Social ProblemsChapter 1

John Bradford, Ph.D.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND CULTURE

What is a ‘social problem?’

• There are two sides to every social problem:1. Objective element- the facts as

they ‘really are’2. Subjective element- how people

perceive things to be.• A social problem is “a social

condition that a segment of society views as harmful to members of society and in need of remedy” (p. 3)

What is a society?

• Your book asks you to visualize society as consisting of two parts:

1. SOCIAL STRUCTURE, and2. CULTURE

I. Social Structure

• Social structure refers to the way society is organized. The structure of a society includes: institutions, social groups, statuses and roles.

Social Structure

Institutions

Social Groups

Statuses Roles

I. Social Structure

• Institutions = An institution is an established and enduring pattern of social relationships (p. 4)

• Social Group = two or more people having a common identity.

• Status = is a position in a social structure.• Role = how we (generally) expect members of a

status to behave.– Statuses and Roles exist independently of their

‘incumbents’ or ‘occupants’

I. Social Structure

• A social status is a ‘position that a person occupies in a social structure’ – You can think of these are different ways of categorizing

people in different situations. – Examples: Family statuses, occupational statuses , social

class statuses, demographic statuses, etc.1. Achieved statuses – positions that are achieved by the

individuals for themselves (but not always on purpose); these statuses can change.

2. Ascribed statuses – statuses given to individuals generally at birth, and from which they cannot escape; these statuses are fixed.

I. Social Structure

• A role is the ‘sum total of expectations about behavior attached to a particular social status’; how we expect occupants of a social status to behave. – ‘Occupants of a social status are expected to perform

certain roles’– Role = the common denominator among all occupants of

a status; (i.e. removing all idiosyncracies, what they all have in common)

– Example: I have the status of ‘teacher’; My role is to teach.

II. Culture

• Culture = the meanings and ways of life characteristic of that society (p. 5)

• Elements of culture include: beliefs, values, norms, and symbols.

Norms and Sanctions

Norms- rules about behavior.Types of Norms:i. Folkways: Casual norms; violations are not taken very

seriously. (e.g. eating pizza for breakfast)ii. Mores: important rules (e.g. norms against unjustified

assaults)iii. Taboos: norms that are so deeply held that even the

thought of violating upsets people. (e.g. eating human flesh; incest)

• (Note: the textbook lists ‘law’ and not ‘taboo’; according this schema, laws are one type of more.)

Norms and Sanctions

• Norms are enforced by sanctions.– Positive sanctions = rewards.– Negative sanctions = punishments– Formal sanctions = official responses from specific

organizations within society– Informal sanctions = unofficial responses from individuals

within the group

Positive NegativeFormal 1 2

Informal 3 4

Types of sanctions:

Values and Beliefs

Values – general or abstract ideas about what is good and desirable, as opposed to what is bad and undesirable, in a society. – Sometimes values can come into conflict– Examples of values: work ethic; equality,

freedom, democracy, etc.

Ideas/Beliefs – a belief refers to a person’s ideas about what is real and what is not real.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

I. Functionalist Theory

1. Consensus about values and norms makes society possible

2. Society is a whole made of integrated parts that work (i.e. function) together. – A change to one part of society will affect

all others.– All parts are interdependent.– Society is ‘more than the sum of its parts.’

3. Society seeks stability and tends to avoid conflict

Functions and Dysfunctions

• Prefixes: ‘Dys’ vs ‘Dis’– Dys- Greek prefix meaning ‘defective’, ‘difficult’, or

‘painful.’ – Dis- Latin prefix meaning ‘apart’, ‘asunder’, or

‘deprived of.’• Functional – positive; something works• Dysfunctional- negative consequences;

something that doesn’t work.

Latent and Manifest Functions

• Manifest function = intended and/or conscious consequences of actions.– The reasons people give for why they do things.

• Latent function = unintended and/or unconscious consequences of actions.– The ‘real reasons’ or purposes that people’s

actions may have, as seen by outside observers (sociologists)

Latent and Manifest Functions

1. Rain Dance Ceremony– Manifest function: • ‘We dance to bring rain’

– Latent function:• The ceremony is ‘really’ a way of

building social solidarity through ritual participation

Rain Dance

Latent and Manifest Functions

2. University Education– Manifest function: • Higher Learning, Education

– Latent function:• Keep young adults out of the job

market• Conduct research that supports

the ‘Military-Industrial-Complex’ (Eisenhower)

• …?

University

II. Conflict Theory

1. In every society, there are disagreements and differences (i.e. lack of consensus) about values and norms

2. Society is made up of subgroups (aka ‘classes’) that are in ruthless competition for scarce resources

3. Society is not harmonious: conflict is normal in a society.– The conflict can be latent (i.e. conflict of interests) or manifest

(i.e. real conflict such as violence).

III. Symbolic Interactionism

• Focuses on how people interpret and ascribe meaning to other peoples behavior and the larger world.

• Emphasizes people’s perceptions of reality.

• Micro-sociology: Focuses on small encounters

What is Social REALITY?

• Thomas theorem: "If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences“

• To understand human inter-actions and relations, sociologists have to understand both reality, and perceived reality.

W. I. Thomas1863 - 1947

Which theory is correct?

• Society is like this cube: we can see it from multiple perspectives!

• The paradigms are just lenses through which we view society.

HOW TO DO SCIENCE

Three Simple Steps to Social Science(easier said than done)

STEP 1: Select some concepts of interest (variables)

STEP 2: Posit (suggest) some relationship between these concepts (Hypothesis)

STEP 3: Test these suggestions empirically to see if they are right.

Variables:Independent (X) vs Dependent (Y)

• Independent variable (X) = the “cause.” Variable that influences.

• Dependent variable (Y) = the “effect.” Variable that is influenced by the cause; it is dependent on the cause.

• INCA: the INdependent variable is the CAuse.

Research Methods

• All research begins with a ‘Literature Review’! – A ‘lit review’ is a review of the existing literature

on the topic

Types of Research1. Experiment2. Surveys3. Field Research (aka observation)

I. Experiment

• An experiment involves manipulating the independent variable (X) and observing the effect on the dependent variable (Y)

• Experiments are the only means by which we can explore causal relationships; only way we can know for sure if changes to X cause changes in Y.

• Experimenter needs two groups of Y:1. Experimental group- receives ‘treatment’ of

independent variable (X)2. Control group- does not receive treatment; is left

alone.

I. Experiment

• Imagine a scientist testing the effect that some drug, X, has on growth of rats, Y.

• To see how the drug effects rat growth, the experimenter will compare growth in two groups of rats: Y₁ , the group of rats that gets the drug (X) and a group of rates Y₂ that will not.

• Y₁ is the experimental group, and Y₂ is the control group.

II. Survey

• Survey: a series of questions asked of a number of people

1. Interview2. Self-administered

questionnaire

– Surveys are especially good for discovering basic ‘demographic information’- age, gender, income, education, etc.