T H E M E :

CONNECTING RESEARCH TO SOCIETY

FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

EKSU3rd3INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

& RESEARCH FAIR, 2016

Book of Proceedings

EKITI STATE UNIVERSITYADO-EKITI

OFFICE OF RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

(Science-Based Disciplines)

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3rd EKSU International

Conference & Research Fair 2016

T H E M E :

CONNECTING RESEARCH TO SOCIETY FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

19th 21st September, 2016

OFFICIAL BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS

(Science-Based Disciplines)

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Office of Research & Development,

Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti

ISSN: 24890456

Designed and Printed by: EKSU Printing Press, 09077612637

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Table of Content

ANTIBIOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND MOLECULAR STUDY OF NON-TYPHOIDAL SALMONELLA ISOLATED FROM POULTRY LOCATIONS AND PRODUCTS IN ADO-EKITI Adekemi Olubukunola Oluyege and Michael Olabisi Babatunde 1

ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF SOME FISH SPECIES IN ADO-EKITI MARKET Adewumi, A. A., Ogunlade, I. and Olaojo D. T. 8

APPRAISAL OF THE DISSEMINATION AND ADOPTION PATHWAY OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH RESULTS AND TECHNOLOGY AMONG STAKEHOLDERS IN EKITI AND ONDO STATES, NIGERIA Grace M. Adebo, Adetutu O. Awoyemi and A.O. Adedapo 16

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES AND IN VITRO PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY OF THE PEELS OF RIPE AND UNRIPE BANANA AND PLANTAIN Ayo Olowoyeye, Toyin Aletor, GbengaFamiloni, James Aina, Ebenezer Fabulous-Fabowale and Yemisi Omosebi 25

DEVELOPMENT OF A PROTOTYPE INCUBATOR FOR POULTRY EGGS Bayode Julius Olorunfemi, Samuel B. Adejuyigbe, Adefemi Adeyemi Adekunle, and A. P. Osasona 32

EFFECT OF ORGANIC MANURE ON THE GROWTH PERFORMANCE AND YEILD OF TWO VARIETIES OF CAPSICUM ANNUUM L Modupe Janet Ayeni and Olufemi Jeremiah Olufarati 40

ELEMENTAL AND RADIOACTIVITY LEVELS IN SOILS AROUND TRANSFORMERS IN AKUNGBA-AKOKO, NIGERIA Opeyemi. H. Olowomofe and M. O. Afolabi 52

ETHNOBOTANICAL IMPORTANCE, PHYTOCHEMICAL AND PROXIMATE ANALYSES OF PENTACLETHRA MACROPHYLLA, (BENTH.) IBUSA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, DELTA STATE. Mary Kehinde Olanipekun and Henry Onoche 57

EVALUATION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS AND ANTIOXIDANT LEVEL OF STROKE PATIENTS IN OSUN STATE, SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA Akinlua I. and Ojo O. C. 71

GEOCHEMICAL AND PETROGRAPHIC CHARACTERISATION OF UPPER CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTS FROM GONGILA AND FIKA FORMATIONS IN THE CHAD (BORNU) BASIN, NORTHEASTERN NIGERIA

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Adebanji Kayode Adegoke, Olajide Femi Adebayo Matthew, Ademola Adeniran and Adeyinka Oluyemi Aturamu 77

IMMUNOGLOBULINS AND LIPID PROFILE OF CHILDREN WITH SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA IN EKITI STATE, NIGERIA Ajibade Oluwagbenga Oyeyemi and Olufisayo Grace Oyebanji 90

IN VITRO EFFECT OF LEMON JUICE-OGI STEEP LIQUOR MIXTURES ON SOME PATHOGENIC MICROORGANISMS Ajayeoba, T. A., Atanda, O. O., Ajibade, O. A and Fawole, A. E. 97

PHYTOCHEMICAL AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES OF SANDBOX (HURA CREPITANS) SEED AQUEOUS EXTRACT Folake Lucy Oyetayo, Olatunde Abas, Oseni, O.A. and Ebenezer Temitayo Adeeko 102

THE CHEMICAL AND ANTI-NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF ALLANBLACKIA FLORIBUNDA OLIV FRUIT Olanipekun A. D., Faleye F. J. and Ogunlade I. 110

INDUCTION OF APOPTOSIS AND ALTERATION OF STEROIDOGENIC REGULATORY ENZYMES BY BLEOMYCIN COMPOUND Olajumoke Omolara Ojo, Damilola Fayokemi Akinyeye, Oluwatosin Esther Ojotu 114

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ANTIBIOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND MOLECULAR STUDY OF NON-TYPHOIDAL SALMONELLA ISOLATED FROM POULTRY LOCATIONS

AND PRODUCTS IN ADO-EKITI

Adekemi Olubukunola Oluyege1* and Michael Olabisi Babatunde

Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence, antibiotic resistance profile and molecular characteristics of non-typhoidal Salmonella from various poultry locations and poultry products in Ado Ekiti using serotyping, plasmid profiling and pulse field gel electrophoresis. The bacterial strains were isolated and identified using standard methods. The identities of isolates were further confirmed using commercial serological kits. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out using the Kirby Bauer disc diffusion method. Detection of Plasmid DNA was determined using alkaline lysis method. Genetic relatedness of the isolates was determined using Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis method after digesting with Xbal rerstriction enzyme (5TCTAGA-3). A total of four hundred and nineteen samples were collected from different poultry farms. The samples examined include feaecal samples (n= 325 (77.6%), chicken meat n= 30 (7.2%), eggs n= 30 (7.2%), feed samples n= 24 (5.7%) and water from the pouts n= 10 (2.4%). Only 55 (13.1%) of the isolates were identified as non-typhoidal salmonella isolates [Salmonella typhimurium (96.2%) and Salmonella enteritidis (3.8%)]. Antibiotic susceptibility test revealed that 51 (92.7%) of the non-typhoidal salmonella (NTS) were resistant to Cefuroxime (a second generation. cehalosporin); while 43 (78.2%) and 31 (56.4%) were resistant to augmentin and ceftazidime respectively. Only 4 (7.3%) were resistant to nitrofurans. The isolates exhibited five different resistotypes with the pattern caz/cxm/aug being common to all categories of products examined. Seventeen (77.3%) of the NTS examined for plasmid were harbored high molecular weight plasmids. The presence of the plasmids in the isolates predicts the resistance against penicillin, nitrofurantoin and second and third generation cephalosporins. Two different PFGE patterns (X1 and X2) were detected with pattern X1 being the most common (77.3%). The dendogram of the isolates revealed five clusters among the isolates. The genetic variation among the NTS isolated from various poultry locations suggests that strains circulating in the environment were not genetically related. Keywords: antibiotic resistance, non- typhoidal salmonella, poultry. Introduction 1 *corresponding author adekemi.oluyege@eksu.edu.ng 08038228463

mailto:Adekemi.oluyege@eksu.edu.ng

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Subsistence poultry farming is commonly practised in most of the households in Nigeria with their wastes disposed indiscriminately into the environment. In livestock production, poultry occupies a prominent position in the provision of animal protein and this accounts for about 25% of local meat production in Nigeria (Agbaje et al., 2010). Poultry meat and other poultry products have been implicated as important sources for outbreaks of human non-typhoidal salmonella infection, with poultry alone, accounting for up to 50 percent of such outbreaks (Bryan and Doyle, 1995; CDC, 1996). Horizontal transmissionoccurs following ingestion of food or water already contaminated with faeces of clinically infected birds or carriers, presence of dead chickens, infected poultry farm attendants and contaminated feeds (Habtamu et al., 2011).There had been great concern about antimicrobial resistance in non-typhoidal salmonella infections, which has led to failure of treatment for non-typhoidal salmonella in humans. Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis subtyping has been successfully applied to the subtyping of non-typhoidal salmonella to establish the degree of genetic relatedness among them.This study aims at determining the prevalence, serotypes, antibiotic susceptibility and genetic relatedness of non-typhoidal salmonella strains isolated from various poultry locations and poultry products in Ado-Ekiti. Methodology Isolation and identification of Salmonella In this study, a total number of four hundred and nineteen (419) samples were collected for analysis. The various types of samples were inoculated into XLD agar using standard procedures. Identities of isolates were further confirmed by standard biochemical tests and serotyped using specific commercial sera according to the Kauffman-White scheme (Kauffman, 1974). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing All isolates were routinely tested by the single-disk diffusion method on Muller Hinton Agar (Oxoid Basingstoke, UK). Susceptibility testing was by disc diffusion method and interpreted according to CLSI 2010. The antibiotics used and their concentration are as follows:, Augumentin (aug) 30g; Ceftazidime (Caz) 30g; Cefuroxime (Crx) 30g; Ofloxacin (Ofl) 5g; Gentamicin (Gen) 10g; Nitrofurantoin (Nit) 300g; Cefixime (Cxm) 5g and Ciprofloxacin (Cpr) 5g (CLSI 2010). Plasmid Analysis and Curing Plasmids were detected from each of the twenty- two NTS with multiple antibiotic resistances using the method described by Kado and Liu (1981). The molecular weights of the plasmids were determined using gel documentation software by comparing the known molecular weight DNA marker (Lambda) (M/s Biogene, USA). Based on the molecular size, the NTS were scored for the presence or absence of plasmids. Curing of the strains was carried out using sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) as described by

