
provide validation from a trusted source.
127
Conclusions
The findings of this study suggest that 'Brain Gym' is effective as an intervention
with primary grade-level students for improving Adaptive, Externalizing, Internalizing,
Behavior Symptoms, and School Problem Behaviors, as a tier-one intervention within the
Rtl process for students struggling in math and reading, and with Externalizing and
School Problem behaviors (see Appendixes A, B, C, and D). Because this study concurs
with those of Trahan and Carpenter (2005) and Spalding (2004) assurance is added to
these conclusions. The research design utilized in this study meets IDEA 2004 and NCLB
federal mandates for use of empirical, scientific research-based interventions and
positive, proactive behavior interventions in the public education setting (Fuchs & Fuchs,
2007; Baker et al., 2006). Therefore, educators may use 'Brain Gym' with confidence as
a general education classroom management intervention and as a tier-one Rtl intervention
for struggling students' math, reading, aggression, conduct disorder, hyperactivity,
inattention, and learning problems.
To promote awareness of 'Brain Gym' among educators and provide added
assurance for those considering 'Brain Gym', additional research is needed. Research
evaluating the effects of 'Brain Gym' as a secondary and tertiary intervention within the
Rtl process, as well as evaluating efficacy with secondary grade-level students, is
warranted. Providing scientific 'Brain Gym' research that meets Rtl criteria to the U.S.
Department of Education's What Works Clearinghouse for review would promote
awareness and provide scientific validation through a centralized and trusted source.
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APPENDIXES
Appendix A
Key Reading Components
Phonemes
Phonemic Awareness
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension
The knowledge that words are made up of a combination of individual sounds.
The ability to hold on to those sounds, blend them successfully into words, and take them
apart again.
The ability to read text accurately and smoothly.
Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print in order to
communicate effectively.
Comprehension is the intentional thinking process that occurs as we read that allows us to understand the meaning of the materials
read.
Appendix B
Key Math Components
Problem Solving Skills
Math Reasoning
Critical Thinking
The ability to utilize numerical operations to find a solution to mathematical related problems.
The application of logical reasoning in procedures and in finding solutions to
mathematical related questions.
The ability to evaluate mathematically-related concepts, come
to a reasonable conclusion, and communicate mathematic concepts to
others.
Appendix C
Behaviors
Adaptive Narrowband Behaviors
Adaptability
Social Skills
Leadership
Functional Communication
Study Skills
The ability to adapt readily to changes in the environment.
Skills needed to interact in a socially acceptable manner with peers and adults.
The skills of children ages 6 - 2 1 years old associated with accomplishing academic,
social, or community goals.
The ability to communicate basic thoughts and feeling in a way others can understand.
The student's ability to complete academic related tasks such as reading, homework, effort on schoolwork, and organization of
academic materials.
Adaptive Broadband Behaviors Scales
Adaptive Skills Includes Adaptability, Social Skills,
Leadership, Activities of Daily Living, Functional Communication, and Study
Skills narrowband scales.
139
Appendix D
Narrowband and Broadband Maladaptive Behaviors
Maladaptive Narrowband Behavior Scales
Hyperactivity
Aggression
Conduct Problems
Anxiety
Depression
Somatization
Atypicality
Withdrawal
The tendency to be overly active, rush through tasks or activities, and act without
thinking.
The tendency to be physically or verbally hostile in a manner that is threatening to
others.
The tendency for children ages 6-21 years old to engage in rule-breaking behaviors.
The tendency to be nervous, fearful, or worried about real or imagined problems.
Excessive feelings of unhappiness, sadness, or stress.
The tendency to be overly sensitive or to complain about relatively minor physical
problems or discomfort.
The tendency to behave in ways that are considered odd or immature.
The tendency to avoid social contact with others.
Learning Problems
Attention Problems
Students, ages 6-21 years old, struggling with learning and performing poorly in
academic tasks.
The tendency to be easily districted and unable to concentrate.
Maladaptive Broadband Behavior Scales
Externalizing Behaviors
Internalizing Problems
Behavior Symptom Index
School Problems
Includes Hyperactivity, Aggression, and Conduct Problems narrowband scales.
