boblme-2015-ecology-67...difficult to trace to points of origin (guo et al., 2010; zheng et al.,...

ii

BOBLME-2015-Ecology-67

ii

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal and development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The BOBLME Project encourages the use of this report for study, research, news reporting, criticism or review. Selected passages, tables or diagrams may be reproduced for such purposes provided acknowledgment of the source is included. Major extracts or the entire document may not be reproduced by any process without the written permission of the BOBLME Project Regional Coordinator. BOBLME contract: LOA/RAP/2014/19 For bibliographic purposes, please reference this publication as:

BOBLME (2015) Water, sediment quality and occurrence of echinoids - Gulf of Mannar coastline, Sri Lanka. BOBLME-2015-Ecology-67

iii

Report on

An assessment of some selected quality parameters of water and

sediments surrounding river mouths and fish landing sites and the

occurrence of echinoids along the coastline bordering the

Gulf of Mannar

Sevvandi Jayakody PhD

Sri Lanka

Submitted to

BOBLME

2015

Water, sediment quality and occurrence of echinoids - Gulf of Mannar coastline, Sri Lanka

iv


v

Details of the project

Lead researcher : Sevvandi Jayakody PhD

Institution : Wayamba University of Sri Lanka


vi

Table of contents

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Pollution, resource exploitation and biodiversity of Asian seas ............................................. 1

1.2. Gulf of Mannar ........................................................................................................................ 2

1.3. Focus of the research and specific questions addressed ........................................................ 3

2. Approach for water and sediment quality and echinoid diversity estimates ................................. 4

2.1. Study area and sampling regimes ........................................................................................... 4

2.2. Estimation of heavy metals in sediments collected from major landing sites ......................................................................................................................................... 6

2.3. Estimation of petroleum residues in water collected from major landing sites ......................................................................................................................................... 6

2.4. Total coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC), and faecal streptococci (FS) ................................ 7

2.5. Determination of waste disposal in landing sites in GoM ...................................................... 7

2.6. Determination of diversity of echinoids in GoM and determination of the population density ........................................................................................................... 8

3. Results ............................................................................................................................................. 9

3.1. Biological and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD) in GoM ....................................... 11

3.1.1. BOD of GoM .................................................................................................................. 11

3.1.2. The COD of GoM ........................................................................................................... 11

3.1.3. Total solids (TS) ............................................................................................................. 12

3.1.4. Total suspended solids (TSS) ......................................................................................... 12

3.1.5. Total dissolved solids (TDS) ........................................................................................... 13

3.1.6. Turbidity ........................................................................................................................ 13

3.2. Temporal and spatial variation in water quality ................................................................... 14

3.3. Nurient pollution in small scale landing sites ....................................................................... 16

3.4. Occurrence of heavy metals in sediments ............................................................................ 17

3.5. Petroleum residue in water .................................................................................................. 18

3.6. Microbial quality of water ..................................................................................................... 19

3.7. Waste disposal in the study area .......................................................................................... 19

3.8. Irregular echinoids detected in GoM .................................................................................... 21

3.9. Regular echinoids .................................................................................................................. 27

4. Discussion...................................................................................................................................... 29

5. References .................................................................................................................................... 32

Appendix I Pre tested questionnaire............................................................................................... 37


vii

List of tables

Table 1 Instruments/methods used for water quality parameters ........................................................ 6

Table 2 Summary of mean, SE of mean, minimum and maximum values of water quality parameters ..................................................................................................................... 9

Table 3 Summery of heavy metals in sediment samples collected from GoM .................................... 17

Table 4 Distribution of bacteria in water (no./ml). ............................................................................... 19

Table 5 Summary of mean, SE of mean, minimum and maximum values of three types of waste detected (polythene, plastic and food waste) disposed by people around the study area. ................................................................................................ 20

Table 6 Irregular echinoids found in the region ................................................................................... 21

Table 7 Irregular sea urchins recorded in Gulf of Mannar .................................................................... 23

List of figures

Figure 1 Sampling sites ........................................................................................................................... 5

Figure 2 Interviewer administered questionnaire for waste disposal information collection ............... 8

Figure 3 Box plots depicting mean DO (a), pH (b), conductivity (c), temperature (d), Nitrate (e), Nitrite (f) and Phosphate (g) of the study area during January 2015-July 2015. .......................................................................................................... 11

Figure 4 BOD levels in sampling sites .................................................................................................... 11

Figure 5 COD levels in sampling sites .................................................................................................... 12

Figure 6 Total solid levels in sampling sites .......................................................................................... 12

Figure 7 Total suspended solids levels in sampling sites ...................................................................... 13

Figure 8 Total dissolved solid levels in sampling sites .......................................................................... 13

Figure 9 Turbidity levels in sampling sites ............................................................................................ 14

Figure 10 Temporal and spatial fluctuation of TS,TDS,TSS and turbidity in the study areas ................ 16

Figure 11 Nutrient fluctuation in minor landing sites ........................................................................... 17

Figure 12 Mean values of each selected heavy metal concentration in sediments ............................. 18

Figure 13 Box plot of petroleum hydrocarbon residue levels in water ................................................ 18

Figure 14 Variations in microbial counts in study areas. ...................................................................... 19

Figure 15 Mean amounts of types of waste (polythene, plastic and food waste) disposed by household around the study area. ...................................................................... 20

Figure 16 Quantity of waste dispose inthe studied landing area ......................................................... 21


viii

Acronyms used

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem

BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

CFU Colony-Forming Unit

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand

ECLO Total E. coli Like Count

EPA Environmental Protected Areas

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

GPS Global Positioning System

ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry

IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Units

PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyls

PHC Petroleum Hydrocarbon

SACEP South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme

SLO Salmonella-Like Organism

TCBS Thiosulfate Citrate Bile Sucrose

TDS Total dissolved solids

TOR Terms of Reference

TSS Total Suspended Solids

TVC Total Viable Counts

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture

USA United States of America

WHO World Health Organization

XLD Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate


1

1. Introduction

1.1. Pollution, resource exploitation and biodiversity of Asian seas

Water quality is an indicator which provides basic information on the health of marine waters and their ability to support the diverse habitats and the wide array of marine species that live in the marine environment. Asia is one of the main regions in our planet experiencing fast changes in human growth, economic status and land use (Atapattu and Kodituwakku 2009). Many Asian civilisations have evolved and still flourish in and around river catchments and later they expanded to adjacent coastal areas for commerce, trade and fisheries (Ibrahim and Shaw 2012). As a result, Asian seas experience human presence in several ways. Resource exploitation mainly for fish and shellfish and marine flora, crude oil and other natural elements, habitat alteration and fragmentation for development and settlement, introduction of alien species and release of both organic and inorganic chemical compounds to water are some of the main concerns regarding the human impact (Shahidul Islam et al., 2004). Assessment of water quality enables the identification of emerging trends of concern (population growth and pressure of urbanization) and also allows linking how activities on land affect marine water quality.

Since the ocean is widely considered as the universal sink for effluents in Asia, no concern was raised until recent years regarding this continuous inflow mainly because of the belief that seas are large enough to bear the impact. However work carried out by Bhuiyan et al., (2010) and Zietz et al., (2001) and their findings have raised fears about the health and safety of marine and near coastal ecosystems. The latest report of Global Outlook has indicated nutrient pollution as one of the 5 challenges faced by biodiversity (www.globaloutlook.org). Nutrient pollution is complex and often difficult to trace to points of origin (Guo et al., 2010; Zheng et al., 2011).

Agricultural activities are reported to contribute about 50% of the total pollution source of surface water by means of the higher nutrient enrichment, mainly ammonium ion (NH4) and NO3 derived from agricultural inputs. Ammonia constitutes a major contributor to the acidification of the environment, especially in areas with considerable intensive livestock farming (Hooda et al., 2000). The huge increases in fertilizer use worldwide over the past several decades are well documented (Aneja et al., 2012; Jones and Downing 2009).