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Mirmomeni et al., (2007). After which they were tested for their antibiotic resistance to previously used antibiotics. Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis The standard CDC laboratory protocol for molecular sub typing of non-typhoidal Salmonella serotypes and the CHEF- DR III pulsed gel electrophoresis system from Bio-Rad as described by Thong et al. (1995) were used in this study. The reference strain used was Salmonella serotype typhimurium (ATCC700720) Findings A total of four hundred and nineteen samples were collected from different poultry farms. The samples examined include feaecal samples (n= 325 (77.6%), chicken meat n= 30 (7.2%), eggs n= 30 (7.2%), feed samples n= 24 (5.7%) and water from the pouts n= 10 (2.4%). Only 55 (13.1%) of the isolates were identified as non-typhoidal salmonella isolates [Salmonella typhimurium (96.2%) and Salmonella enteritidis (3.8%)]. Antibiotic susceptibility test revealed that 51 (92.7%) of the non-typhoidal salmonella (NTS) were resistant to Cefuroxime (a second generation. cehalosporin); while 43 (78.2%) and 31 (56.4%) were resistant to augmentin and ceftazidime respectively. Only 4 (7.3%) were resistant to nitrofurans. The isolates exhibited five different resistotypes with the pattern caz/cxm/aug being common to all categories of products examined. Seventeen (77.3%) of the NTS examined for plasmid were harbored high molecular weight plasmids. The presence of the plasmids in the isolates predicts the resistance against penicillin, nitrofurantoin and second and third generation cephalosporins. Two different PFGE patterns (X1 and X2) were detected with Xbal primer,with pattern X1 being the most common (77.3%) compared to X2. The dendogram of the isolates revealed five clusters among the isolates. Antibiotic Resistance Pattern of Isolates Interestingly, all the strains of NTS isolated in this study were highly resistant to the second and third generation cephalosporin and penicillin (penicillin combination) but were susceptible to Fluoroquinolones, Gentamicin and Nitrofurantoin (Table 1). Specifically, 51 (92.7%) of the NTS were resistant to Cefuroxime, 43 (78.2%) were resistant to each of Augmentin, 31 (56.4%) were resistant to Ceftazidime and there was no resistance to Ofloxacin, Ciprofloxacin and Gentamicin while 4 (7.3%) were resistant against Nitrofurans. All the NTS isolated from eggs (2) and water (1) samples exhibited 100 % average percentage resistance to all the antibiotics. Also NTS from meat and feeds samples exhibited 79.3% and 83.3% average resistance each against the antibiotics while isolates from faecal samples had average percentage resistance of 58% faecal sample (Table 3).

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The highest resistance exhibited by NTS in this study was against Cefuroxime as isolates from 11 different poultry locations exhibited 100% resistance to this antibiotic. There was also 100% resistance to Ceftazidime in 2 different locations and 100% resistance to Cefixime in 5 poultries. Resistance to Augmentin was 100% in 4 different poultry locations. All NTS isolates were susceptible to Ciprofloxacin and Ofloxacin (Fluoroquinolones). Similarly the NTS were susceptible to Gentamicin and to Nitrofurantoin except at 4 locations (D, F, N and M). It was also observed that resistance of isolate from locations A, C, E and Mk were exceptionally high. Overall highest resistance was against Cefuroxime with 92.7%, followed by Augmentin and Cefixime with 78.2% and 69.1% respectively while each of Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin and Gentamicin has overall resistance of 0%. The overall average resistance of the NTS was 60.7% (Table 3). Furthermore, there were five resistotypes in all and these were all from strains isolated from faecal samples. It was also observed that Caz/Crx/Cxm/Aug resistance pattern was common to all the types of sample, with a total of 20 (36.4%) strains showing this resistant pattern. Caz/Crx/Aug/Nit and Caz/Cxm/Aug patterns were observed only in faecal samples with total of 4 (7.7%) and 3 (5.5%) respectively. Nine (16.4%) isolates showed Crx/Cxm/Aug pattern which was observed in faecal, feed and meat samples while 4(7.3%) isolates showed Caz/Crx/Aug pattern that was observed in faecal and feed samples (Table 2). Plasmid Curing The result showed that 17 (77.3%) of the 22 NTS harboured plasmids of high molecular weight between 3000-2500 kb pair conferring resistance to second and third generation cephalosporin, Nitrofuratoin and penicillin combination (amoxilline/clavullanate) while 5 (22.7%) of the isolates did not contain any plasmids. Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis Twenty two different isolates were analyzed in the PFGE protocol. Pulse Field Gel. Two different PFGE patterns (X1, and X2) were detected with Xbal, with pattern X1 being the most common (77.3%) compared to X2. Conclusion Though the prevalence rate of NTS in poultry and poultry products was relatively low, the antibiotic resistance to the second and third generation cephalosporins widely prescribed for treatment of infection was high. The genetic variation among the NTS isolated from various poultry locations suggests that strains circulating in the environment were not genetically related.

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Table 1: Antibiotic resistance of NTS isolated from various poultrysamples inAdo-Ekiti

A B C D E F 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sample CAZ CXM CRX CPR OFL AUG NIT GEN AVERAGE Faecal (n= 40) 22

(55) 25 (72.5)

36 (90)

0 (0)

0 (0) 29 (72.5)

4 (10)

0 (0)

24 (60.0)

Meat (n=6) 2 (33.3)

6 (100)

6 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

5 (83.3)

0 (0)

0 (0)

5 (83.3)

Eggs (n=2) 2 (100)

2 (100)

2 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

2 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

2 (100)

Feeds (n=6) 4 (66.7)

4 (66.7)

6 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

6 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

2.5 (83.3)

Water (n=1) 1 (0)

1 (100)

1 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

1 (100)

0 (0)

0 (0)

1 (100)

Total (n=55)

31 (56.4)

38 (69.1)

51 (92.7)

0 (0)

0 (0)

43 (78.2)

4 (7.3)

0 (0)

33.4 (60.7)

Key: 1- Ceftazidime(caz) 2- Cefixime (cxm), 3- Cefuroxime (crx); 4- Ciprofloxacin (cpr); 5- Ofloxacin (ofl); 6-Augmentin (aug); 7- Gentamicin (gen); 8- Nitroflorantoin (nit); A= 3rd generation cephalosporins; B= 2nd generation cephalosporin; C= fluoroquinolones; D= penicillin combinations; E= nitrofurantoin; E=amino glycoside number in parentheses are percentage values Table 2: Antibiotic resistance pattern of Non Typhoidal Salmonella isolated from poultry sources Source of isolation Resistance pattern Faecal

n=40 Egg n=2

Feed n=6

Water n=1

Meat n=6

Total n=52

caz/cxm/aug 13 (32.5

2 (100)

2 (33.3)

1 (100)

2 (33. 3

20 (36.4)

caz/crx/aug/ nit

4 (10)

- - - - 4 (7.3)

crx/cxm/aug 4 (10)

- 2 (33.3)

- 3 (50)

9 (16.4)

caz/crx/aug 2(5) - 2(33.3) - - 4(7.3) caz/cxm/aug 3

(7.5) - - - - 3

(5.5) Total 26

(65) 2 (100)

6 (100)

1 (100)

5 (83)

40 (72.7)

key: Ceftazidime(caz) Cefixime (cxm), Cefuroxime (crx); Ciprofloxacin (cpr); Ofloxacin (ofl);-Augmentin (aug); Gentamicin (gen); Nitroflorantoin (nit); Number in parentheses are in percentage values

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X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1 X1

R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 11 11

10,000 8,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 750 500 250

Plate 1: PFGE patterns of the NTS isolated from poultry and poultry products in Ado Ekiti (1-11) Pattern X1: Isolates from faecal samples from poultries A, B, C, D, E, F, G, K

10,0008,0006,0005,0004,0003,5003,0002,5002,0001,5001,000

750500250

R 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2

Plate 2: PFGE patterns of the NTS isolated from poultry locations and poultry products in Ado Ekiti(12-22)

Pattern X1: Isolates from faecal samples from poultries L, M, N, G and Eatery Pattern X2: Isolates from faecal samples from poultries M, N, J and Eatery

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References Agbaje, M., Davies. R., Oyekunle, M. A., Ojo, O. E., Fasina, F. O. and Akinduti, P. A.

(2010). Observation on the occurrence and transmission pattern of Salmonella gallinarum in commercial poultry farms in Ogun State, South Western Nigeria. African Journal Microbiol Research. 4(9):796-800.

Bryan, F. L. and Doyle, M. P. (1995). Health risks and consequences of Salmonella and Campylobacter jejuni in Poultry.J of Prot. 8 :326-34

Centre for disease control and prevention. (1996) Salmonella enteritidis infection and shelleggsUnited States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report;39:900-912.

Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2010). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing; Twentieth Informational Supplement. CLSI document M100-S20. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute.

Habtamu, M. T., Rathore, R., Dhama, K.andRajesh, K. A. (2011). Isolation, Identification andPolymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).Detection of Salmonella species from materials of Poultry origin. International Journal of Microbiology Research.;(2):135-142.

Kado, C.I and Liu, S.T. (1981). Rapid detection and isolation of large and small plasmids. Journal of Bacteriology145 (3): 1365- 1373

Kauffmann, F. (1974) Serological diagnosis of Salmonella species, Kauffmann White Scheme, ,Copenhagen,Denmark.

Mirmomeni, H, Hosseinzadeh Colagar, A and Ghazaey, S. (2007). Molecular Study of Salmonella enteritidis in Poultry Samples by PCR, Plasmid Curing, Antibiotic Resistance and Protein Pattern Analysis. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 10: 1562-1570.

Thong,K., Ngeow, Y., Attwegg, M., Navaratriam, P. and Pang, T. (1995) Molecular Analysis of Salmonella enteritidis by Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis and Ribotyping. Journal of Clinical Microbiology.33 (5): 1070 1074.

