boyd ppt ch2_f
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Chapter 2:
Theories of Development
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In this chapter
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An Overview
Major families of theoretical perspectives Psychoanalytic Learning Cognitive
Other theoretical trends Biological Ecological
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Psychoanalytic Theories Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual theory: Internal drives and emotions influence behavior.
Patient memories used as primary source material
Three personality types: id, ego, superego
Sexual feelings are part of personality development.
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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
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Psychosocial TheoryErik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Psychosocial theory: Development influenced by common cultural demands and internal drives
Each psychosocial stage requires solution of a crisis.
Healthy development requires a favorable ratio of positive to negative experiences.
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Psychosocial TheoryErik Erikson (Neo-Freudian)
Stages First four stages form adult personality
foundation Childhood-adulthood transition influential
Ages Adult stages not strongly tied to age
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
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Learning TheoriesClassical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning: Learning process that occurs through associations between environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus
Reflex: Stimulus–response connection
Learned: Conditioned stimulus elicits conditioned response.
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Learning TheoriesOperant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner
Operant conditioning: Deals with modification of voluntary behavior
Behaviors dependent on reinforcement• Positive reinforcement• Negative reinforcement
Punishment Extinction
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Learning TheoriesHints for Parents and Caregivers
Positive and negative reinforcement interact in complex ways in real life.
The best chance for behavioral change exists when an appropriate consequence administered first after the behavior occurs.
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Learning TheoriesSocial Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura
Observational learning or modeling: Learning results from seeing a model reinforced or punished for behavior.
Dependent on four factors: Attention Memory Physical capabilities Motivation
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Learning TheoriesSocial Cognitive Theory: Self-Efficacy
Perceived self-efficacy: People's beliefs about their capabilities to produce effects
Learning Influenced by perceived similarity to
model Not limited to overt behavior Comes also from ideas, expectations,
internal standards, and self-concepts
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Cognitive TheoriesJean Piaget
Piaget’s cognitive theory: Development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations. Scheme Assimilation Accommodation Equilibration
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Cognitive TheoriesJean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages
Evolution of Logical Thinking
The rate of development differs for individual children.
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Cognitive TheoriesVygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Socio-cultural theory: Complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions, not private explorations.
Children learn new cognitive skills guided by a more skilled partner. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Scaffolding
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Cognitive TheoriesImportance of Assisted Discovery
Assisted discovery: Child integrates results of independent discoveries with new knowledge taught in systematic and structured way.
What are the educational applications of this kind of learning?
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Cognitive TheoriesImportance of Assisted Discovery
Educational Applications Supports active exploration opportunities
Discovery of what knowledge, skills, and understandings have not yet surfaced for learner but are on edge of emergence
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Cognitive TheoriesInformation-Processing Theory
Information-processing theory: Computer used as model to explain how mind manages information
Three-stage theory of memory Sensory memory Short-term or working memory Long-term memory
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Figure 2.2 The Information-Processing System
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Cognitive TheoriesNeo-Piagetian Theories
Piagetian information-processing hybrid Uses IP to explain Piaget’s stages Expands (not contradicts) Piaget’s theory Agrees that children's thinking reflects
developing internal mental structures Draws on linguistic theories about content
domain specificity of cognition
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Give an example each of a positive reinforcement and a punishment in your work or academic life.
Looking at ecological systems theory, describe your personal exosystem, macrosystem, and microsystem influences.
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
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Biological TheoriesBehavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics: Examines genetic underpinnings of behavioral phenotypes
Can you think of questions that might be addressed using this theoretical
perspective?
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Did you list twin studies in your response?
Look at these findings from several studies of Dutch twins. What does this tell you about the influence of heredity and age?
Figure 2.3 IQs of Fraternal and Identical Twins
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Other Biological TheoriesEthology and Sociobiology
Ethology: Examines genetically determined mechanisms that promote survival through natural selection Imprinting
Sociobiology: Application of evolutionary theory to social behavior “Genetic selfishness”
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Bioecological TheoryUrie Bronfenbrenner
Bioecological theory: Explains development in terms of relationships between people and their environments
Contexts Macrosystem Exosystem Microsystem Mesosystem Biological context
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Place yourself in the center of the model.
Figure 2.4 Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts of Development
Who
or w
hat w
ould
you p
lace i
n eac
h
ring?
What prompted your
choices?
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Why asking which theory is RIGHT may be wrong!
Instead of right/wrong, try useful/not useful. Evaluation of usefulness of each theory
• Generate predictions that can be tested.• Heuristic value• Practical value• Explanation of basic developmental facts
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Multiple Theoretical Approaches Eclecticism
Interdisciplinary; builds on ideas from multiple sources
Avoids rigid adherence to single theory
Contributes to development of more comprehensive theories