Environmental pollution, a potential global problem, has rendered waters along the coastline and recreational beaches unsatisfactory for public use. Sewer outflows and runoffs from farms and urban areas not only threaten life in coastal regions but also endanger human health. There are frequent reports of enteric diseases, skin, ear, and eye infections of exposed swimmers in recreational beaches (Pruss, 1998). By far the greatest volume of waste discharged to the marine environment is sewage. Sewage effluent contains industrial waste, municipal wastes, animal remains and slaughterhouse wastes, water and wastes from domestic baths, utensils and washing machines, kitchen wastes, faecal matter and many others. Huge loads of such wastes are generated daily from highly populated cities and are finally washed out by the drainage systems which generally open into nearby rivers or aquatic systems (Babu et al., 2006; Igbinosa and Okoh 2008). To this is added human excreta (Poon et al., 2000), especially in some Asian countries where animal and human excreta are traditionally used in fish culture as well as on soils. The increasing human populations with inadequate and underdeveloped sewage management systems are a main problem along the coastlines of Asia. Seas receive large loadings of these nutrients via river mouths as well as from fish landing sites. Hence, coastal farming and human occupation have both raised environmental concerns due to intensive nutrient accumulation (Behera and Panda 2006; Conkright et al., 2000; Daby et al., 2002; Glasgow et al., 2004; Hubacek et al., 2007; Varol and Şen 2012; Wu and Wang

2007).


2

In addition to nutrient pollution, coastal waters are increasingly polluted by chemicals and chemical residues resulting from both point and non-point sources (Amaraneni 2006; Beg et al., 2003; de Mora et al., 2010). In recent years various xenobiotic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), agricultural and industrial chemicals like pesticides, weedicides, fertilizers, petroleum products as well as trace metals have been increasingly detected to be polluting waters (Klumpp et al., 2002; Saeedi et al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2003; Zietz et al., 2001).

Many synthetic organic chemicals (e.g. organochlorines, organophosphates, PAHs and organometals) are of growing environmental concern in oceans too, because of their high toxicity and high persistence in the environment and in biological systems (Commendatore et al., 2012). Furthermore, the high lipophilicity of many of these xenobiotics greatly enhances their bio concentration/bio magnifications, thereby posing potential health hazards on predators at higher trophic levels (including human beings). Nowadays, persistent xenobiotic compounds have been found in every part of the ocean: from Arctic to Antarctic, and from intertidal to abyssal (Bard 1999).

Similarly oil pollution has been receiving increasing attention since the middle of the 19th century with the increase in tanker operations and oil use and frequent marine tanker collisions and accidents resulting in oil spills (Gupta 1991; Sheppard et al., 2010). However, non-point oil pollution from vessels in harbours and allochthonous inputs from land seepages are equally important but had been paid little attention.

Heavy metals and trace elements are by-products of many industrial processes, and as such are discharged as waste into the marine environment (Akcali and Kucuksezgin 2011; Caliceti et al.,, 2002). They enter the marine environment through atmospheric and land based effluent sources. The metals considered toxic and which are of concern have been restricted largely, but not exclusively, to the ten which appear to be most poisonous to marine life. These include, in order of decreasing toxicity mercury, cadmium, silver, nickel, selenium, lead, copper, chromium, arsenic and zinc. Such water quality degradation affects a wide variety of aquatic environments including coastal waters, wetlands, estuaries, rivers, and reefs creating a serious health risk for wildlife and humans (Barbosa et al., 2010; Vardanyan and Ingole 2006).

Most of the coastal areas of the world have been reported to be damaged from pollution, significantly affecting commercial coastal and marine fisheries. Therefore, control of aquatic pollution has been identified as an immediate need for sustained management and conservation of the existing fisheries and aquatic resources. Unfortunately, the pollution problem is characterized by interconnectedness, complicated interactions, uncertainty, conflicts and constraints, making it difficult to control (Gerges 1994). Moreover, because scientific knowledge on marine pollution is patchy, knowledge gaps have been identified as one of the major problems in introducing effective management strategies for its control. This statement is especially true for Asian countries and because of the lack of data on actual situation, the threats of contamination to food and nutritional security of people is not known. Similarly how the environments are responding to such pollutant loading is also not clear.

Yet, such changes are happening in some of the most important ecosystems and one of them is the Gulf of Mannar and its surrounding sea.

1.2. Gulf of Mannar

The Indian Ocean, in contrast to the Pacific or Atlantic Oceans, has not been the focus of long term research. Here, the equatorial current system is strongly influenced by seasonal variation in the winds north of the equator. From November to March these winds blow from the north-east (NE monsoon), while from May to September the direction is reversed, i.e. from the south-west (SW monsoon) hence the chance of substance dispersion is very rapid.


3

Gulf of Mannar (GoM) is an inlet of the northern Indian Ocean, between south-eastern India and western Sri Lanka. It is bounded to the northeast by Rameswaram Island, Adam’s (Rama’s) Bridge which is a chain of shoals, and Mannar Island and Northern and North-western coast line of Sri Lanka. The Gulf is 80–170 miles (130–275 km) wide and 100 miles (160 km) long. It receives several rivers from both countries.

The GoM is a unique ecosystem characterized by its rich biodiversity specially the invertebrates (Parthasarathy et al., 1991). From the Sri Lankan side Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary is protected under Department of Wildlife Conservation Sri Lanka. Mannar is the largest southerly island from Sri Lanka extending towards India where water is shallow and is dotted with several temporary and permanent islands. Most of the islands have a luxuriant growth of mangrove vegetation along the shore lines and also have highly productive fringing and patchy coral reefs. The sea bottoms of the inshore areas around the islands are carpeted with sea grass beds which serve as a rich nursery and feeding ground of many important species (BOBLME 2013). As such this area also is the home to several communities living adjacent to the coast, directly and indirectly using the resources of Gulf of Mannar. Similarly, several fish landing sites have been in operation where human induced pressures are most strongly felt.

There are several rivers draining to GoM and work carried out so far has indicated the pollution levels in certain areas of the Gulf. However, most studies are for the Indian side of the GoM (Ayyamperumal et al., 2006; Burns and Smith 1981; Jonathan and Ram Mohan 2003; Rao et al., 2006; Santhiya et al., 2011) and so far no joint study has been conducted to evaluate the present status of Sri Lankan side of Gulf.

In Sri Lanka, Marine Environment Pollution Prevention Authority and Coastal Conservation Department in Sri Lanka are responsible for the monitoring of coastal pollution. Due to manpower and infrastructure inadequacies, water quality monitoring is confined to main coastal areas such as Colombo, Hikkaduwa, and Unawatuna etc. where coasts are either used for recreation or for shipping. Although the significance of Gulf of Mannar is known, the current report is the first document disseminating the outcomes from comprehensive water quality monitoring in this area.

This study was done with the support of the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Project in the lower part of GoM as this region has been identified as a critical transboundary habitat and the project focus for both India and Sri Lanka for the promotion of resources management and biodiversity conservation. Additionally, with the end of the war, there is a surge of coastal activities that have come up including tourism in Kapitiya, Mannar and islands and deep sea mining for exploration and exploitation of oil and gas resources. Outcomes from the current water quality study could serve as bench marks.

Additionally, this study explored the diversity of regular and irregular echinoids in the area for the purpose of recording their diversity as well as to establish any relationships between their density and water quality. Echinoids being key stone species of coastal ecosystems both rocky and sandy are ideal predictors of ecosystem responses to disturbances. In the northern part of the Persian Gulf, Echinometra methaei has been identified as a bio indicator of anthropogenic impacts on coral reefs (Valavi et al., 2010).

1.3. Focus of the research and specific questions addressed

Among few of the basic parameters, water quality assessment is vital as temporal and spatial changes in water quality affect other living organisms and the ecosystem health. The study quantified the status of water quality of selected strategic points.