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ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF SOME FISH SPECIES IN ADO-EKITI MARKET

Adewumi, A. A.1*; Ogunlade, I.2 and Olaojo D. T.3

1Dept. of Zoology, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti 2Dept. of Chemistry, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti

3Dept. Of Science Laboratory Technology, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti zoewumi@gmail.com

Abstract Consumption of fish, as a major protein source, is a common practice, despite the high increasing cost. This study was designed to determine the antioxidant activities of some selected fish species (Scromberscrombrus, Oreochromisniloticus, Clupeapallasii, Gadusmorhua and Trachurustrachurus), commonly consumed in Nigeria, using 2,2, diphenyl-1 picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). The result revealed that the antioxidant activities of S. scrombrus (3.52 0.018), commonly called alaran, was significantly higher (pG. morhua> T. trachurus>Oreochromisniloticus>O.niloticus>C. pallasii. It is hoped that inclusion of these fish species, especially, S. scrombrus, in the diet will go a long way in scavenging the free radicals generated by environmental pollution and essential metabolic reactions in humans. Key words: oxidation, radicals, scavenging, diseases, fish Introduction Antioxidants are compounds capable of delaying, reducing or preventing auto-oxidation processes (Shahidi and Wanasundara, 1992). They block the formation of free radicals, stabilize hydroperoxides and thus slow down oxidation and rancidity development. The main characteristic of an antioxidant is its ability to trap highly reactive free radicals and oxygen species that are present in biological systems from a wide variety of sources. Free radicals are inevitably produced in biological systems and also encountered exogenously. Free radicals are normal component of cellular oxygen metabolism in mammals (Roche et al., 2008). These free radicals may oxidize nucleic acids, proteins, lipids or DNA and can initiate degenerative diseases, like mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, cardiovascular disturbances and ageing (Singh and Singh, 2008). Antioxidant compounds like phenolic acids, polyphenols and flavonoids scavenge free radicals such as peroxide, hydroperoxide or lipid peroxyl. Free radicals may also be formed as nitrogen, carbonyl, chlorine, sulphur and other reactive species. During oxidation electrons or hydrogen are

mailto:zoewumi@gmail.com

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transferred from one molecule to another, the latter serving as an antioxidant. Antioxidants, therefore, can stop the formation of free radicals and the chain reactions, which would otherwise result in cell damage or even death. Yet, the process of oxidation plays a n important role in the bodys defence against infection or in response to tissue damage. Pro-oxidant foods are principally those with excessive metals such as manganese, iron, zinc or copper. Zinc is of greater interest for its pro-oxidant roles, because of its involvement with amino acids, proteins and metallo-enzymes. Likewise, selenium, copper and iron are involved with enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase. Free radicals and reactive oxygen species in general are no longer seen only as destructive factors but also (and perhaps first of all) as messengers involved in intracellular and intercellular signalling (Bartosz, 2005; 2009; Halliwell, 2006). Reactive species can also play roles as cellular secondary messengers and regulators or signalling molecules as with nitric oxide or gaseous sulphur dioxide. Physical activity increases the oxidant load and if regular, progressively increases the bodys ability to respond to such a load. Anti-oxidant capacity is required both extra and intra-cellularly (in cytosol, nucleus and mitochondria) for the homeostasis of oxidant status. Antioxidants are the compounds which combat the free radicals by intervening at any one of the three major steps of the free radical mediated oxidative process, viz., initiation, propagation and termination (Cui et al., 2004). Scientific evidence suggests that antioxidants reduce the risk for chronic diseases including cancer and heart disease. Antioxidants are also widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements in the hope of maintaining health and preventing diseases. Although initial studies suggested that antioxidant supplements might promote health, later large clinical trials did not detect any benefit and suggested instead that excess supplementation may be harmful. Recently, the demand for novel natural antioxidants has increased. This is because of the possible adverse side effects of synthetic antioxidants and beneficial effects of natural antioxidants (Benjakulet al., 2005; Sarkardei and Howel, 2008). Antioxidant compounds in foods play an important role as a health protecting factor. Ascorbic acid (AA) and citric acid (CA) and their salts are widely known for their role as chelators (Boyd et al., 1993; Oktar et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2006) in biological systems and synergists of other antioxidants. There are a number of clinical studies suggesting that the antioxidants in fruits, vegetables, tea and red wine are the main factors for the observed efficacy of these foods in reducing the incidence of chronic diseases including heart disease and some cancers. These antioxidants are also produced by biological system and occur naturally in many foods and the balance between oxidants and antioxidants decides the health and vigor of the organism (Halliwell, 1996). Therefore, the importance of screening naturally occurring alternatives, which are safe, effective as dietary supplements, or as processing aids, and relatively cheap, is increasing

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(Tang et al., 2001). The plant kingdom offers a range of natural phenolic compounds, among which is tocopherol (vitamin E). Vitamin E is best known as one of the most efficient naturally occurring liposoluble antioxidants (Mallet et al., 1994). Some of the major active compounds reported are flavonoids and related compounds in plant extracts such as phenolics in spices and herbs (Rajalakshmi and Narasimhan, 1995). Most of the antioxidant compounds in a typical diet are derived from plant sources and belong to various classes of compounds with a wide variety of physical and chemical properties. Some compounds, such as gallates, have strong antioxidant activity, while others, such as the mono-phenols are weak antioxidants. Primary sources of naturally occurring antioxidants are whole grains, fruits and vegetables. Herbs and spices occupy a special position in foods as traditional food ingredients and hence are appropriately used directly for their antioxidant characteristics (Jadhavet al., 1995). Plant sourced food antioxidants like vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenes, phenolic acids, phytate and phytoestrogens, have been recognized as having the potential to reduce disease risk. Most plant-derived foods have a range of antioxidant compounds which include vitamin C (at lower exposures), vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols), polyphenols, carotenoids and ubiquinols. Some of these molecules are water-soluble and others lipid-soluble. They complement each other and a spectrum of each solubility type is required for antioxidant function to be effective in biological systems. For example, a key function of lipoproteins is anti-oxidant transport of vitamin E types and a family of carotenoids to protect lipoproteins themselves and the tissue to which lipids are delivered. The foods found to have the highest antioxidant activity include berries (with anthocyanins), nuts and legumes (with carotenoids, polyphenols, and tocopherols), tomatoes (with lycopene), sweet potato leaves (with high total polyphenol content) and vegetable shoots. The free radical scavenging activity of antioxidants in foods has been substantially investigated (Miller and Rigelhofet al., 2005). It is important to know the antioxidant content and their efficacy in foods, for preservation or protection against oxidative damage, to avoid deleterious changes and loss of commercial and nutritional value (Halliwell, 1997). McCarthy et al. (2001b) reported that lipid oxidation in meat products appears to be accelerated by freezing and antioxidants in fish can be destroyed by long-term storage or prolonged cooking. They also reported that the effects of cooking and food processing are complex as these processes can also increase the availability of antioxidants. There is, however a dearth of information on the antioxidant properties of fish species commonly sold in the Nigerian markets, and consumed by Nigerians. This project was, thus designed, to analyze the anti oxidant properties of some frozen fish species [tilapia (Oreochromisniloticus) commonly called Epiya; titus (Scomberscrombrus) commonly called Alaran; herrings (Clupeapallasii) commonly called Shawa; gadus commonly called Kote, (Gadusmorhua) and horse mackerel (Trachurustrachurus] available in Oja Oba market, Ado - Ekiti.

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Materials and Method Sample Collection and Preparation The fish species [tilapia (Oreochromisniloticus); titus (Scromberscrombus); herrings (Clupeapallasii); gadus called Kote in yoruba language, (Gadusmorhua) and horse mackerel (Trachurustrachurus] were purchased from Oja Oba market in Ado-Ekiti. The trunk part of each sample was severed, wrapped in polyethylene foil labeled A, B, C, D, E accordingly, and taken to the laboratory, where it was kept in frozen form till use. The antioxidant activities of the various fish fillet samples were carried out at the Animal Production and Health, Nutrition Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA), using the scavenging effect on 1,1, diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical. 0.5ml DPPH solution was prepared by dissolving 240mg powder in 1litre of methanol. 80:20 concentration of solvent mixture was prepared using 0.2% acetone and formic acid respectively.2g of the sample was weighed and macerated in a blender using 20ml of methanol. The mixture was allowed to stand for 2mins. Then the sample suspension was filtered using Whatmans filter paper and the resultant filtrate was used for analysis. After filtration, the filtrate was made up to 50ml to make 2g/50ml. From this stock, 40mg ml-1., 30mg ml-1, 20mg ml-1 and 10mg ml-1 of the filtrate were prepared. The concentration was read at a wavelength of 570 nm, on a UV- spectrophotometer. Statistical Analysis Data generated were subjected to one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) according to Duncans Multiple Range Descriptive Test (Duncan, 1955) with mean at a significant level of P0.05) between radical scavenging properties of samples A, B, C and E. Similar results were reported by Chen et al., (1998) on milk fish and Pourashouriet al.,(2009), on catfish. The findings of Engelhardt et al., (1975) showed that the muscles of Atlantic herring contain 1.7 to 2.1 mg/100g antioxidants, which is similar to the result reported for the herrings (sample C) used in this study (1.69). The fish sample D

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(Scomberscrombrus) showed significantly higher (p

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that elderly people eat more of the fish Scomberscrombrus, popularly known as alaran as an anti-ageing device. The result of this study would help consumers in selecting fish species to be purchased in the Kings market, Ado Ekiti. Table 1: The DPPH concentration (mg/100g) of the fish samples

Fish Samples Mean Standard deviation

Gadusmorhua(A) 2.42 0.016a Trachurustrachurus (B) 1.79 0.044a Clupeapallasii(C) 1.69 0.015a Scromberscrombus(D) 3.52 0.018b Oreochromisniloticus (E)

1.71 0.001a

Values with the same superscript are not significantly different at p>0.05 from one another References Ackman, R.G. (1989). Nutritional composition of fats in seafood. Prog. Food Nutr. Sci.

13: 161-289. Allister, S.M. and Colin, F.M. (1992). A study of the composition of fish liver and body oil

triglycerides. J. of the Amer. Oil Chemists Soc. 70(2):133-138. Aubourg, S.; Rodrlguez, A. and Gallardo, J. (2005). Rancidity development during frozen

storage of mackerel (Scomberscombrus): effect of catching season and commercial presentation. Eur. J. of Lipid Sci. and Tech.107: 316 323.