Includes Anxiety, Depression, and Somatization narrowband scales.
Includes Atypicality and Withdrawal narrowband scales.
Includes Attention Problems, and Learning Problems narrowband scales.
Appendix E
Three Day Rotation Plan (Meders, 2000)
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Morning
Afternoon
Morning
Afternoon
Morning
Afternoon
'PACE'*, Owl, Thinking Caps, Double Doodles
'PACE'*, Belly Breathing, S'PACE' Buttons, Calf Pump, Energizer
'PACE'*, Earth Buttons, Elephant, Footflex
'PACE'*, Lazy 8, Rocker, Arm Activation, Energy Yawn
'PACE'*, Grounder, Balance Buttons, Alphabet 8
'PACE'*, Cross Crawl Sit-ups, Gravity Glider, Neck Rolls, Positive Points
'PACE'*
p
A
C
E
Drink Water.
Brain Buttons.
Cross Crawl
Hook-ups
Appendix F
IRB Application
APPLICATION FOR THE REVIEW OF RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS
This form should be completed by NCU Learners, Mentors, and Staff planning to conduct dissertation or other research involving human subjects. This includes any research in which data from human subjects will be or have been collected. Thus, researchers using secondary data (e.g., survey archives or archived records) must complete this application. Your proposed research may not proceed unless approved by the IRB.
Submission Instructions: E-mail an electomic copy of the completed IRB Application, proposal, and attachments to [email protected] in the following format:
1. IRB Application should be saved as: Last name of Principal lnvestigator)_IRB_year. Example = Hemandez_IRB_2007. Note: For dissertation research, the Learner is the Principal Investigator.
2. Email subject heading: IRB Application LastName. 3. Attachments: Include all attachments. 4. You may submit these materials via postal or an express mail service. Please use the e-mail instructions
to notify the IRB that the application has been mailed. Submit the original and 2 copies.. 5. DO NOT SUBMIT IN PDF FORMAT OR AS ZIPPED FILES.
Allow at least two weeks and as long as five weeks for the IRB to review your application. Because you may be asked to submit a revised application, submit your materials well In advance of the time that you plan to begin your research. Before research starts the PI must take the Ethics Tutorials and submit certification.
SECTION I: Type of Research (Refer to Attached Description) CUCK ON CHECK BOX
• Category 1: Exempt £<] Category 2: Expedited Review Q Category 3: Full Review
SECTION II: 1. Name of Principal Investigator: Sherri Nussbaum
Phone: I Email: (903)241-2947 I [email protected]
2. Responsible Supervising Faculty Mentor: Amy Peterson
Phone: (361) 949-7909
E-mail: [email protected]
3. Program / Major: Exceptional Student Education 5. Contact at Sponsoring Organization: N/A
4. Sponsoring Organization (if applicable: N/A
7. Title of Project (i.e., Dissertation Title or Title Provided to Subjects) Effects o f Brain Gym Interventions on Students' Academic Performance and Behavior
Project Start Date: October 2008
Planned End: March 2009
8. Principle Investigator is (CUCK ON CHECK BOX): ^Graduate Learner • Faculty/Staff • Undergraduate
9. This application is for (PLEASE SELECT FROM LIST BY CLICKING ON TEXT): New Project
10. Age Range of Subjects: 9-13 years old (Fifth and Sixth Grade Students)
11. Estimated # of Subjects/Participants: 320 Students
12. Type of subject: D Adult • Non-student E Minor • College Student • Other (describe):
13. Subjects: [ 3 Normal Volunteers • In-patients • Out-patients Q Pregnant women & fetuses • Prisoners Q Mental disability • DSM diagnosis:
APPLICATION FOR THE REVIEW OF RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS
SECTION III:
DIRECTIONS: Please check the appropriate response for questions 14 to 17. Please be brief and concise In your responses to each of these questions. Failure to respond to any questions will cause significant delays. 14. DYes HNo Will subjects receive payment or extra credit point compensation for participation? If yes,
detail amount, form, and conditions of award. Explanation: N/A
15. HYes DNo Will access to subjects be gained through cooperating institution? If yes, indicate cooperating institution and attach copy of approval letter from that institution, (e.g. Copy of institution's IRB approval, copy of approval letter from school board, etc.)