Current study also quantified the nutrient pollution to the sea from fish dumps (fish landing sites where unwanted by-catch or unutilized catch is discarded). Since discarded fish and invertebrates as well as fish offal has so far not been looked at, the current study determined the fish and invertebrate by-catch composition.


4

Also the study explored the possibility of using one of the common non-commercial species of shallow coastal areas, sea urchins, as a possible indicator of pollution.

The study also recorded the diversity of sea urchins in the study area.

Objectives:

Provide an updated status report of water quality in GoM in relation to pollution impacts from fish landing sites and minor harbours.

Identify critical areas for water quality monitoring in GoM.

Assess the efficacy of echinoids as bio indicators of coastal health for GoM.

2. Approach for water and sediment quality and echinoid diversity estimates

2.1. Study area and sampling regimes

Field work was conducted from July 2014 to October 2015 in selected minor and major fish landing sites in the lower part of GoM (Figure 1). Sampling was done on day of spring low tide (±3 days) of each month for water quality. Surface water samples were collected into clean, leak-proof 500 ml glass containers. Water samples were collected in triplicate from each station, and average value for each variable was reported. The depth of the water column in the study areas was recorded and the locations were geo referenced. The depth of sampling sites varied from 0.5 to 3 m.


5

Figure 1 Sampling sites


6

The basic water quality parameters were measured in situ or within 4 hours of sample collection in the field stations. Turbidity was estimated by the nephelometric method using HACH turbidity meter. Total solids (TS) and Total dissolved solids (TDS) were determined by weighing the residue left after evaporation of 100 ml unfiltered and filtered water samples, respectively. Total suspended solids (TSS) were calculated by subtracting value of TDS from TS.

Winkler’s iodometric titration method was adopted for high precision dissolved oxygen (DO) estimation. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and carbon dioxide (CO2) were determined by titrimetric method. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) was estimated by open reflux method. Salinity was estimated by argentometric method.

Table 1 Instruments/methods used for water quality parameters

Parameter Test instrument and test type

DO Winkler’s iodometric method

pH Multi-parameter (HACH, USA)

Conductivity Multi-parameter (HACH, USA)

Salinity Refractometer (Hannah)

Temperature Multi-parameter (HACH, USA)

Nitrate Hach spectrophotometer 353N

Nitrite Hach spectrophotometer 373N

Phosphate(reactive orthophosphate) Hach spectrophotometer 480P

2.2. Estimation of heavy metals in sediments collected from major landing sites

The sediment samples were collected from a vicinity of 100 m from major fishing harbours in Negombo, Chillaw, Kalpitiya and Mannar using plastic corers at a depth up to 3 m. From each location three replicate samples were obtained and sampling was done every two months for 10 months resulting in five sampling occasions. Samples were stored on plastic containers and were transported in ice. Samples were frozen until analysis.

For the determination of trace metals in sediments, sediments were finely grounded. Triplicate samples were oven dried (120 °C), ashed (450 °C) and digested in concentrated HNO3 for “pseudo-total” digestion using a microwave (US EPA method 3051). Digested samples were evaporated to near-dryness, added to a 25 ml volumetric flask with three washes from beaker) and were diluted with dilute nitric acid (2% v/v). The filtered samples (Ashless Whatman 45) were collected into polypropylene centrifuge tubes. Samples were analysed using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As) and nickel (Ni). Reagent blanks were carried on in parallel with all sample analyses. Mean value of each heavy metal was calculated from three replicates in each site for each time period.

Additionally, organic carbon (%Corg) content of the sediment was determined following a rapid titration method (Walkley and Black, 1934).

2.3. Estimation of petroleum residues in water collected from major landing sites

Water samples were collected from Negombo, Chillaw, Kalpitiya and Mannar from a vicinity of 100 m from each major fishing harbour. Water was collected from surface into 5 L cleaned glass bottles (cleaned with n-hexane and dried and rinsed with the ambient seawater before sampling) and were stoppered in the sites itself. Seawater was extracted with n-hexane and the extract was concentrated after drying (IOC-UNESCO, 1984). Fluorescence of the extract was measured on a double beam Perkin–Elmer LS-3B fluorescence spectrophotometer at emission wavelength of 360 ±

1 nm (excitation wavelength 310 ± 1 nm). Each sample was tested for quenching by dilution as


7

recommended (IOC-UNESCO, 1984; Law et al., 1997). Blanks were measured following the same procedure using PHC-free seawater.

2.4. Total coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC), and faecal streptococci (FS)

Surface water samples were collected in sterile screw-capped bottles from Negombo, Chillaw, Kalpitiya and Mannar and sub samples were filtered (sterile Whatmann No. 1 filter paper). 100 μl of filtered water was used for inoculation. Isolation of bacteria was made using following selective growth media;

Nutrient agar for total viable counts (TVC)

Thiosulfate citrate bile sucrose (TCBS) agar for total Vibrios (TV)

MacConkey agar for total coliforms (TC) and E. coli-like organisms

Xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar for Salmonella-like organisms (SLO) and Shigella-like organisms

MFC agar for fecal coliforms

From each sampling station, six samples were collected. Typical colonies were inoculated into Rapid Microbial Limit Test kits recommended for diagnostic microbiology (HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Limited, India), for confirmation of the pathogens. Spread plates were used to determine number of colony forming units (CFU/mL; 37–44.5°C/48 h). Average number per plate was divided by sample volume (APHA, 1998).

2.5. Determination of waste disposal in landing sites in GoM

A pre tested questionnaire (Appendix I) was used in collecting data about the waste disposal practices in the landing sites. A total of 38 interviews were conducted in selected small, medium and large fish landing sites in GoM.


8

2.6. Determination of diversity of echinoids in GoM and determination of the population density

Initially diving and snorkelling were done in and around all the sampling sites to collect and identify the existing echinoid specimens and to determine diversity. During the non-monsoon season when diving is permitted, systematic diving was done to collect and determine the diversity of echinoids. However, the diving sessions proved that unlike in the southern coast of Sri Lanka, common regular echinoids such as Stomopnestes variolaris were absent in GoM. However, in areas with moderate silt, irregular echnoids were found. Similarly no echinoid populations were detected in the major fish landing sites. However, in Kalpitiya Peninsula and along the coastline up to Jaffna pockets of irregular echnoids were detected. Also some specific regular echinoids were found in areas with mixed coral, sea grass and rocky shores. Accordingly, no population estimation was done using transect methods. Study was limited to recording the diversity. All samples were geo-referenced using a GPS and samples were identified using standard identification keys.

The dead and fresh samples (approximately 3-5 samples of each species) were preserved in 10% formalin and in 95% ethanol for future analysis. Keys developed by Mortensen (1948 a & b, 1950, 1951), Schultz (2005, 2009) and the Echinoid Directory, an online key adopted by the British Natural

Figure 2 Interviewer administered questionnaire for waste disposal information collection


9

History Museum, UK (Smith & Kroh 2011) were used to identify specimens. Nomenclature was updated using the standards set by the World Echinoidea Database (Kroh & Mooi 2015). All the specimens were deposited in the Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila.

3. Results

Table 2 summarises the overall general water quality in the study area during the sampling period pooled for the region. The overall general water quality parameters in the sampling sites were in the accepted levels. However reactive phosphate, nitrite and nitrate levels showed fluctuations from site to site indicating that though the overall water quality is acceptable, pockets of elevated nutrient levels were seen. Also, surface sea temperature was relatively high during the study in the GoM (Figure 3).