Bartosz, G. (2005). The other face of oxygen: Free radicals in nature. Polish Scientific Publishers, Warsaw. p55-57

Benjakul, S.; Visessanguan, W.; Phongkanpai, V. and Tanaka, M. (2005). Antioxidative activity of caramelisation products and their preventive effect on lipid oxidation in fish mince. J. of Food Chem. 90:231239.

Boyd, L.C.; Green, D.P.; Giesbrecht, F.B. and King, M.F. (1993). Inhibition of oxidative rancidity in frozen cooked fish flake by tert-butyl hydroquinone and rosemary extract. J. of the Sci.of Food and Agric.61: 87-93.

Chen, H.; Chow, C. and Ochiai, Y. (1998). Effects of acid and alkaline reagents on the color and gel-forming ability of milkfish kamaboko. J. of Fish. Sci.64:160163.

Cui, K.; Luo, X. and Murthy, M.R.V. (2004). Role of oxidative stress inneuro-degeneration: Recent developments in assaymethods for oxidative stress and nutraceutical antioxidants. ProgNeuro Psycho Pharmacol. Biol. Psych. 28:771799.

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Engelhardt, F.R.; Geraci, J.R. and Waker BL (1975). Tocopherol composition of frozen Atlantic herring (Clupeaharengus) tissue and oil. J. of Fish. Res. Board of Canada.32(6):807809.

Flick, G.J.; Hong, G. and Knoble, G.M. (1992). Lipid oxidation of seafood during storage. In: Lipid Ozidation in Food. A.J. Ft. Angelo, (Ed.), New Press. p183- 191.

Halliwell, B. (1996). Oxidative stress, nutrition and health. Experimental strategies for optimization of nutritional antioxidant intake in humans. Free Rad Res. 25(1):5774

Halliwell, B. (1997).Antioxidants and human disease: a general introduction. Nutr. Rev. 5: 544-552.

Halliwell, B. (2006). Reactive species and antioxidants: Redox biology is a fundamental theme for aerobic life. Plant Physiol.141:312322.

Hiremath, G.G. (1973). Prevention of rancidity in frozen fatty fish during cold storage. Ind. Food Packer. 27(6): 20-24.

Jadhav, S.J.; Nimbalkar, S.S.; Kulkarni, A.D. and Madhavi, D.L. (1995). LipidOxidation in biological and food Systems. In: Madhavi, D.L., Deshpande, S.S., Salunkhe, D.K. (Eds.), Food Antioxidants,Marcel Dekker, Inc., NewYork, pp 5-63.

Kim, S; Lee, K; Park, J; Lee, H. and Hwang, I.( 2006). Effect of natural antioxidants on stored freeze-dried foodproduct formulated using horsemackerel (Trachurustrachurus).J. of Sci. and Tech. 41:90-95.

Mallet, J.F.; Cerrati, C.; Ucciani, E.; Gamisans, J. and Gruber, M. (1994). Antioxidant activity of plant leaves in relation to their alpha-tocopherol content. FoodChem. 49:61-65

McCarthy, T.L.; Kerry, J.P.; Kerry, J.F.;Lynch, P.B. andBuckley, D.J. (2001b).Assessment of the antioxidant potential of natural food and plant extracts in fresh and previously frozen pork patties. Meat Sci. 57:177-184.

Miller, H.E.; Rigelhof, F.; Marquart, L.; Prakash, A. and Kanter, M. (2005). Cereal Foods World.45(2): 59-63.

Oktar, G. L.; Sinci, V.; Kalayciogilu, S.; Soncul, H.; Gokgoz, L.; Halit, V. and Ersoz, A. (2001). Biochemical andhaemodynamic effects of ascorbic acidand alpha- tocopherol in coronary arterysurgery. Scan. J.of Clinical andLab. Invest.61: 621630.

Pourashouri, P.; Shabanpour, B.; Auburg, P.; Daghigh,Rohi, J. and Shabani, (2009).An investigation of rancidity inhibition during frozen storage of catfish (Silurusglanis) fillets by previous ascorbic and citric acidtreatment. Int. J. of FoodSci. and Tech. 44(8): 1503-1509.

Rajalakshmi, D. and Narasimhan, S. (1995). Food Antioxidants: Sources and Methods of Evaluation. In: Madhavi, D.L., Deshpande, S.S., Salunkhe, D.K.(Eds.), Food Antioxidants, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. pp: 65-157.

Roche, M.; Rondeau, P.; Singh, N.R.; Tarnus, E. and Bourdon, E. (2008). The antioxidant properties of serum albumin. J. Food Tech. 582(13):1783-1787.

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Sarkardei, S. and Howell, N. (2008). Effect of natural antioxidants on stored freeze dried food product formulated using horse mackerel (Trachurustrachurus). J. of Food Sci. and Tech. 43: 309-315.

Serdaroglu, M. and Felekoglu, E. (2005).Effects of using rosemary extract andonion juice on oxidative stability ofsardine (Sardinapilchardus) mince.J. of Food Quality. 28:109-120.

Shahidi, F. and Wanasundara, P.K.J. (1992). Phenolic antioxidants. CRC Food. Sci. Nutr., 32: 67-103.

Singh, S. and Singh, R.P. (2008). In vitro methods of assay of antioxidants: an overview. Food Rev. Int. 24(4): 392-415

Tang, S; Kerry, J.P.; Sheehan, D. and Buckley, D.J. (2001). A comparative study of teacatechins and tocopherol as antioxidants in cooked beef and chicken meat. Eur. Food Res. Tec., 213: 286-289.

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APPRAISAL OF THE DISSEMINATION AND ADOPTION PATHWAY OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH RESULTS AND TECHNOLOGY AMONG

STAKEHOLDERS IN EKITI AND ONDO STATES, NIGERIA

Grace M. Adebo Adetutu .O Awoyemi and A.O. Adedapo Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension Services, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

Corresponding E-mail: grace.adebo@eksu.edu.ng.

Abstract The study aims at investigating the dissemination and adoption pathway of Agricultural research results in Universities to farmers in Southwest Nigeria A questionnaire was used to collect date from 120 lecturers randomly selected from six higher institutions in the area. The study used Frequency counts, percentages, and Relative Importance Index in data analysis. Findings revealed that 78% & 72.5% of research activities were engendered through interaction with the farmers and the Internet respectively. Except for few cases of training involvement, 85.6% of the lecturers have no established linkages with the farmers. The researchers published most of the research results in local and International Journals and conference proceedings. Oral communication was used for dissemination when involved in training programmes. None of the respondents made use of new ICT tools such as videos, smart phone applications and e-learning for result research dissemination, hence no adoption pathway. The relative importance index shows the most prominent obstacles to the dissemination and practical implementation of research results as poor linkages with the farmers and poor funding of research. The implication of the findings is that progress in agricultural development will be slow and the country will continue to be food insecure while the level of poverty will increase. The study advocate improved linkages between farmers and researchers in the Universities through advocacy, training on communication tools, farmers group and strategic policy revolution and improved funding of agricultural research activities. Keywords: Adoption pathway, Dissemination, Knowledge sharing, Productivity, Research results Introduction Agricultural research, according to European Commission (2013) is one of the main factors contributing to shifts in agricultural production systems and changes in the rural world. In particular, it is helping to improve productivity, increase farm incomes, and to change farming practices. According to Wabel (2006), Agricultural Research is one of the most productive investments to increasing agricultural production. Conducting research according to (Deirdre, 2010) is an integral part of being a scholar-practitioner with the skills and credibility to effect social change. Most of the poor rely on agriculture for their livelihood. Boosting agricultural productivity through the adoption of proven

mailto:grace.adebo@eksu.edu.ng

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technologies presents a credible pathway to poverty reduction. New research results regularly provide an abundance of information to improve farmers productivity. Research findings, according to International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED, 2016), are a global public good, and as a must, be accessible to anyone timely. Communicating research is a process of transforming raw research outputs into something that addresses the expressed needs of beneficiaries. It involves advocacy and timely communication of relevant information that could result in positive interventions by policymakers and governments. For research to make an impact on poverty reduction, it needs to be communicated and brought to the attention of both policy makers and people whose lives could be improved. Efficient and innovative research communication is a vital element in ensuring that research makes a difference. Without it, a lot of research effort is wasted. The quality of the research findings may not be the only thing that influences decision making but the ability to make the information available and more accessible and to analyze and synthesize research to provide simple information services (Isabel and Paulus, 2011). Statement of the problem Sharing knowledge between research institutions and industries is paramount to achieving development goals. Several Agricultural research activities are carried out in the Nigerian Universities from time to time. Despite this, agricultural productivity and output have not increased at an appreciable level. Instead, there is a hike in food insecurity among the citizenry. This warrants investigating the efforts of researchers and its utilization by the stakeholder. Some of the questions the research addresses are: How do researchers in agriculture got their idea and generates research topics Is there any linkage between research activities and farmers and other stakeholders? What is the dissemination/adoption pathway among the stakeholders? What are the appropriate ways for disseminating Agricultural research results to the end users and stakeholders to enhance practical utilization of the results? What are the obstacles to the dissemination and practical implementation of research results? It is in this background that the study was carried out to investigate the diffusion and adoption pathway of agricultural research results emanating from the higher institution among the stakeholders and end users in Ekiti and Ondo states, Nigeria The specific objectives of the study are to:

Describe the sources of research topics/ activity generated among researchers in the higher institutions in Ekiti and Ondo states, Nigeria

Ascertain the linkages between the researchers, farmers and other stakeholders Identify the various tools and channels of disseminating agricultural research

results to the stakeholders and end users Ascertain the obstacles to the dissemination and adoption of research results

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Methodology The study was carried out in Ekiti and Ondo State, Nigeria. All the lecturers of the departments of Agricultural Sciences of higher institutions in Ekiti and Ondo states constitute the population for the study. However, a simple random sampling was used to select 30 respondents from the Agricultural faculties and departments of four higher institutions in the two states. The institutions are, Ekiti state University, Ado-Ekiti, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Federal University, Oye and The Polytechnic, Owo. A well-structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from the respondents. The data generated were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages, means, and the Relative Importance Index (RII). A 4 point continuum scale of Very Often (VO), Often (O), Rarely (R) and Not at All (NA) and were assigned scores 4, 3, 2 and one respectively to generate the mean score for the communication tools and linkage connectivity of the researcher. Also for the constraints, a 5- point continuum scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) were used and assigned scores 5, 4, 3, 2, and one respectively. The results were calculated as the weighted score for each of the constraints, communication tools, and linkage connectivity. RII = Sum of Weights (W1+W2+W3+ ----+WN) / A x N Where W = weights assigned to each factor by the respondents, and it ranges from 1 to 5 where 1 is less important and 5 is extremely important. A = highest weight (i.e. 5 in this case), and N = total number of respondents. Weighted score = No of V 5 + No of IV 4 + No of III 3 + No of II 2 + No of I x 1 Total No of V+ IV +III +II+ I Any weighted score below the mean score is considered as not important and vice versa.