Explanation: The participating school district administrators agreed to participate in the study and signed consent form on Oct 6,2008 The participating school district's board has verbally agreed to participate in the study and the president of the board will sign the consent form at the upcoming board meeting on October 30,2008.
(see attached participating school districts administrators and board consent forms)
16. DYes ElNo Does this project involve investigator(s) at another institution? If yes, identify investigator(s) and institution and attach copy of agreement to cooperate.
Explanation: N/A
17. DYes ElNo Wilt the subjects be deceived, misled, or have information about the project withheld? If so, identify the information involved, justify the deception, and describe the debriefing plan if there is one.
Explanation: N/A
DIRECTIONS: In a total of no more than four pages, please answer the questions 18-23. Please be brief and concise in your responses to each of these questions. Failure to respond to any questions will cause significant delays.
Research Protocol Description (Please attach surveys and instruments to the IRB Application - separate tiles are acceptable):
| 18. Describe the objectives and significance of the proposed research below.
Brain Gym is a movement-based program designed to promote whole-brain integration in the learning process. The purpose of the proposed study is to examine the efficacy of Brain Gym, and explore practical ways of combining Brain Gym interventions with the realities of today's school environment.
There are several current educational concerns related to utilizing Brain Gym in the public school setting as a school-based intervention.
1) According to NCLB accountability measures, states are required to administer high-stakes tests, to students in 3rd through 8th grades and once in high school, in reading and mathematics. These high-stakes tests carry heavy penalties for students and educators. As a result, educators are turning to research to find instructional strategies to improve student performance. Student performance is affected by both academic skills and classroom behaviors. In order to address these needs, the proposed study will examine the effects of Brain Gym on students' academic performance as well as school behaviors.
According to NCLB and IDEA 2004 educators are now required to use research-based interventions. Since research related to Brain Gym is limited and does not appear to meet IDEA 2004 Response to
1) Intervention (Rtl) standards, utilization of Brain Gym in the Rtl process may be questionable. Therefore, an experimental research design is proposed in order to meet these federal mandates. Furthermore the proposed study will examine the efficacy of Brain Gym as a primary-tier intervention within the Rtl process. Primary-tier interventions are designed to effectively meet the needs of approximately 80% of struggling students. Therefore, if the results of the proposed study indicate that Brain Gym has a positive effect on student performance, then the program may have the potential for making significant educational improvements in the lives of many at-risk students.
The findings of this study should help educators make decisions related to utilizing Brain Gym on a large-scales basis. If the findings of the proposed study indicate that Brain Gym has a positive effect on student academic performance and behaviors, then educators may consider utilization of Brain Gym as a primary-tier intervention in the Rtl process. In summary, the proposed study will examine the efficacy of Brain Gym's 26 educational movements and explore practical ways of combining Brain Gym interventions with the realities of today's school environment.
19. Describe methods for selecting subjects and assuring that their participation is voluntary. Attach a copy of the consent form that will be used. If no consent form will be used, explain the procedures used to ensure that participation is voluntary. Note: This information is particularly important in determining that there is no actual or implied coercion to participate. (See attached information on consent forms)
Selection of Participating School District: The sample will include primary grade-level students who attend a school district located in East Texas. The selection of the school district was based upon convenience and awareness of the school district's standing plans to implement Brain Gym district-wide over the course of the next 3 years.
Selection of Participating Classrooms: Participating grade-level classes will be randomly assigned to the experimental or control group (half of the grade-level classes to each group). The sample will include approximately 320 students. Grade-level groups will receive the same curriculum, activities, and interventions. However, only the experimental group will receive the Brain Gym intervention during the study. These steps should help minimize extraneous variables, such as curriculum differences and pre-existing differences between groups, from influencing the research findings. Once the study is complete the students in the control group will receive Brain Gym as an intervention based upon the district's 3-year plan to implement Brain Gym district-wide.