Table 2 Summary of mean, SE of mean, minimum and maximum values of water quality parameters (DO, pH, conductivity, temperature, Nitrate , Nitrate and reactive Phosphate in the study area July 2014-October 2015)

Water quality parameter

Mean SE Mean Minimum Maximum

DO (mg/L) 6.748 0.27 5.23 9.78

pH 8.2132 0.0876 7.29 8.82

Conductivity (S/cm) 34.05 2.42 16.90 50.48

Salinity 24.70 1.47 5 38.00

Temperature (Celsius) 33.1 0.45 29.0 35.8

Nitrate (mg/L) 1.292 0.209 0 12.9

Nitrite (mg/L) 2.483 0.984 0 58

Phosphate (mg/L) 3.13 1.78 0 106.8


10

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e) (f)


11

(g)

Figure 3 Box plots depicting mean DO (a), pH (b), conductivity (c), temperature (d), Nitrate (e), Nitrite (f) and Phosphate (g) of the study area during January 2015-July 2015.

3.1. Biological and chemical oxygen demand (BOD and COD) in GoM

3.1.1. BOD of GoM BOD levels in the four sampling locations ranged from 2.2 – 7.8 ml/l. A significantly lower BOD level was recorded for Kalpitiya compared to Chillaw (ANOVA, P <0.001). There were no significant differences between the other three sites (Figure 4).

NegomboMannarKalpitiyaChillaw

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Location

BO

D (

ml/

l)

Boxplot of BOD

Figure 4 BOD levels in sampling sites

3.1.2. The COD of GoM A significantly lower COD value was recorded from Kalpitiya (11.7 ± 2.35 SE) compared to the other three locations. There were no significant differences between COD of Negombo (36.27 ± 2.35 SE) and Chillaw (29.1 ± 5.85 SE) (ANOVA, P <0.01) (Figure 5).


12


50

40

30

20

10

Location

CO

D (

mg

/l)

Boxplot of COD (mg/l)

Figure 5 COD levels in sampling sites

3.1.3. Total solids (TS) Total solids ranged between 17.2 and 42.5 in the four sampling sites. There were no significant differences in the level of total solids in the four locations (Figure 6).


42.5

40.0

37.5

35.0

32.5

30.0

27.5

25.0

Location

To

tal so

lids (

mg

/l)

Boxplot of Total solids (mg/l)

Figure 6 Total solid levels in sampling sites

3.1.4. Total suspended solids (TSS) There was a significantly lower level of total suspended solids in Kalpitiya (2 mg/l) compared to all other three locations. Similarly the highest level of TSS was recorded for Negombo. There was no significant difference between the TSS in Chilaw and Mannar (ANOVA, P <0.001) (Figure 7).


13


8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Location

To

tal S

usp

en

de

d S

olid

s (

mg

/l)

Boxplot of Total Suspended Solids (mg/l)

Figure 7 Total suspended solids levels in sampling sites

3.1.5. Total dissolved solids (TDS) TDS for all locations ranged between 22 and 38 mg/l. There was no significant difference between the TDS in four sampling sites (Figure 8).


40

35

30

25

20

Location

To

tal D

isso

lve

d S

olid

s (

mg

/l)

Boxplot of Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l)

Figure 8 Total dissolved solid levels in sampling sites

3.1.6. Turbidity A significantly lower turbidity was estimated for Kalpitiya (<20 NTU). Between the other three sampling sites, turbidity ranged between 21 and 38 NTU but did not differ significantly (ANOVA, P <0.001) (Figure 9).


14


50

40

30

20

10

Location

Tu

rbid

ity

(N

TU

)

Boxplot of Turbidity (NTU)

Figure 9 Turbidity levels in sampling sites

3.2. Temporal and spatial variation in water quality

TS, TDS, TSS and turbidity fluctuated with time in all four locations. The least fluctuation with time for all four parameters was seen in Kalpitiya. However there were no significant temporal fluctuations in any of the parameters (ANOVA, P >0.05).

Oct

ober

Sept

embe

r

Aug

ust

July

June

May

April

March

Febr

uary

Janu

ary

40

35

30

25

Neg

ombo

Man

nar

Kalpit iya

Chilla

w

40

35

30

25

Location

Month

Chillaw

Kalpitiya

Mannar

Negombo

Location

October

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Month

Interaction Plot for Total Solids (mg/l)Data Means

(a)


15

Octob

er

Sept

embe

r

Augu

st

July

June

May

April

Mar

ch

Febr

uary

Janu

ary

40

35

30

25

20

Nego

mbo

Man

nar

Kalpitiy

a

Chilla

w

40

35

30

25

20

Location

Month

Interaction Plot for Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l)Data Means

(b)

Oct

ober

Sept

embe

r

Augu

st

July

June

May

April

Mar

ch

Febr

uary

Janu

ary

8

6

4

2

0

Nego

mbo

Manna

r

Kalpitiya

Chilla

w

8

6

4

2

0

Location

Month

Interaction Plot for Total Suspended Solids (mg/l)Data Means

(c)


16

Octob

er

Sept

embe

r

Augu

st

July

June

May

April

Mar

ch

Febr

uary

Janu

ary

50

40

30

20

10

Nego

mbo

Man

nar

Kalpitiy

a

Chilla

w

50

40

30

20

10

Location

Month

Interaction Plot for Turbidity (NTU)Data Means

(d)

Figure 10 Temporal and spatial fluctuation of TS,TDS,TSS and turbidity in the study areas

3.3. Nurient pollution in small scale landing sites

Unusally high levels of reactive phosphate and nitrite were deteced in Sinna Karukkupanai in between Chillaw and Mannar. In all other landing sites nitrite, nitrate and reactive phosphate levels were below 10 mg/l (Figure 11).


17

Figure 11 Nutrient fluctuation in minor landing sites

3.4. Occurrence of heavy metals in sediments

The studied heavy metals were detected in all sampling locations in varying amounts. Chromium (Cr) was more abundant than the other heavy metals. Comparatively heavy metals were low in sediment samples collected from Kalpitiya (Table 3). Apart from nickel (Ni), there were no significant differences in the level of heavy metals between sampling sites. In case of Ni, Negombo had a significantly higher concentration of Ni in sediment compared to the other regions (ANOVA, P <0.05) (Figure 12).

Table 3 Summery of heavy metals in sediment samples collected from GoM

Location Description Pb

μg g− 1 dry

wt

Cd

μg g− 1 dry

wt

Cr

μg g− 1 dry

wt

As

μg g− 1 dry

wt

Ni

μg g− 1 dry

wt

Negombo Mean 3.7 2.1 16.1 3.4 12.4

Maximum 4.0 4.1 24.3 8.7 18.1

Minimum 0 0 4. 6 0 1.7

Chillaw Mean 3.2 1.1 12.8 4.6 5.1

Maximum 3.8 1.8 18.3 9.1 8.3

Minimum 0 0 1.1 0 0

Kalpitiya Mean 1.1 3.2 5.7 2.2 2.4

Maximum 1.9 4.4 14.1 4.1 4.8

Minimum 0 0.02 0 0 0


18

Mannar Mean 03 2.5 14.3 3.6 3.6

Maximum 0.8 3.7 23.2 6.1 6.3

Minimum 0 0 2,8 0 1.1

Figure 12 Mean values of each selected heavy metal concentration in sediments

3.5. Petroleum residue in water

Although petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) residue levels were higher in Negombo and Chillaw (5.17 ±

2.44, 5.34 ± 1.81 respectively) compared to Kalpitiya and Mannar (2.96 ± 21.46, 2.77 ± 2.02, respectively); overall there were no significant differences between the mean PHC residue levels in sea water.


9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Location

PH

c (

µg

/l)

Boxplot of PHc (µg/l)

Figure 13 Box plot of petroleum hydrocarbon residue levels in water


19

3.6. Microbial quality of water

The identified and confirmed microbial species were as follows:

Salmonella typhimurium

S. typhosa (to be confirmed)

Streptococcus fecalis

E. coli

Shigella-like organisms

There was a marked variation in total viable counts (TVC) in the four sites with Kalpitiya having the lowest TVC (312 ± 26) which was significantly lower than the other three regions (Table 4 and Figure 14).

Table 4 Distribution of bacteria in water (no./ml).