Findings 1.1. Means of Generating Ideas and Research topics The various means employed by the researchers to develop research ideas or topics was shown in figure I. Over seventy percent of the respondents generate research topics through other publications, Internet, observations and journals and conference proceedings respectively. The proportion of the researchers that carried out need assessment survey was few(10%). Also, the use of farmers group, extension agents, research institutes and stakeholders forum were not popular for generating research ideas and topics by the respondents. According to the Center for Innovation in Reseach and Teaching (2016), and Alvesson & Sandberg (2011), one of the most challenging aspects of research is generating an idea that is interesting and workable. Creating research design requires a rational and creative thinking. Logical thinking involves examining

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ones strength and interest, looking at past projects, discussing with friends and tutors and searching literature such as journals, books, and magazines. Creative thinking entails keeping a notebook of ideas, mapping of issues and questions in areas of interest and brainstorming. The idea generated might later turn to research topics. Generating research idea and themes in agriculture, however, should, also, involve linkage with all the stakeholders for relevance and effectiveness.

Figure 1. Means of Generating Ideas Research Topics 1.2. Linkages with Farmers and other stakeholders Figure 2 reveals that the researchers maintain linkages with all the stakeholders, though the link varies. Prominent among the connections are with other agricultural institutions, research institutions and Extension Agents. Over half (54%) linked with the farmers. Efforts were made to clarify the frequency of linkage, using the relative importance Index (Table I). Only four of all the variables were important. They are linkages with Farmers, Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperative societies, and Agricultural Institutions. It shows that though the Agricultural Researchers linked with almost all the stakeholders, a few of them were substantial. A disconnect between all the stakeholders in Agriculture is one of the impediments to the development of Agriculture in Nigeria. According to Katz (2005), linkage between researchers and other stakeholders are necessary for collaboration, decision making on what to research, Knowledge analysis, and access to means of production, information management and evaluation of outcomes and impacts of programmes.

percentages020406080

10 1226

4331

8

80 7560 65

40

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Figure 2: Linkage with Stakeholders Table 1: Frequency of Linkage with Stakeholders S/N Variable Mean Relative

Important Index

Decision Rank

1. Farmers 3.22 0.80 Important 2nd 2. Food Processors 1.62 0.40 Not Important 11th 3. Food Marketers 1.68 0.42 Not Important 9th 4. Extension Agents 1.85 0.46 Not Important 7th 5. Research Institutes 1.38 0.35 Not Important 13th 6. Other Agricultural Institutions 3.08 0.77 Important 4th 7. Farmers Group 1.62 0.4 Not Important 10th 8. Cooperative Societies 3.13 0.78 Important 3rd 9. Agricultural Production

Consumers 1.82 0.45 Not Important 9th

10. Ministry of Environment 1.91 0.48 Not Important 6th 11. NGOs 1.95 0.49 Not Important 5th 12. Hunters 1.53 0.38 Not Important 12th 13. Ministry of Agriculture 3.53 0.88 Important 1st

Source: Field survey, 2016 1.2. Communication tools and Channels of Disseminating Research results Table 2 provides an outline of some of the most common communication tools used by researchers and are arranged according to four conventional channels: online/ Digital publications, media, and events. Regarding online/ Digital channels, only online journal publication was important. It shows that the respondents are not using Smartphone, Twitter account, YouTube channels for videos and Massive Online Open Courses

0102030405060708090

54

3544

68 7182

28 33 28 2210

42

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(MOOC), Organizations website, Facebook page, Blog, and e mail newsletter for communicating and publicizing results of research. The use of online/digital channel and tools of communicating agricultural research findings among the respondents is limited by the availability of internet facilities, poor funding of research and lack of skills in the use of the resources. Also, most of the stakeholders might be constrained by the same challenges in assessing the information. All the limitations result in slow growth and development of the agricultural sector. Also, none of the media and event channels was important. It signifies that Television, Radio, Face to face briefing and Press release were not used to disseminate results of research in agriculture. The same applies to the Farmers Forum, Farmers workshop, and training, private meetings with stakeholders, Webinars, and Public events. It portrays weak and poor linkages between researchers, farmers and all stakeholders in agriculture. The lack of a close working relationship between agricultural research and extension organizations, and with different categories of farmers and farm groups, is one of the most difficult institutional problems confronting agricultural research in many developing nations. Research and extension organizations compete over the same scarce government funds and, they try to increase the flow of resources coming to their respective institutions and to solve day-to-day management problems, rather than ensuring that their respective organizations contribute to the broader goal of getting improved agricultural technology to all major categories of farmers. Also, the leadership and staff of many research and extension organizations do not appreciate the important roles that farmers and farmer organizations can play, both in disseminating technology and, through effective feedback mechanisms, in helping set priorities and improving programme relevance. Two of the publication channels were important. They are Academic Journals and Conference Proceedings. The significance of the duo might be necessitated by the educational slogan You publish or perish. The number of publications of academic staff and the quality of journals significantly influence their promotion at the workplace; hence most researchers are concerned with meeting their promotion criteria, rather than the application of the findings to food production or poverty reduction. The consequence is that the vicious cycle of low productivity, low income, low savings, and poor development, continue unabated. The study affirms that most of the researchers in the field of agriculture are using limited communication tools and channels for disseminating research results. According to the Ghana News Agency (2016), there is the need to move agricultural research from publishing in peer- reviewed journals to the final users. A stakeholder engagement forum was organized to launch the agricultural research for adoption network, an initiative advocating the adoption of agricultural research outcomes for value addition and

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increased farm outputs. The conference affirmed that agricultural research ultimately produces knowledge but will only have an impact if it is understood and accessed by target beneficiaries. According to World Bank (2015), information constraints present a credible barrier to adoption of technologies and thus, make research findings a bookshelf material rather than something that could transform the livelihoods of the people. Also, for research to strengthen policies and practices aimed at poverty reduction, a range of audiences need to engage with its findings at local, national and global levels (Isabel and Paulus, 2011). Promoting such engagement requires effective research communication Table 2: Communication tools and Channels of Disseminating Research results

Variables Mean Relative Important

Index

Decision Rank

Online/Digital Smart phone 2.10 0.53 Not important 5th Twitter account 1.28 0.32 Not important 19th Online Journal publication 2.50 0.62 important 3rd YouTube channels for videos and MOOC

1.20 0.28 Not important 21st

Organizations website 1.20 0.28 Not important 21st Facebook page 1.00 0.24 Not important 22nd Blog 1.62 0.40 Not important 10th E-mail newsletter 2.22 0.55 Not important 5th

Media Television 1.20 0.28 Not important 21st Radio 1.58 0.39 Not important 12th Face to face briefing 1.71 0.43 Not important 6th Press release 1.61 0.40 Not important 10th

Publications Academic Journals 3.61 0.90 Important 1st Working paper series 1.57 0.39 Not important 12th Semi academic magazines 1.66 0.42 Not important 7th Project briefing 1.28 0.32 Not important 19th Policy brief 1.47 0.37 Not important 16th Workshops or events reports 1.67 0.42 7th Research reports 1.58 0.39 Not important 12th Conference Proceedings 3.57 0.89 Important 2nd

Events Farmers forum 1.58 0.39 Not important 12th Farmers workshop and training

1.66 0.42 Not important 7th

Private meetings with stakeholders

1.47 0.37 Not important 16th

Webinars 1.42 0.34 Not important 18th Public events 1.42 0.34 Not important 18th

Source: Adebo et al., 2016

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1.3. Constraints to disseminating research findings The key challenges to effective dissemination of research results according to the researchers include a lack or ineffective ICTS tools, unfavorable Government policy, insufficient time, lack of enabling environment, Lack of familiarity with the difference ways to promote its use. Others are a lack of research sponsorship, Poor communication channels, Poor extension delivery, No plan put in place to disseminate research result, Lack of access to extension agent, Poor transportation network. Conclusions Most of the ideas and research topics in the field of agriculture are based on individual activities rather participatory. Most of the stakeholders are not involved in the design of research plans and activities; hence no adoption pathway is developed for research results. The research results are published in journals in journals (printed and online), conference proceedings, where they are not readily accessible to the farmers and other stakeholders who needed them. There are no established linkages between researchers and the farmers as well as other stakeholders. The researchers reported poor research funding, paucity of fund and time, unfamiliarity with different strategies to promote research results as part of the obstacles to research finding dissemination Recommendations Based on the findings, the study recommends the following: There is the need for the establishment and resuscitation of stakeholders forum in different fields of agriculture. Research works should be participatory. Need assessment survey should be carried out to ensure that researches are tailored towards solving the pressing needs of the farmers. Funding of research works should be initiated. Researchers should approach international and national donors for research funding. The University administrators should reward quality research works that meet the needs of the people rather than promoting paper publications. Training and capacity building workshops should be organized for researchers in agriculture on dissemination strategies for agricultural research References Alvesson, M., & Sandberg, J. (2011). Generating research questions through

problematization. Academy of Management Review, 36(2), 247-271 Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching (2016) https://cirt.gcu.edu/ research/

developmentresources/tutorials/ideas. Deirdre Schwiesow,(2010) seven research challenges and how to overcome them

https://www.waldenu.edu/about/newsroom/publications/articles/2010/01-research-challenges.