Informed Consent: For the proposed study, the consent process included seeking approval of the school district's officials including the superintendent, curriculum director, campus principal, and campus assistant principal. The district officials were informed of the nature and purpose of the research. They were also informed that their consent may be withdrawn at any time before or during the study (see copy of district's signed consent form). After the district officials agreed and signed the consent form, an information sheet will be provided to the appropriate teachers and parents. Pending 1RB approval, teachers will receive an information letter that explains basic information about the research, ensures educators that their participation is voluntary, inform potential participants that they may withdraw from participating in the study at any time throughout the study, and explain how their privacy will be protected. A parent information sheet will also be provided for students in classrooms involved in the study. The information sheets will allow educators' and parents* concerns to be appropriately addressed prior to beginning the study. Students in participating classrooms will be informed in writing and orally about the study as well, (see attached informed consent form and information letters)
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20. Describe the details of the procedures that relate to the subject's participation below. Attach copies of all questionnaires or test instruments.
Teacher Training for the Control Group: Teachers will be provided with 30-minute training sessions over three weeks. First, the basic four Brain Gym movements will be taught and implemented in the classrooms. Once this is accomplished, the additional Brain Gym movements will be taught and implemented in the classrooms. Teachers will be provided with detailed illustrations of the 26 movements, music that will guide the class through the movements, and contact information for the Brain Gym instructor in the event that additional classroom supports are needed. The proposed Brain Gym intervention will be implemented for approximately 12-18 weeks.
Implementation of Intervention: The Brain Gym intervention will require approximately 6 to 8 minutes twice a day (once in the morning and again in the afternoon) to complete. The lesson plan allows students to participate in all the 26 Brain Gym movements. Program integrity will be ensured by variable rate classroom visits from the Brain Gym instructor and researcher. Furthermore, teachers will be asked to keep a daily log recording classroom Brain Gym activities, in order to verify that the intervention is consistently implemented.
Academic Performance Assessments: It is important to note that no assessments will be administered to students for the purposes of this study. The data used to measure student academic performance will be collected through the school district's standardized assessments that are administered district-wide on a routine basis. These assessments include the TAKS released practice tests, Gates-MacGintie Reading Test 4th edition, and Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Data from the standardized assessments (TAKS, GMRT, IOWA, TPRI...) are recorded into TargetTAKS (the school district's computer database). TargetTAKS has the capability of sorting scores by campus, grade-level, classroom, subgroup, and student. For the purposes of this study, the district will provide the researcher with data sorted by grade-level control and experimental groups. This data may also be broken down into subgroups (ethnic and gender). However, identifying information (student name, student birth date, student ID, and teacher's name) will be omitted on the copies provided to the researcher, (see attached TargetTAKS information sheet).
Behavior Rating Assessments: Behavior rating scales (Behavior Assessment Scale for Children, 2nd ed.. Teacher Rating Scale) will be completed by participating teachers. The rating scale takes 15-20 minutes to complete. Participating teachers will be asked to complete rating scales for three to five randomly selected students in their classroom. Protocols will not contain identifying information (student name, birthdates, or teacher name) other than the age of the student (for scoring purpose) and indicate experimental/control group status, (see attached BASC-2, TRSfor children and adolescents forms that will be used in the study)
Data Collected in the Study (see attached samples): Instruments for this study are standardized assessments that are protected by copyrights and state restrictions. Note that copies of the BASC-2, TRS are attached for the purpose of the IRB review only. Information about TargetTAKS, the district's computer data system is also attached. This data system will be used to generate paper copies of student performance on the district's standardized assessments that will be provided to the researcher (no student academic protocols will be provided to the researcher). The district will omit all identifying information from the TargetTAKS reports (teacher name, student name, and birth dates).
21. Describe below the methods that will be used to ensure the confidentiality of all subjects' identities and the stored data (include how data will be handled after research is completed). Confidentiality of data is required.
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School District Privacy and Confidentiality: The name of the participating school district will be omitted from the researcher's dissertation. Only the geographic area where the district is located and student demographic information will be reported in the study.