Type Negombo Chillaw Kapitiya Mannar

Total viable counts (TVC) ± SE 1400 ± 212.7 1360 ± 89 312 ± 26.5 980 ± 21

Total coliforms (TC) ± SE 108 ± 23 52 ± 12.1 6 ± 2.7 56 ± 10

Total E. coli like counts (ECLO) ± SE 43 ± 12 60 ± 20.5 2 ± 2.7 12 ± 3

Figure 14 Variations in microbial counts in study areas.

3.7. Waste disposal in the study area

Household survey of the study area revealed that no waste dumping system is available in any of the surrounding communities. Solid waste is either dumped into water or buried. In the case of polythene the most common practice was burning.


20

Table 5 Summary of mean, SE of mean, minimum and maximum values of three types of waste detected (polythene, plastic and food waste) disposed by people around the study area.

Type of waste amount (g/day) Mean SE mean Minimum Maximum

Polythene, paper and discarded

nets, buoys

254 177 10 2000

Plastic 178.5 96.9 10 1000

Food waste 608 175 100 2000

Figure 15 Mean amounts of types of waste (polythene, plastic and food waste) disposed by household around the study

area.

Landing site survey results indicated that fish guts and other trimmings as well as non-utilised by catch are directly thrown back to the sea whilst some are disposed on the land.

A 24 hour recall of solid waste dumping with 21 fishermen indicated that both solid and liquid wastes are discarded as and when it is generated into the sea or on land. Some fishermen of major landing sites indicated that used oil and lubricants are collected for sale but the practice is not wide spread.


21

Figure 16 Quantity of waste dispose inthe studied landing area

3.8. Irregular echinoids detected in GoM

Compared to regular echinoids, the study revealed that GoM is rich in diversity of irregular echinoids. The current study resulted in recording new species for Sri Lankan waters. This study recorded 19 taxa representing seven families with four new records from the field survey (Table 6 & Table 7).

Table 6 Irregular echinoids found in the region

Species References to literature recordings the

species in Sri Lanka

Recorded sites

and depth range

(m)

Echinoneoida

Echinoneidae

Koehleraster abnormalis

(de Loriol, 1883)

MFC, This study 15(9)

Clypeasteroida

Clypeasteridae

Clypeaster humilis (Leske, 1778) Agassiz 1872-1874; Bell 1888; Herdman

et al., 1904; Clark 1915; Clark and Rowe

1971; MFC, This study

8(25.6,27.5, 29) 13(27.5)

Clypeaster virescens Döderlein,

1885

This study (New record for Sri Lanka) 10(0), 13(0)

Laganidae

Jacksonaster depressum

depressum (L. Agassiz, 1841)

Bell 1888; Doderlein 1888; Herdman et

al., 1904; Clark 1915; Clark and Rowe

1971; MFC, This study

8(29), 16(27), 18(0)


22


delicatum (Mazzetti, 1894)

This study 16(9)


tonganense (L. Agassiz, 1841)

This study 16(9)

Jacksonaster depressum tenue

(Mortensen, 1948)

This study 21(0)

Peronella lesueuri lesueuri

(L. Agassiz, 1841)

Koehler 1922; Clark 1925; Clark and

Rowe 1971; This study

16(0), 18(0)

Peronella lesueuri rostrata

(L. Agassiz, 1841)

This study 16(9)

Peronella oblonga Mortensen,

1948

Mortensen 1948b; Mortensen 1949;

Clark and Rowe 1971; This study

16(9)

Peronella orbicularis

(Leske, 1778)

This study (New record for Sri Lanka) 19(0)

Astriclypeidae

Sculpsitechinus auritus

(Leske, 1778)

Doderlein 1888; Herdman et al., 1904;

Clark 1915; Clark and Rowe 1971; MFC,

This study

8(25.6, 29), 13(27.5),

14(1.5), 15(6), 16(9),

17(0)

Echinodiscus bisperforatus

Leske,1778

Bell 1882; Bell 1887; Doderlein 1888;


This study

13(0), 14(1.5) ,

Echinodiscus truncatus L. Agassiz,

1841

This study (New record for Sri Lanka) 7(0), 9(0), 12(0),

13(0), 14(1.5)

Echinolampadoida

Echinolampadidae

Echinolampas alexandri de Loriol,

1876

Clark 1915; 1917; Clark and Rowe 1971;

This study

8(25.6, 27.5), 15(6),

16(9)

Echinolampas ovata (Leske, 1778) Bell 1887; Herdman et al., 1904; Clark

1915; 1917; Clark and Rowe 1971; MFC,

This study

8(6,27, 27.5), 15(6),

16(9)

Spatangoida

Spatangidae

Lovenia elongata (Gray, 1845) Doderlein 1888; Herdman et al., 1904;


This study

16(9), 20(0),

Eurypatagidae

Brissus agassizii Döderlein, 1885 This study (New record for Sri Lanka) 15(20), 16(9)


23

Metalia sternalis (Lamarck, 1816) Clark 1915; Clark and Rowe 1971; MFC,

This study

15(20), 16(9), 17(0)

Morawala= 7, Meegomuwa= 8, Palangathure= 9, Waikkala=10, Kolinjadiya= 11, Mudukatuwa= 12, Marawila= 13, Periyapaduwa= 14, Baththalangunduwa= 15, Silavathurai= 16, Mandathivu= 17, Chatty beach= 18, Casuarina each = 19, Valvettithurai= 20

Table 7 Irregular sea urchins recorded in Gulf of Mannar

Species Image

1 Echinodiscus bisperforatus

2 Echinodiscus truncatus


24

3 Echinolampas alexandri

4 Echinolampas ovata

5 Jacksonaster depressum ssp 1

6 Jacksonaster depressum ssp 1


25

7 Koehleraster abnormalis

8 Peronella lesueuri

9 Peronella oblonga

10 Peronella sp 1


26

11 Sculpsitechinus auritus

12 Clypeaster humilis

13 Lovenia elongata

14 Metalia sternalis


27

15 Brissus agassizii

3.9. Regular echinoids

Compared to irregulars, the regular echinoid diversity was low. They were confined mainly to coral reefs and rocky shallow seas of the GoM. Interestingly, the most common regular echinoid in the Western and Southern parts of Sri Lanka Stomopneustes variolaris was not very abundant in GoM, rather, Salmaciella dussumieri was the most abundant species in GoM.

Following species were recorded:

Family Species

1 Stomopneustidae Stomopneustes variolaris (Lamarck, 1816)

2 Toxopnestidae Tripneustes gratilla (Linneus, 1758)


28

3 Diadematidae Diadema savingnyi (Michelin, 1845)

Echinothrix diadema (Linnaeus, 1758)

4 Echinometridae Echinometra mathaei (Blainville, 1825)

Echinostrephus molaris (de Blainville, 1815)


29

5 Temnopleuridae Salmacis bicolor (Agassiz, in Agassiz & Desor, 1846)

Salmaciella dussumieri (L. Agassiz 1846)

4. Discussion

The current study is the first of its kind in Sri Lankan side of lower GoM and the results give alarming revelations on the current water quality of the area. In particular the nitrite, nitrate and reactive phosphate levels as well as the heavy metal and petroleum hydrocarbon levels in major landing sites clearly indicate that coastal water is no more pristine. Contamination of aquatic environment by trace metals has been intensively studied in recent years, due to the fact that metals are persistent, toxic, tend to bio accumulate, and that they induce a risk for humans and ecosystems (Liang et al., 2011 and Lenoble et al., 2013). Metals enter the aquatic environment of GoM from a variety of sources. Although most metals are naturally occurring through the biogeochemical cycle (Garrett, 2000), they may also be added to environment through anthropogenic sources, including industrial and domestic effluents containing toxic metals as well as metal chelates (Amman et al., 2002), urban storm water runoff (Lantzy and Mackenzie, 1979, Nriagu, 1979 and Ross, 1994), landfill leachate, atmospheric sources and boating activities (Forstner and Wittman, 1979). These point and non-point sources of pollution are responsible for deterioration of water quality posing a threat for human beings and sustaining aquatic biodiversity (Ghosh and Vass, 1997 and Das et al., 1997). In Sri Lankan side of GoM there are very few industries that can release heavy metals along the coastline. Nonetheless GoM is the recipient of water from several rivers which run through cities and agricultural areas as well. Heavy metals are also transported by water or wind to coastal areas, where they can be deposited as sediments. Throughout the study Negombo and Chillaw harbours emerged as places with high levels of heavy metals followed by Mannar. As these three areas have semi-enclosed water and are estuaries and lagoons with high levels of human habitation and presence of industries, the comparatively higher level of pollution may be explained. Conversely,


30

since Kalpitiya is connected to the open sea through the Puttalum Peninsula, the influence of long shore currents in this area, compared to other sites, may assist dispersion and dilution of pollutants.