Burton E. Swanson Strengthening research-extension-farmer linkages

https://cirt.gcu.edu/%20research/%20developmentresources/tutorials/ideashttps://cirt.gcu.edu/%20research/%20developmentresources/tutorials/ideashttps://www.waldenu.edu/about/newsroom/publications/articles/2010/01-research-challengeshttps://www.waldenu.edu/about/newsroom/publications/articles/2010/01-research-challenges

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European Commission (2013). The role of agricultural research for the development of sustainable agriculture and food security in Sub-Saharan. Rosa Newslertter. Africafile:///C:/Users/DUPE/Downloads/rosa_newsletter_47_en.pdf.

Ghana News Agency (2016). Agricultural Scientist seek new way to communicate Research Findings http://www.ghananewsagency.org/science/agriculture-scientists-seek-new-ways-to-communicate-findings-106483.

International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED, 2016). Communicating research uptake, influence and change http://www.iied.org/communicating-research-uptake-influence-change.

Isabel Carter and Kurt Paulus (2011). Research communication: Insights from practice A working paper of the Research Communication Strategy Grouphttps://assets. publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08afc40f0b649740008bc/2010-11_Insights-into-RC-final-formatted.pdf.

Katz, E. (2005). Farmer/extension/research collaboration overview of international experiences. Workshop on Research-Extension Linkages. Vientiane, Lao PDR. PP: 7-9.

The Cable ( 2016). Nigeria will be worlds 3rd most populous by 2050 https://www.thecable.ng/nigeria-to-be-worlds-third-most-populous-in-2050.

Waibel, Hermann. Impact Assessment of Agricultural Research for Development and Poverty Reduction. Working Paper 2006 No. 2 Development and Agricultural Economics. Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Hanover, Germany

The World Bank (2015).Agricultural Adaptations and Natural Resource Management. http://www.worldbank.org/en/research/dime/brief/agriculture.

http://www.ghananewsagency.org/science/agriculture-scientists-seek-new-ways-to-communicate-findings-106483http://www.ghananewsagency.org/science/agriculture-scientists-seek-new-ways-to-communicate-findings-106483http://www.iied.org/communicating-research-uptake-influence-changehttp://www.iied.org/communicating-research-uptake-influence-changehttps://www.thecable.ng/nigeria-to-be-worlds-third-most-populous-in-2050http://www.worldbank.org/en/research/dime/brief/agriculture

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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES AND IN VITRO PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY OF THE PEELS OF RIPE AND UNRIPE

BANANA AND PLANTAIN

Ayo Olowoyeye1, Toyin Aletor2, GbengaFamiloni1, James Aina1, Ebenezer Fabulous-Fabowale3, Yemisi Omosebi4

1Department of Biochemistry, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, 2Department of Chemistry, Federal

University of Technology, Akure. 3Department of Chemistry, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. 4Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.

ayorindeolowoyeye@yahoo.com, 08038991882

Abstract Peels of fresh, matured ripe and unripe plantain and banana peels were analyzed for their proximate composition, mineral composition, antioxidant properties, anti-nutrient composition, functional properties and in vitro multienzyme protein digestibility. Unnripe plantain peel had 6.60% (lowest) fat content, and 12.60% (highest) protein content. Ripe banana peels had the highest energy value of 1379.46kcal/100g while unripe banana peels had the highest crude fibre content of 20.00%. Unripe peels were significantly high in crude fibre. Result showed that Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Ni, Zn and Cu were present in all the peel samples at different concentrations. Ripe and unripe banana peels had a low foaming capacity. The unripe peels were not digestible. The peels had high reducing property (except ripe banana peel), total phenol and DPPH. This research work shows that banana and plantain peels (ripe and unripe) may have good health benefits due to their antioxidant properties and be a good component of animal feed. Keywords: Banana peels, plantain peels, ripe and unripe peels, antioxidant properties, energy value Introduction Banana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus Musa and for the fruit they produce. It is one of the oldest cultivated plants (Sampath et al., 2012).The plant family Musaceae, composed of bananas, plantains, and ornamental bananas, originally evolved in Southeast Asia and surrounding tropical and subtropical regions (including New Guinea). Africa is a secondary center of diversity (Randy et al., 2007). Banana plants are monocotyledonous perennial and important crops in the tropical and Sub tropical world regions, including dessert banana, plantain and cooking bananas. Traded plantain (Musa paradisiacaAAB) and other cooking bananas (Musa ABB) are almost entirely derived from the AA-BB hybridization of M. acuminate (AA) and M. bulbisiana (BB). Plantain and cooking bananas are very similar to unripe dessert bananas (M. cavendish AAA) in exterior appearance, although often larger; the main differences in the former being that their flesh is starchy rather than sweet, they are used

mailto:ayorindeolowoyeye@yahoo.com

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unripe and require cooking. Dessert bananas are consumed usually as ripe fruits; whereas ripe and unripe plantain fruits are usually consumed boiled or fried (Abiodun-Solanke and Falade, 2010). At the world level, approx. 90 million tonnes of this fruit are produced, mainly in tropical areas such as Africa (13 %), South and Central America (28 %), including the Caribbean, and South and South Eastern Asia (47%) (FAOSTAT, 2010). About 40 % of these productions are wastes, they are mainly peels. Banana and plantain peels are rich in fibre, polyphenols and low in protein but their composition varies according to the species and the variety as well as the maturation (HappiEmaga et al., 2007). Akinyele and Agboro (2007) reported over 2,000 small scale plantain chips processing companies in Lagos metropolis alone that discard the peels after utilizing the starchy fruit, hence, constituting an environmental and disposal problems. In view of the need for proper usage of peels from banana and plantains, this study was conducted to determine the proximate and mineral composition, protein digestibility, Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Property, Free radical scavenging ability DPPH, and Vitamin C content for possible utilization as food/feed formulation. Materials and Methods Materials Banana and Plantain Peels Sample Preparation Banana and plantain (ripe and unripe) bunches were purchased at Oja Oba in Ado-Ekiti area of Ekiti state, Nigeria. The peels were removed and rinsed with distilled water and then oven dried at 1050C to constant weight. The dried samples were homogenized with household electric blender and stored in polythene bag till when needed for analysis. Methods Proximate Composition The proximate nutrient composition of the samples were determined using the standard methods of analysis of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1995). The moisture content of the samples was determined by air oven (Gallenkamp) method at 1050C. The crude protein of the samples was determined using micro-Kjeldahl method. Crude lipid was determined by Soxhlet extraction method using petroleum ether as extracting solvent. The ash content was determined using a muffle furnace set at 5500C for 4 hours until constant weight of ash was obtained. Crude fibre was determined using the method of Saura-Calixto et al. (1983). The carbohydrate content was obtained by difference. Mineral analysis Potassium and sodium were determined by digesting the ash of the samples with perchloric acid and nitric acid, and then taking the readings on Jenway digital

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spectrophotometer (Bonireet al., 1990). Phosphorus was determined by Vanado-molybdate colorimetric method (Ologhobo and Fetuga, 1983). Calcium, magnesium and iron were determined spectrophotometrically by using Buck 200 atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific, Norwalk) (Essien et al., 1992) and their absorption compared with absorption of standards of these minerals. Determination of Antioxidant Properties and In Vitro Digestibility The free-radical-scavenging activity of all the peel samples were measured by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazil (DPPH) by the method described by Moulisha et al, (2010). In-vitro multi-enzyme digestibility was carried out by the method of Hsu et al (1977). 50 ml of aqueous suspension of the protein concentrates (6.25 mg sample per cm3) in distilled water was adjusted to pH 8.0 with 0.1M HCl and/or 0.1M NaOH, while stirring on water bath maintained at 37oC. The multi-enzyme solution(mg cm-1) containing 1.6 mg trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4; PN, TI 005); 3.1 mg Chymotrypsin (EC 3.4.21.1; PN, C4129); and 1.3 mg Peptidase (EC 3.4.23; 1; PN, P6887) all from Sigma-Aldrich Ireland Ltd, Dublin was maintained in an ice bath and adjusted to pH 8 with 0.1M HCl and/or 0.1M NaOH. A 5 cm3 sample multi-enzyme solution was added to the sample suspension with constant stirring at 37 2oC. The pH of the suspension was recorded 15 minutes after the addition of the multi-enzyme solution. In-vitro digestibility was calculated using a regression equation of Hsu et al. (1977). Results and Discussion In this study, the peels show evidently high values of proximate constituents except in crude protein in ripe and unripe banana peels.Crude protein (CP) varied from 4.000.70 in unripe banana to 12.052.86g/100g in unripe plantain peels. The crude fibre (CF) content of the peel samples was high but the highest value (20.005.78g/100g) was found in the unripe peel. A better protein content in plantain especially the ripe peels suggest that they may be a better protein supplement in low protein foods such as Ogi (pap). High fibre content in diets has been reported to result in increased removal of potential mutagens, steroids and xenobiotics by binding or absorbing to dietary fibre components and thereby aids digestion. The low fat content range (8.401.34 -11.701.27g/100g) suggests that it could not be a good source of energy in human or monogastric animal diets (Aletor and Alabi,2010) while the ash (an indicative of mineral content) and nitrogen free extract (NFE) ranged (12.002.26 -16.100.11g/100g) and (45.153.91 -52.950.71g/100g) respectively. The calculated energy content was highest (1379.46KJ/100g) in unripe banana peels. Results of this present work were in excellent agreement with those reported by Happi Emage et al., 2007 on plantain and banana peels. The present study showed that with respect to crude protein, crude fibre, carbohydrate and energy, the peels could be a good source of good quality food for human and monogastric animals in this region.