Student and Teacher Privacy and Confidentiality-Academic Assessments: No additional academic assessments will be administered to students for the purposes of this study. Data from the standardized assessments are recorded into the school district's TargetTAKS computer database. The TargetTAKS has the capability of sorting scores by campus, grade-level, classroom, subgroup, and student. For the purposes of this study the district will provide the researcher with data sorted by grade-level control and experimental groups. This data may also be broken down into subgroups (ethnic and gender). All identifying information (student name, student birth date, and teacher name) will be omitted prior to release to the researcher. The data will be provided to the researcher in print rather than computer transmittal, to avoid the transfer of sensitive data through media susceptible to viewing by unauthorized individuals. The researcher will store the data in a safe and the papers will be returned to the school district for destruction once they are no longer needed for the proposed study.
Student and Teacher Privacy and Confidentiality: Student School Behaviors: Teachers will be asked to complete rating scales for three to five randomly selected students in their classroom. Protocols will not contain identifying information (student name, birthdates, or teacher name) other than the age of the student (required for scoring purposes) and indicate experimental/control group status.
Researcher s Information Stored in Computer Files: Throughout the dissertation process the research will record all dissertation drafts and on a Lexar encrypted memory stick. The Lexar encrypted memory stick meets HIPPA standards for data storage. The final dissertation paper will be submitted to Nothcentral University for fulfillment of the doctorate studies.
22. Describe below the risks to the subjects and precautions that will be taken to minimize the risks to the subjects. Risk goes beyond physical risk and includes risks to the subject's dignity and self-respect, as well as psychological, emotional, employment, legal, and/or behavioral risk. (Note: There is always minimal risk (s) associated with a project.)
Risks for Teachers: When research occurs in a work setting protecting employee's privacy is important in order to prevent any feelings of work related coercion. Teachers in selected grade levels will be randomly selected as potential control or experimental group participants. Teacher's election to participate or decline from participating in the study will not be communicated to other employees or administrators in the school district, in order to prevent any feelings of cohesion. It is important to note that several teachers in the district will be implementing Brain Gym as part of the district's 3-year plan to implement the program district-wide. Therefore, co-workers not be able to identify teacher participants based upon classroom activities involving Brain Gym.
Risks for Students: Concerns related to protecting student identity will be minimized by omitting identifying information on data provided to the researcher (student name, birth date, student LD#). Potential benefits from the Brain Gym intervention will be delayed for the students in the control group. However, once the study is complete the students in the control group will receive Brain Gym as an intervention based upon the district's 3-year plan to implement Brain Gym district-wide.
23. Describe below the benefits of the project to science and/or society. Also describe benefits to the subject, if | any exist. The IRB must have sufficient information to make a determination that the benefits outweigh the risks [ of the project. !
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Possible benefits for student and teacher participants: According to the Brain Gym Institute, Brain Gym activities promote integrated whole-brain learning that enhances learning, memory, and emotional/behavior regulation. Brain Gym programs have been implemented in many school districts in this nation, as well as internationally. If Brain Gym Institute's claims are accurate then students participating in this study may experience gains in academic performance and school behaviors. If the intervention is effective, classroom teachers participating in the study will also benefit from improvements in class-wide student performance.
Possible long-term benefits for educators and student: The existing body of research regarding Brain Gym does not appear to meet stringent criteria set forth by NCLB and IDEA 2004. According to NCLB and IDEA 2004, educators are required to utilize research based interventions to meet the needs of struggling students. This process is referred to as Response to Intervention. (RtT). The proposed study will utilize an experimental research design in order to meet these research based criteria. The study will evaluate the efficacy of Brain Gym as a primary-tier intervention in the Rtl process. According to the Rtl model, primary-tier interventions should effectively meet the needs of approximately 80% of struggling/at-risk students. If the results of the proposed study indicate that Brain Gym has a positive effect on student performance, then the program may have the potential for making significant educational improvements in the lives of many struggling/at-risk students.