The results of heavy metals also raise the need to better identify both point and non-point sources of pollutants. The main reason for this is the increasing complex mixture of chemicals discharged to the coastal zone from non-point sources. Coastal areas are usually urbanized and industrialized, and are therefore subjected to the release of trace metals sometimes in significant amounts (Diop et al., 2012, Memet and Bülent, 2012 and Bodin et al., 2013). Indeed, sediments are ecologically important components of the aquatic habitat and are also a reservoir of contaminants, which play a significant role in maintaining the trophic status of any water body. Additionally, the presence of these heavy metals in sediment could result in bioaccumulation through the food web. For an example, molluscan capacity to magnify and integrate aquatic pollutants is well known (Bourgoin, 1990).

The measurements of some pollutants in the water column only are not conclusive due to water discharge fluctuations and low residence time. This could be true for Kalpitiya where offshore currents have the capacity to flush the sediments as well as the water entering through Puttalum lagoon. However the sediment plays an important role as they have a long residence time. The pollution status of marine sediments has often been used as an important criterion to evaluate the condition of coastal environment and to understand the possible environmental changes caused by anthropogenic activities (Chapman et al., 2013). Due to persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity of trace metal pollution, investigations of coastal areas have been carried out in many rapidly developing regions around Asia to evaluate metal enrichment and pollution status (Zhang and Gao, 2015, Gao and Li, 2012, Hosono et al., 2010, Hu et al., 2013, Jiang et al., 2014). Current results add to the existing wealth of knowledge. For example, recent studies by Venkataraman et al. (2015), after analysing the heavy metals in Southern coast of India, have indicated both geometric and anthropogenic causes responsible for metal accumulation. Though the values recorded in this study are lower than the values recorded in this study, the problem is now evident from most coastal zones of the Indian Ocean. Similarly, the role of organic matter concentration in sediment plays a role (Marchand et al., 2011). Additional determination of tolerable levels of heavy metals in near coastal zones and harbours should be done. This, however, should be mentioned with the fact that despite the quantifications, Asian nations have taken minimal or no action to prevent or minimize such point and non-point sources.

The by-catch study, coupled with the waste disposal information quantified in this study, indicates the need for waste management policies that could lead to effective actions. The actions should be three fold;

1. National dialogue on gears and their use resulting in identification of harmful gear, mesh sizes and vulnerable areas. This could then be used to determine mesh sizes, fish refugia, types of fishing and gears that can be banned with community consent.

2. Provision of finances and technical expertise for national waste disposal system. The bottom up approach is recommended here as one uniform waste disposal mechanism may not be viable. This should include facilities for crude and used oil collection in harbours, organic waste collection and use for product development such as fish meal and fertiliser.

3. Awareness among coastal communities on oceanic biodiversity and the impact of by catch on their income and livelihood.

The results revealed coastal communities still believing that the sea could serve as the ultimate dumping ground. The main problem that hinders even the environmentally sensitive individual to dump litter to sea is lack of any other option.

PHC levels in GoM clearly indicate the level of fuel and fuel residue discharges to water. In Sri Lanka mechanisation of fishing vessels is happening rapidly and apart from few non mechanised vessels like Vallam, most others are mechanised. The main fuel types used are diesel and kerosene oil. During the study period we constantly observed the oily nature of surface water in all sampling sites


31

and also witnessed the dumping of used petroleum products directly into the sea. In 2003, the National Research Council published Oil in the Sea III, a widely respected report that highlights priority areas for oil spill research (NRC, 2003). Cited as a “high priority” is the study of “chronic biological effects resulting from the persistence of medium and high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic compounds and their degradation products in sediments”. We have extensive information on acute effects of spilled oil on marine ecosystems and populations, but the lingering effect of long-term exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons remains one of the largest unknowns (Burns and Teal, 1971, Sanders et al., 1980 and Teal et al., 1992). For example, it is considerably easier to detect oil residues in salt marsh sediments (Reddy et al., 2002) than to document ecosystem impacts resulting from these contaminants (Peterson et al., 2003). PHC in seawater can result in fisheries decline by affecting the growth, reproduction, and survival of fishery species. For example, the Exxon Valdez oil spill resulted in a significant reduction (52.3%) in Pacific herring larval production in Prince William Sound in 1989 (Brown et al., 1996). Pollution of the sea by petroleum hydrocarbons occurs mainly through marine operations, land based discharges, and atmospheric and natural inputs (IMCO, 1977; GESAMP, 1993). The total input of petroleum to the oceans through man's activities and sources such as atmospheric fallout, natural seepage, etc. is estimated at 2.37 × 106 t y−1 (Kennish, 1997). Out of these, about 65.2% is discharged through municipal and industrial wastes, urban and river runoffs, oceanic dumping and atmospheric fallout; 26.2% derives from discharges during transportation, dry docking, tanker accidents, de-ballasting, etc.; and remaining 8.5% comes from fixed installations like coastal refineries, offshore production facilities, marine terminals, etc. (GESAMP, 1993). Though a considerable fraction of petroleum hydrocarbons entering the marine environment is removed by evaporation, a portion gets distributed in water, accumulated in sediment and transferred to biota. Under high loading of organic matter through sewage and other anthropogenic sources (Zingde, 1999) the sediment is expected to be anoxic and the petroleum residues deposited in the sediment would be preserved due to very low rate of microbial degradation (IOC-UNESCO, 1982). Since such conditions can easily be created in the area it is vital to introduce good management practices for fuel release.

The hydrobiology of marine ecosystem plays an important role in predicting, locating, and exploiting the marine fishery resources (Asha and Diwakar, 2007). As GoM is a vital fishing ground to both India and Sri Lanka it is important to develop bilateral actions to manage this critical transboundary marine habitat. Nutrient pollution of South Asian Sea has already being highlighted by BOBLME and scoping of the issue has already being done by SACEP (BOBLME 2014). At that workshop attempts were made to introduce the ecosystem approach to management for pollution in South Asian seas. Coupled with nutrient pollution this study also highlighted the issue of microbial composition in GoM that clearly indicate the release of faecal matter to sea water. Water quality is an indicator which provides basic information on the health of marine waters and their ability to support the diverse habitats and the wide array of marine species that live in the marine environment. It enables the identification of emerging trends of concern (population growth and pressure of urbanization) and also allows linking how activities on land affect marine water quality (Marine Water Quality, 2013).

Current study attempted using echinoids as indicators of pollution. However, regular echinoid diversity of the area was distinctly different to Western and Southern coasts of Sri Lanka. Very interestingly, the results indicate the very high irregular echinoid diversity which resulted in new records for Sri Lankan waters. Since irregular echinoids are sediment dwellers, it would be important to study the impacts of pollution and their accumulation in these species.


32

5. References

Akcali I, Kucuksezgin F (2011). A biomonitoring study: Heavy metals in macroalgae from eastern Aegean coastal areas. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62: 637-645.