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The value (Table 2) for potassium was 643.50mg/kg in unripe plantain as the highest in potassium followed by ripe banana with 603.50mg/kg. Similarly, nickel, zinc, and copper were relatively low in both the ripe and unripe banana and plantain peels. Generally, the peel samples were good source of Na, K, Ca, Mg and P. Generally, the plant peels were good constituent of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus. Since mineral elements perform critical functions in animals, the determination of mineral elements is an indispensable component of feed analysis (Adamafio et al., 2004) and human meals. Inadequate and excessive amounts are associated with innumerable development and health-related problem (Adamafio et al., 2004). Table 1: Proximate composition (g/100DM) ,Energy content (KJ/100g) Of Ripe and Unripe Banana And Plantain Peels

CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fibre; FC:Fat content; NFE: Nitrogen free extract

Table 2: Mineral Composition (mg/kg) Of Ripe and Unripe Banana And Plantain Peels

Na K Ca Mg P Ni Zn Cu RIPE BANANA 248.50 603.50 218.00 164.80 140.00 1.31 1.40 1.37 UNRIPE BANANA 240.00 589.50 242.00 138.40 144.00 0.92 1.00 1.04 Mean 244.25 596.50 230.00 151.60 142.00 1.12 1.20 1.21 Standard Deviation 6.01 9.90 16.97 18.67 2.83 0.28 0.28 0.23 C.V% 2.46 1.66 7.38 12.32 1.99 25.11 23.33 19.09 RIPE PLANTAIN 196.00 457.00 184.00 193.60 80.00 2.44 2.73 2.08 UNRIPE PLATAIN 254.00 643.00 180.00 202.00 70.00 2.50 2.72 3.00 Mean 225.00 550.00 182.00 197.80 75.00 2.47 2.725 2.54 Standard Deviation 41.01 131.52 2.83 5.94 7.07 0.04 0.007 0.65 C.V.(%) 18.23 23.91 1.55 3.00 9.43 1.62 0.26 25.6

DM CP CF FC ASH NFE ENERGY Ripe Banana 95.30

0.21 5.00 0.70

11.82 5.78

11.70 1.27

16.10 0.11

50.68 3.91

1379.46 125.47

Unripe Banana 95.00 0.21

4.01 0.70

20.00 5.78

9.90 1.27

15.94 0.11

45.15 3.91

1202.02 125.47

Ripe Plantain 94.90 0.14

9.85 1.94

8.00 2.86

8.40 1.34

15.70 2.62

52.95 0.71

1378.40 28.67

Unripe Plantain 95.10 0.14

12.60 1.94

12.05 2.86

6.50 1.34

12.00 2.62

51.95 0.71

1337.85 28.67

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Table 3: Antioxidant Properties (mg/mL) Of Ripe & Unripe Banana And Plantain Peels

Table 4: In vitro protein digestibility (%)Of Ripe & Unripe Banana And Plantain Peels

% PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY

RIPE BANANA 3.142.1 UNRIPE BANANA ND Mean - Standard Deviation - C.V. (%) - RIPE PLANTAIN 6.574.15 UNRIPE PLATAIN ND Mean - Standard Deviation - C.V. (%) -

The study showed that Vit C in Table 3 ranged (0.0020.02 -0.0430.06ML) ; 1,1 Diphenyl-1-2-picrylhydrayl DPPH ranged (18.40 -74.5939.73mL); Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) ranged (0.050.2-0.330.2mL) and total phenol (0.0750.04 - 0.27250,03mL). These results showed that DPPH and total phenol were highest in ripe banana peels than those in unripe, this result was in constrast with those findings reported by Shinich et al.,2002 that higher antioxidant property was found in unripe banana peel. DPPH which was highest in unripe plantain peel (74.5939.73mL) compared well with those reported by Vijayakumar et al., 2008.The radical scavenging ability of of the phenolic extracts could be attributed to the ability of hydrogen for donation in the acid group among the functional groups present in the extracts. Antioxidants are provided to living organisms to protect them from damages caused by uncontrolled production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and concomitant lipid peroxidation, protein damage, and DNA strand breaking (Ajitha et al., 2001).1,1

Vit. C (mg/mL)

DPPH (mg/mL)

FRAP (mg/mL)

Total Phenol (mg/mL)

Ripe Banana 0.0900.06 51.62 8.94

ND 0.136 0.043

Unripe Banana 0.0020.02 38.915 8.94

0.065 0.075 0.043

Ripe Plantain 0.043 0.06 18.40 39.73

0.05 0.2

0.3140.03

Unripe Plantain

0.014 0.06 74.59 39.73

0.337 0.2

0.2725 0.03

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Diphenyl-1-2-picrylhydrayl(DPPH) is a stable free radical that accepts an electron or hydrogen radical to become a stable diamagnetic molecule. It has also been reported that oxidative stress occurs when free radical formation exceeds the bodys ability to protect itself. Table 4 revealed low digestibility 3.142.10% and 6.574.15% for ripe banana and plantain respectively while their corresponding unripe peels were not digestible. Conclusion In all, the study clearly shows the high potential of these peels in the provision of adequate levels of crude protein, crude fibre, energy but low digestibility.They were very high in potassium compared to Sodium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Since they posses antioxidant activities,they may serve as health promoting food/feed .Banana and plantain peels pose to be potential good sources of nutrients for production of animal feeds,therefore, utilization for this purpose should be encouraged, as this will also help in reducing the menace of waste in the environment. It is therefore recommended, based on the observations gathered from this study, that (i), more research work be concentrated on more anti-nutritional properties of the peel samples and their toxicological effect(s) on animals, (ii). processing methods, for example, fermentation is recommended so as to improve the digestibility. References Abiodun-Solanke A.O. and FaladeK.O., (2010). A review of the uses and methods of

processing banana and plantain (Musa spp.) into storable food products. J. Agric. Res. & Dev. 9(2)

Ajitha M, Ranjnarayana K., 2001. Role of oxygen free radicals in human disease. Indian drug. 38:545-54

Akinyele, B.J. and Agboro, O. (2007): Increasing the nutritional value of plantain wastes by the activities of fungi using solid state fermentation techniques. Research Journal of Microbiology. 2:117 124

Alabi,O.O and Aletor,O. (2010):Nutritional antinutritional composition and invitro protein digestibility of tropical edible purse seed; Dioclea reflexa an underutilized legume. Journal of sustainable Technology (JOST). 2:74-87

BeuchatLR (1977). Functional and Electrophoretic Characteristics of Succinylated Peanut Flour Protein. J. Agric. Food Chem., 25: 258-261.

BonireJJ, JalilNSN, Lori JA(1990) Sodium and potassium content of two cultivars of white yam (Dioscorearotundata) and their source soils. J Sci Food Agric. 53. 271-274.

Coffman CW, Garcia (1977). Functional properties and Amino Acid Content of a Protein Isolate from Mung Bean Flour. J. Food Technol., U.K., 12: 473-484.

EssienA.I, EbanaR.U.B, Udo H.B., (1992). Chemical evaluation of pod and pulp of the fluted pumpkin (Telfairaoccidentalis) fruit. Food Chem. 45, 175-178.

FAOSTAT, 2010. FAOSTAT Available from http://faostat.fao.org

http://faostat.fao.org/

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HappiEmaga, T., Andrianaivo, R.H., Wathelet, B., TchangoTchango, J. and Paquot, M., (2007). Effects of the stage of maturation and varieties on the chemical composition of banana and plantain peels. Food Chemistry, 103, 590600

Hsu,H.W.,Vavak,D.L., Satterlee,L.D and Miller,G.A.(1977): A multienzyme technique for estimating protein digestibility.Journal of Food Science. 42: 1269-1273

Official Methods of Analysis, Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. (AOAC), Washington DC, USA, 1990.

Ologhobo AD, FetugaBL(1983). Investigation on the trypsin inhibitor, hemagglutinin, phytic and tannic acid contents of cowpea VignaUnguiculata. Food Chem.; 12 (4), 249-254.

Moulisha B., PallabK.H., and Ashoke K. G., 2010. Antioxidant and free-radical-scavenging effects of fruits of Dregeavolubilis. J Nat SciBiol Med; 1 (1): 29-34

Randy C. Ploetz, Angela Kay Kepler, Jeff Daniells, and Scot C. Nelson (2007). Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry Ver 1

Sampath Kumar K. P., DebjitBhowmik, Duraivel S., Umadevi M. (2012): Traditional and Medicinal Uses of Banana. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. Vol. 1 No. Pg 51 ISSN 2278- 4136

Shinichi,S.,Yumiko,Y., and Kazuyoshi,O.,2002.Antioxidantcompounds from banana (Musa Cavendish) Food Chemistry ; Vol.79(3):351-354

Vijayyakumar,S.,Presannakumar,G and Vijayalakshimi, 2008.Food Chemistry. Vol 79(4) :279-282

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DEVELOPMENT OF A PROTOTYPE INCUBATOR FOR POULTRY EGGS

1Bayode Julius Olorunfemi, 2Samuel B. Adejuyigbe, 3Adefemi Adeyemi Adekunle, and 4 A. P. Osasona

1Mechanical Engineering Department, Federal University Oye Ekiti, Nigeria. 2,3Mechatronic Engineering Department, Federal University Oye Ekiti, Nigeria

4Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Corresponding author: E -mail:bayode.olorunfemi@fuoye.edu.ng,08036061994

Abstract The design and fabrication of a prototype incubator has been carried out in this research. The prototype comprises of two chambers viz; the egg chamber and the heat pump. The other part is the control panel which regulates the activities of the heat pump and that of the egg chamber. Temperature range between 350C and 390C with favourable relative

humidity (50 -65%) needed for viable development of eggs during incubation periods were achieved. The egg trays were designed to tilt at a regular interval so as to prevent the egg embryo from getting stuck to the egg shell during incubation period. The results of the test conducted show that the best temperature for most effective hatch of the eggs ranges from 36.50C to 37 0C. However, the problem of unhealed navel as well as that of

wet down feather of the chicks which were prevalent in most industrial incubator were curtailed by this newly developed prototype incubator.