(See attached teacher, parent, and student consent forms and information letters)
APPLICATION FOR THE REVIEW OF RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS
SECTION IV- INVESTIGATOR ASSURANCES
This protocol review form has been completed and typed. I am familiar with the ethical and legal guidelines and regulations (i.e. The Belmont Report, The Code of Federal Regulations Title 45 Part 46, and NCU Policy) and wilt adhere to them. Should material changes in procedure involving human subjects become advisable, I will submit them to the IRB for review prior to initiating the change. I understand that I am to notify the IRB when the project is completed. Furthermore, if any problems involving human subjects occur, I will immediately notify the IRB. I understand that IRB review must be conducted annually and that continuation of the project beyond one year requires resubmission and review.
Sherri Nussbaum 10/5/08 Amy Peterson / Principal Investigator Date Supervising Faculty Mentor /Date
End of Application
Appendix G
Informed Consent for School District
Informed Consent Form
Effects of Brain Gym on Academic Performance and Behavior
Purpose. The school district and teachers employed by the district have an opportunity to participate in research being conducted for a dissertation at Northcentral University in Prescott Valley, Arizona. The purpose of this study is to examine the academic and behavioral benefits of Brain Gym as a school based intervention. Brain Gym is a movement based intervention that promotes whole-brain integration in order to enhance learning and memory. Brain Gym is used in more than 90 countries and is taught in many public and private schools. Brain Gym was developed by Dr. Paul Dennison and his wife Gail. Dr. Dennison is the founder of the field known as Educational Kinesiology and the Brain Gym Institute. Information about Brain Gym may be found on the web at www.BrainGvm.com.
Participation requirements. Teachers participating in the study will be asked to implement Brain Gym in their classrooms for 12 to 18 weeks. The program includes pre-learning movement-based activities that are implemented once in the morning and again in the afternoon. The pre-learning activities require approximately 5 to 7 minutes to complete. Teachers will also be asked to complete a standardized behavior rating assessment, for 3 to 5 randomly selected students in their classrooms, prior to implementing the study and immediately following the study. The behavior rating scale takes approximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete. Teachers who elect to participate in the study will be provided training prior to implementing the program in the classroom and given on campus supports throughout the course of the study.
Potential Risk /Discomfort. Although there are no known risks in this study, there are time requirements associated with completing the behavior rating scales that may pose added burdens upon the participating teachers. Teachers may withdraw from the study at any time or choose not to complete the behavior rating scales.
Potential Benefit. Potential benefits of participating in this research includes: academic and behavioral benefits for students in participating classrooms. However, no incentives are offered. The results will have scientific interest that may eventually have benefits for meeting NCLB and IDEA 2004 response to
intervention research based criteria, help educators in decision making process related to Brain Gym, and improve students' performance.
Anonymity/Confidentiality. The data collected in this study are confidential. All data are coded such that teacher's name, student's name, students ID, and student's birth date are not associated with them. In addition, the coded data are made available only to the researcher associated with this project.
in
Right to Withdraw. The school district has the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Furthermore, teachers may decline from participating i the study at any time. Participating teachers' completion of the student behavior rating scales is on a voluntary basis.
We would be happy to answer any question that may arise about the study. Please direct your questions or comments to: Sherri Nussbaum 903-241-2947 [email protected]
Signatures
I have read the above description of the, Effects of Brain Gym Interventions on Students' Academic Performance and Behavior, study and understand the conditions of my participation. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in the experiment.
Participating School District's Superintendent
icipating School District's Curriculum Director
Participating Campus Principal
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Sherri Nussbaum, Researcher NCU Doctorate Candidate
Appendix H
Informed Consent for Teachers
Effects of 'Brain Gym' on Academic Performance and Behavior
Purpose. The school district and teachers employed by the district have an opportunity to participate in research being conducted for a dissertation at Northcentral University in Prescott Valley, Arizona. The purpose of this study is to examine the academic and behavioral benefits of 'Brain Gym' as a school based intervention. 'Brain Gym' is a movement based intervention that promotes whole-brain integration in order to enhance learning and memory. 'Brain Gym' is used in more than 90 countries and is taught in many public and private schools. 'Brain Gym' was developed by Dr. Paul Dennison and his wife Gail. Dr. Dennison is the founder of the field known as Educational Kinesiology and the Brain Gym Institute. Information about 'Brain Gym' may be found on the web at www.BrainGym.com.