Amaraneni SR (2006). Distribution of pesticides, PAHs and heavy metals in prawn ponds near Kolleru lake wetland, India. Environment International 32: 294-302.

Ammal M. Abdel (2002). Environmental studies on the impact of the drains effluent upon the Southern sector of lake manzalah, Egypt. Biology and Fish, 5(3), 17–30.

Amman, A.A B. Michalke, P. Schramel (2002). Speciation of heavy metals in environmental water by ion chromatography coupled to ICP-MS Anal. Biochem, 372 pp. 448–452.

Aneja VP, Schlesinger WH, Erisman JW, Behera SN, Sharma M, Battye W (2012). Reactive nitrogen emissions from crop and livestock farming in India. Atmospheric Environment 47: 92-103.

Antizar-ladislao, B., Mondal, P., Mitra, S., & Kumar, S (2015). Assessment of trace metal contamination level and toxicity in sediments from coastal regions of West Bengal, eastern part of India. MPB, 1–9. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.11.014.

Asha, P. S., & Diwakar, K (2007). Hydrobiology of the inshore waters off Tuticorin in the Gulf of Mannar. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India, 49(1), 7–11.

Atapattu SS, Kodituwakku DC (2009). Agriculture in South Asia and its implications on downstream health and sustainability: A review. Agricultural Water Management 96: 361-373.

Ayyamperumal T, Jonathan MP, Srinivasalu S, Armstrong-Altrin JS, Ram-Mohan V (2006). Assessment of acid leachable trace metals in sediment cores from River Uppanar, Cuddalore, Southeast coast of India. Environmental Pollution 143: 34-45.

Babu MT, Kesava Das V, Vethamony P (2006). BOD–DO modeling and water quality analysis of a waste water outfall off Kochi, west coast of India. Environment International 32: 165-173

Barbosa JS, Cabral TM, Ferreira DN, Agnez-Lima LF, Batistuzzo de Medeiros SR (2010). Genotoxicity assessment in aquatic environment impacted by the presence of heavy metals. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 73: 320-325.

Bard SM (1999). Global Transport of Anthropogenic Contaminants and the Consequences for the Arctic Marine Ecosystem. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38: 356-379.

Beg MU, Saeed T, Al-Muzaini S, Beg KR, Al-Bahloul M (2003). Distribution of petroleum hydrocarbon in sediment from coastal area receiving industrial effluents in Kuwait. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 54: 47-55.

Behera S, Panda RK (2006). Evaluation of management alternatives for an agricultural watershed in a sub-humid subtropical region using a physical process based model. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 113: 62-72.

Bhuiyan MAH, Islam MA, Dampare SB, Parvez L, Suzuki S (2010). Evaluation of hazardous metal pollution in irrigation and drinking water systems in the vicinity of a coal mine area of northwestern Bangladesh. Journal of Hazardous Materials 179: 1065-1077.

BOBLME (2014). Report of the Sub-regional workshop to validate the scoping study of nutrient pollution on the coastal and marine systems of South Asia, 21 to 22 May 2014, Colombo, Sri Lanka. BOBLME-2014-Ecology-16.

BOBLME (2013). Report of the second bi-national stakeholder consultation on sustaining the Gulf of Mannar ecosystem and its resources, 18–20 June 2012, Jaffna, Sri Lanka. BOBLME-2013-Ecology-06.


33

Bodin, N., N’Gom-Kâ, R., Kâ, S., Thiaw, O. T., De Morais, L. T., Le Loc’h, F., & Chiffoleau, J. F (2013). Assessment of trace metal contamination in mangrove ecosystems from Senegal, West Africa. Chemosphere, 90(2), 150–157.

Bourgoin, B. P (1990). Mytilus edulis shell as a bioindicator of lead pollution: Considerations on bioavailability and variability. Marine Ecology Progress Series. Oldendorf, 61(3), 253–262.

Brown, E. D., Baker, T. T., Hose, J. E., Kocan, R. M., Marty, G. D., McGurk, M. D., & Short, J (1996). Injury to the early life history stages of Pacific herring in Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. In American Fisheries Society Symposium.

Burns KA, Smith JL (1981). Biological monitoring of ambient water quality: the case for using bivalves as sentinel organisms for monitoring petroleum pollution in coastal waters. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 13: 433-443.

Burns, K. A., & Teal, J. M (1971). Hydrocarbon incorporation into the salt marsh ecosystem from the West Falmouth oil spill.

Caliceti M, Argese E, Sfriso A, Pavoni B (2002). Heavy metal contamination in the seaweeds of the Venice lagoon. Chemosphere 47: 443-454.

Chapman, P. M., Wang, F., & Caeiro, S. S (2013). Assessing and managing sediment contamination in transitional waters. Environment International, 55, 71–91.

Chouksey, M. K (2004). Petroleum hydrocarbon residues in the marine environment of Bassein – Mumbai. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49, 637–647. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.04.007.

Commendatore MG, Nievas ML, Amin O, Esteves JL (2012). Sources and distribution of aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in coastal sediments from the Ushuaia Bay (Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia, Argentina). Marine Environmental Research 74: 20-31.

Conkright ME, Gregg WW, Levitus S (2000). Seasonal cycle of phosphate in the open ocean. Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 47: 159-175.

Culbertson, J. B., Valiela, I., Peacock, E. E., Reddy, C. M., Carter, A., & Vanderkruik, R (2007). Long-term biological effects of petroleum residues on fiddler crabs in salt marshes. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54, 955–962. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.02.015.

Daby D, Turner J, Jago C (2002). Microbial and nutrient pollution of coastal bathing waters in Mauritius. Environment International 27: 555-566.

Das, R. K., Bhowmick, S., Ghosh, S. P., & Dutta, S. (1997). Coliform and fecal coliform bacterial load in a stretch of Hooghly. In the National seminar on changing perspectives of inland fisheries, Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore (pp. 11–16).

de Mora S, Tolosa I, Fowler SW, Villeneuve J-P, Cassi R, Cattini C (2010). Distribution of petroleum hydrocarbons and organochlorinated contaminants in marine biota and coastal sediments from the ROPME Sea Area during 2005. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60: 2323-2349.

Deb, B., Chandra, D., Kumar, S., Naha, S., Rakshit, D., & Ahmed, K (2015). Distribution of dissolved trace metals in coastal regions of Indian Sundarban mangrove wetland : a multivariate approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 96, 233–243. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.030.

Diop, C., Dewaele, D., Toure, A., Cabral, M., Cazier, F., Fall, M., & Diouf, A (2012). Study of sediment contamination by trace metals at wastewater discharge points in Dakar (Senegal). J. Water Sci, 25(3), 277–285.

El-sorogy, A. S., & Youssef, M. (2015). Journal of African Earth Sciences Assessment of heavy metal contamination in intertidal gastropod and bivalve shells from central Arabian Gulf coastline,


34

Saudi Arabia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 111, 41–53. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.07.012.

Förstner, U., & Wittmann, G. T (1979). Metal pollution in the aquatic environment. Springer Science & Business Media.

Gao, X., Li, P., 2012 (2012). Concentration of fraction of trace metals in surface sediments of international Bohani Bay, Chin.Mar.Pollut.Bull. Pollut.Bull., 64, 1529–1536.

Garrett R.G (2000). Natural sources of metals to the environment Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess., 6 , pp. 945–963.

Garrett, R. G (2000). Natural sources of metals to the environment. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 6(6), 945–963.

Gerges MA (1994). Marine pollution monitoring, assessment and control: UNEP's approach and strategy. Marine Pollution Bulletin 28: 199-210.

GESAMP. (1993). FAO. UNESCO-IOC/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollutionl 1991a. Reducing Environmental Impacts of Coastal Aquaculture. Fleg. S.

Ghosh, S. (1997). Role of sewage treatment plant in Environmental mitigation. In the national seminar on changing perspectives of inland fisheries, Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore (pp. 39–40).