Keywords: Prototype, Incubator, Temperature, Egg and Poultry. Introduction Incubation is the management of a fertilized egg to ensure the satisfactory development of the embryo inside it into a normal chick. Incubation may be achieved by the natural method, with a hen sitting on the eggs, or by using special machine which can simulate the hens role by optimizing the environmental conditions (temperature, egg turning, relative humidity, and ventilation). This machine is known as incubator. Incubators may be classified as forced air or still air depending on how air is circulated. Still air incubators are the most common, air circulate by convection as soon as the air is heated (Ogunwande et al, 2015). These are placed in special buildings known as hatcheries (Oluyemi and Robert, 1994). Poultry egg incubation plays an important role in the overall poultry production system (Okonkwo, 2012). The artificial method of incubating eggs came up as a result of high demand for poultry products which could not be met by natural means of eggs laying and incubation Poultry production is a lucrative business but lack of commercially owned hatchery machines hinder the expansion and make poultry products most especially costly in Ondo/Ekiti axis of South-West Nigeria. Different types of small scale poultry incubators have been developed. Some of these are; hurricane lantern incubator (Abiola, et al, 2008), non-

mailto:bayode.olorunfemi@fuoye.edu.ng

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thermostatic controlled electric incubator (Ogunwande et al, 2010), passive solar powered incubator (Irrwange, 2003) and kerosene powered incubator by Ajayi et al, (1997). However, electrically powered incubator is still the cheapest and reliable of all the various designs, most especially for table and industrial incubators. Required environmental conditions inside an Incubator The under listed are the various environmental conditions required inside the incubator: Temperature: temperature is the most important factor in incubation efficiency. Embryonic development is initiated when the egg is exposed to a temperature of 26.6 o

C-29.4 o C, but development is most satisfactory when the temperature ranges from 37.2o C-39.4 o C for still air incubators and 37.50C for forced air incubators (Brinsea, 2014).The exact temperature depends on the incubator type and the age of the eggs in the incubator (Decuypere, 1994). Relative Humidity: The exact relative humidity depends on the type of incubator and the age of eggs in the incubator. Gleaves (1997) recommended 50- 55% for the first 18days of incubation, and 65% for the last three days. As a result of the temperature and ventilation of the incubator, moisture and gases are lost from the egg through its pores. This causes a water loss resulting from low relative humidity and impairs the chorioallantoic process as well as its function in respiratory exchange. The growth processes of an embryo is very sensitive hence, the humidity must be set correctly in order to avoid deformity of chicks, infertility of eggs, late term embryonic death, dead in shell and overall economic losses. Ventilation: The developing embryo respires, that is an average size of 58g consumes 5.11 10 3 litres of oxygen and emits 2.8110 3 litres of carbon dioxide throughout the incubator period. To meet these respiratory needs, there should be 21% oxygen inside the incubator as in normal air. Ventilation is needed to rid the incubator of ammonia or other obnoxious substances arising from the spoilage of some eggs or remaining after fumigation of the incubation (Oluyemi & Robert, 2000). 1.1.4 Positioning and Turning: Eggs should be set on trays before the tray is fixed in the incubator. The eggs should be placed with the long axis horizontal or vertical to the tray. When placed vertically, the broad end should be up. Methodology Theory of heat exchanger in incubators Sotherland et al. (1987); Schmidt-Nielsen (1975); Meijarhof &Van-Bee (1993 and 1994); Owen (1991); and Wilson (1991) have all worked in the area of heat exchanger in incubators. Some of the theories propounded by these researchers and adopted for this work are enumerated below;

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T egg = T inc + (H emb H

K (1)

Where: T egg =Temperature of the egg (Celsius).

Tinc = Temperature of the incubator (Celsius)

H emb = Heat production of embryo at a given moment of incubation (Watts)

H waterloss = Heat loss from evaporative cooling (Watts)

K= Thermal conductance of egg and surrounding boundary of air around the eggs (watts per degree Celsius). The heat balance of an animal is described by the following equation;

H emb = H waterloss H rad H conv (2)

and can be written as;

H emb - H waterloss = H rad H conv (3)

Where,

H rad = H conv are the heat loss or gained by radiation and convection

respectively. The thermal energetic model of artificial incubation is relatively simple because heat is transferred between the egg and air totally surrounding the egg. The situation is more complicated in natural incubation in which heat is applied by the bird sitting on the egg. Design and Analysis of the Egg Chamber Quantity of oxygen, required by an egg throughout the incubation period must be determined. Robert & Oluyemi (2000) reported that oxygen required by an egg during the incubation period is 5.11 10 3 m 3 for 21 days. Therefore applying this rule: O 2 required per day = (0.0144 x 10

2 ) 3 m 3

O 2 required per second = 3.6 x 104 m 3

Assume for 90 eggs: Since the volume of oxygen in air = 21% volume of air required = 1.7 x 10 3 m 3 Therefore, if a factor of safety of 6 is assumed, volume of air required= 1.7 x 10 3 x 6 m3 = 0.01 m 3 This shows that 0.01 m 3 of air is required per second into the chamber from fan moving at 1850 rev/min.

V = wr = 31.97 m/s The calculated inlet area of the chamber

= 0.010331.97

= 3.13 x 10 4 m 2

Design and Analysis of Humidification Phase The necessary conditions for rapid vapourization in the humidifier are; Temperature of the fluid (that is, the higher the temperature the higher the vapourization), surface area

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(that is, the larger the surface area the higher the vapourization), and the rate at which the vapour escapes from the surface, that is the more vapour is formed. The calculated inlet area = 3.13 x 10 4 m 2 for egg chamber that will accommodate 90 eggs. Assuming the magnification factor of 10, the surface area of the humidifier is

= 3.13 x 10 3 m 2

Mass flow rate (m) of air across the surface, m = AV Where = Density = 1.225 kg/m

A = Surface Area of the Humidifier = 3.13 x 10 3 m 2 V = Speed of air = 31.97 m/s

Mass Flow rate m = 0.12258 kg/s Mass flow rate assuming water is supplied by gravity = 0.561 kg/s. Calculation and Design Analysis of Egg-Tray Tilting In the design and calculation of egg-tray tilt, there is need to design and analyse the torque and the speed of egg trays. The reason for titling of the egg-trays is to prevent the embryo from getting stuck to the egg-shell. The following calculations where done; The total weight of the egg was calculated using the formula mass x weight. Then the speed of the load N L and torques T L was determined.

The result of this findings shows that; T L = 1.195 Nm, N L = 2.23 rev/min.

Construction of the Prototype Incubator Galvanize sheet was the major material used for the frame of the incubator. It was cut and shaped according to the dimension, and size of the design. The frame of the egg chamber was made of 700mm x 600mm galvanize sheet. While that of the heat pump was made of 860mm x 410 mm galvanize sheet. Fibers were packed in the egg chamber to prevent heat loss and to keep the temperature of the egg chamber at the required range. Three sets of frame were fastened on pivot set across the inner part of the egg chamber to keep the eggs. These frames were made to tilt to and fro through a pivoted rack linked with the steeper motor connected with the control panel. Also, a Spectrometer was hereby hung on the egg chamber to indicate the condition inside the egg chamber. The heat pump was built with a rotary compressor that was connected with the condenser and evaporator which both serve as heat exchangers. It was then connected with a fan motor which blows the heat produced by this unit into the egg chamber. R22 (CHF 2 Cl) Chloro-difloromethyl) refrigerant was used as gas in the compressor to

produce enough heat required in the egg chamber. Also plastic egg trays were used to hold the eggs. These plastic trays were perforated so that there will be free flow of warm air into every part of the eggs. The control panel of size 300mm x 150mm x 120mm was placed on top of the egg chamber. The inner parts of the control panel were built with

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Pulse generator (4060 oscillator), 4060 frequency divider, 5 volt relay (Electro-mechanical switch), 200mA energizing current, 240 voltage converter, 1000Nf capacitor to filter the output of the output converter, thermistor was also used as temperature sensor, and Lm324 temperature dependent resistor was also used to produce an output that is directly proportional to the resistance of the thermistor. Figs. 1&2 show the photograph of the constructed incubator, external and internal views.

Fig. 1: Photograph of a constructed egg chamber and the control panel.

Fig. 2: Photograph of inner part of the egg chamber

Findings Figures 1 and 2 show the complete fabrication of the prototype incubator. The results of the test conducted after the completion of the project are discussed thus; this incubator has been designed to meet up with the incubation condition needed for safety of different species of poultry birds. The eggs chamber is designed to house the eggs for more than six hours at relatively incubating temperature even when there is power failure. It also incorporated an in-built overload relay in the control panel that bears the risk of likely damage that may occur to the compressor (this overload relay automatically switches off and on the compressor at regular intervals). The intermittent titling of the egg

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trays by the steeper motor incorporated into the incubator also prevents the chilling or sticking of the embryo to the egg shell; The temperature sensor also helps to give signal to the control panel to stop in case of overheat in the egg chamber; and the fan is noise-free and it can hardly be heard in the room during operation; and there was no discernable vibration in either the fan or the egg positioning mechanism. The incubating temperature, incubating humidity and egg positioning mechanism are almost operating automatically. The controls of the incubator are all upfront. Most status are visible from a distance for monitoring at a glance. The system works within the range of temperature (35 o C & 38 o C) and favourable relative humidity which are the conditions that the incubator is designed for. This open range conditions make it adaptable to different species of poultry unlike most incubators designed specifically for particular specie of poultry. Table 1 compares the newly developed (prototype) incubator with the natural and other industrial methods of hatching of eggs by birds. However, from t