Participation requirements. Teachers participating in the study will be asked to implement 'Brain Gym' in their classrooms for 12 to 18 weeks. The program includes pre-learning movement-based activities that are implemented once in the morning and again in the afternoon. The pre-learning activities require approximately 5 to 7 minutes to complete. Teachers will also be asked to complete a standardized behavior rating assessment, for 3 to 5 randomly selected students in their classrooms, prior to implementing the study and immediately following the study. The behavior rating scale takes approximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete. Teachers who elect to participate in the study will be provided training prior to implementing the program in the classroom and given on campus supports throughout the course of the study.
Potential Risk / Discomfort. Although there are no known risks in this study, there are time requirements associated with completing the behavior rating scales that may pose added burdens upon the participating teachers. Teachers may withdraw from the study at any time or choose not to complete the behavior rating scales.
Potential Benefit. Potential benefits of participating in this research includes: academic and behavioral benefits for students in participating classrooms. However, no incentives are offered. The results will have scientific interest that may eventually have benefits for meeting NCLB and IDEA 2004 response to intervention research based criteria, help educators in decision making process related to 'Brain Gym', and improve students' performance.
Anonymity / Confidentiality. The data collected in this study are confidential. All data are coded such that teacher's name, student's name, student's ID, and student's birth date are not associated with them. In addition, the coded data are made available only to the researcher associated with this project.
153
Right to Withdraw. The school district has the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Furthermore, teachers may decline from participating in the study at any time. Participating teachers' completion of the student behavior rating scales is on a voluntary basis.
We would be happy to answer any question that may arise about the studj your questions or comments to: Sherri Nussbaum |
Please direct
Signatures
I have read the above description of the study, Effects of 'Brain Gym' Interventions on Students' Academic Performance and Behavior, and understand the conditions of my participation. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in the experiment.
Teacher's Signature:
Researcher's Signature:
Sherri Nussbaum, NCU Doctorate Candidate
nussbaumsw
Appendix I
Information Letter for Parents
Dear Parent,
Our class has been selected to participate in a 12 to 18 week study exploring the effects of'Brain Gym' on student academic performance and school behavior. The 'Brain Gym' activities will be done in the classroom twice a day (once in the morning and again in the afternoon) for 6 to 8 minutes. No personally identifiable information about your child will be included in the study.
'Brain Gym' includes 26 activities that help student improve their concentration, memory, reading, writing, organizing, listening, and physical coordination. 'Brain Gym' was developed by Dr. Paul Dennison and his wife Gail, who did extensive research in the areas of education, brain function, physical movement, optometry, and sensory integration. Dr. Dennison discovered that many students "switch off parts of their brains necessary for complete learning. Often the two brain hemispheres fail to work together and students have trouble focusing and remembering. The solution to this problem is doing movement that gets the two hemispheres communicating with each other.
'Brain Gym' is currently being used in over ninety countries and has been translated into more than fifty languages. You may find out more about 'Brain Gym' on their website at www.braingym.org. If you have any questions or concerns about your child participating in the study please contact me or Sherri Nussbaum.
Thank you,
Your Child's Homeroom Teacher:
'Brain Gym' Contact/Researcher: Sherri Nussbaum
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Appendix J
Information Letter for Students
Dear Student,
Your class has been selected to participate in an experiment to learn about the effects of 'Brain Gym' on students your age. Over the next few weeks your teacher will start to teach you a few movements that you will do with you class first thing in the morning and once after lunch in your classroom. The movements are easy to do. Other students your age in 90 different countries around to world also use 'Brain Gym' in their schools. The activities are designed to help students improve their concentration, memory, reading, writing, organizing, listening, and physical coordination. The experiment will last about 3 to 4 months. Once the study is over you will be told if 'Brain Gym' actually helped students at you school! Your parents will get a letter telling them about 'Brain Gym'. If you have any questions about 'Brain Gym' you should talk to your teacher and parents so they can help you find the answers.
Thank you for participating in the experiment.