Glasgow HB, Burkholder JM, Reed RE, Lewitus AJ, Kleinman JE (2004). Real-time remote monitoring of water quality: a review of current applications, and advancements in sensor, telemetry, and computing technologies. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 300: 409-448.

Guo W, Liu X, Liu Z, Li G (2010). Pollution and Potential Ecological Risk Evaluation of Heavy Metals in the Sediments around Dongjiang Harbor, Tianjin. Procedia Environmental Sciences 2: 729-736.

Gupta RS (1991). Gulf oil spill and India. Marine Pollution Bulletin 22: 423-424.

Hooda PS, Edwards AC, Anderson HA, Miller A (2000). A review of water quality concerns in livestock farming areas. Science of the Total Environment 250: 143-167.

Hosono, T., Su, C. C., Siringan, F., Amano, A., & Onodera, S. I (2010). Effects of environmental regulations on heavy metal pollution decline in core sediments from Manila Bay. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60(5), 780–785.

Hu, B., Li, J., Zhao, J., Yang, J., Bai, F., & Dou, Y (2013). Heavy metal in surface sediments of the Liaodong Bay, Bohai Sea: distribution, contamination, and sources. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185(6), 5071–5083.

Hubacek K, Guan D, Barua A (2007). Changing lifestyles and consumption patterns in developing countries: A scenario analysis for China and India. Futures 39: 1084-1096.

Ibrahim HS, Shaw D (2012). Assessing progress toward integrated coastal zone management: Some lessons from Egypt. Ocean & Coastal Management 58: 26-35.

Igbinosa EO, Okoh AI (2008). Emerging Vibrio species: an unending threat to public health in developing countries. Research in Microbiology 159: 495-506.

IMCO (1977). IMCO and the Regulation of Ocean Pollution from Ships. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 26(3), 558–584.

IOC-UNESCO (1984). Manual for monitoring oil and dissolved dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons in marine waters and on beaches. Manual and Guides No. 13, 35 pp.

IOC-UNESCO (1982). The determination of petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments.

Jiang, X., Teng, A., Xu, W., & Liu, X (2014). Distribution and pollution assessment of heavy metals in surface sediments in the Yellow Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 83(1), 366–375.


35

Jonathan MP, Ram Mohan V (2003). Heavy metals in sediments of the inner shelf off the Gulf of Mannar, South East Coast of India. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46: 263-268.

Jones JR, Downing JA (2009). Agriculture. In: Editor-in-Chief: Gene EL (Ed) Encyclopaedia of Inland Waters. Academic Press, Oxford, 225-233.

Kennish, M. J (1996). Practical handbook of estuarine and marine pollution. CRC press.

Klumpp DW, Huasheng H, Humphrey C, Xinhong W, Codi S (2002) Toxic contaminants and their biological effects in coastal waters of Xiamen, China: I. Organic pollutants in mussel and fish tissues. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44: 752-760.

Lantzy, R. J., & Mackenzie, F. T (1979). Atmospheric trace metals: global cycles and assessment of man’s impact. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 43(4), 511–525.

Lenoble, V., Omanović, D., Garnier, C., Mounier, S., Đonlagić, N., Le Poupon, C., & Pižeta, I (2013). Distribution and chemical speciation of arsenic and heavy metals in highly contaminated waters used for health care purposes (Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina). Science of the Total Environment, 443, 420–428.

Liang, C. P., Liu, C. W., Jang, C. S., Wang, S. W., & Lee, J. J (2011). Assessing and managing the health risk due to ingestion of inorganic arsenic from fish and shellfish farmed in blackfoot disease areas for general Taiwanese. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 186(1), 622–628.

Marchand, C., Allenbach, M., Lallier-verg, E., Marchand, C., Allenbach, M., & Lallier-verg, E (2011). Relationships between heavy metals distribution and organic matter cycling in mangrove sediments ( Conception Bay , New Caledonia ) es To cite this version : Geoderma, 160, 444–456.

Nriagu, J. O (1979). Global inventory of natural and anthropogenic emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere.

Parthasarathy N, Ravikumar K, Ganesan R, Ramamurthy K (1991). Distribution of seagrasses along the coast of Tamil Nadu, southern India. Aquatic Botany 40: 145-153.

Peterson, C. H., Rice, S. D., Short, J. W., Esler, D., Bodkin, J. L., Ballachey, B. E., & Irons, D. B (2003). Long-term ecosystem response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Science, 302(5653), 2082–2086.

Poon K-F, Wong RW-H, Lam MH-W, Yeung H-Y, Chiu TK-T (2000). Geostatistical modelling of the spatial distribution of sewage pollution in coastal sediments. Water Research 34: 99-108.

Pruss A (1998). Review of Epidemiological studies on health effects from exposure to recreational water. Int. J. Epidemiol., 27 (1998), pp. 1–9.

Rao JV, Kavitha P, Reddy NC, Rao TG (2006). Petrosia testudinaria as a biomarker for metal contamination at Gulf of Mannar, southeast coast of India. Chemosphere 65: 634-638.

Raoa, K. V., & Raob, N. S (1997). Composition of dredged spoils of Indian harbours : Part I - heavy metals. Science of the Total Environment, 207(1), 13–19.

Reddy, C. M., Eglinton, T. I., Hounshell, A., White, H. K., Xu, L., Gaines, R. B., & Frysinger, G. S (2002). The West Falmouth oil spill after thirty years: The persistence of petroleum hydrocarbons in marsh sediments. Environmental Science & Technology, 36(22), 4754–4760.

Ross, S. M. (1994). Toxic metals in soil-plant systems. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Saeedi M, Li LY, Salmanzadeh M (2012). Heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Pollution and ecological risk assessment in street dust of Tehran. Journal of Hazardous Materials 227–228: 9-17.

Sanders, H. L., Grassle, J. F., Hampson, G. R., Morse, L. S., Garner-Price, S., & Jones, C. C (1980). Anatomy of an oil spill: long-term effects from the grounding of the barge Florida off West Falmouth, Massachusetts.


36

Santhiya G, Lakshumanan C, Jonathan MP, Roy PD, Navarrete-Lopez M, Srinivasalu S, Uma-Maheswari B, Krishnakumar P (2011). Metal enrichment in beach sediments from Chennai Metropolis, SE coast of India. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62: 2537-2542.

Shahidul Islam M, Jahangir Sarker M, Yamamoto T, Abdul Wahab M, Tanaka M (2004). Water and sediment quality, partial mass budget and effluent N loading in coastal brackishwater shrimp farms in Bangladesh. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48: 471-485.

Sharma DN, Sawant AA, Uma R, Cocker DR (2003). Preliminary chemical characterization of particle-phase organic compounds in New Delhi, India. Atmospheric Environment 37: 4317-4323.

Sheppard C, Al-Husiani M, Al-Jamali F, Al-Yamani F, Baldwin R, Bishop J, Benzoni F, Dutrieux E, Dulvy NK, Durvasula SRV, Jones DA, Loughland R, Medio D, Nithyanandan M, Pilling GM, Polikarpov I, Price ARG, Purkis S, Riegl B, Saburova M, Namin KS, Taylor O, Wilson S, Zainal K (2010). The Gulf: A young sea in decline. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60: 13-38.

Teal, J. M., Farrington, J. W., Burns, K. A., Stegeman, J. J., Tripp, B. W., Woodin, B., & Phinney, C (1992). The West Falmouth oil spill after 20 years: fate of fuel oil compounds and effects on animals. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 24(12), 607–614.

Vardanyan LG, Ingole BS (2006). Studies on heavy metal accumulation in aquatic macrophytes from Sevan (Armenia) and Carambolim (India) lake systems. Environment International 32: 208-218.

Varol M, Şen B (2012). Assessment of nutrient and heavy metal contamination in surface water and sediments of the upper Tigris River, Turkey. CATENA 92: 1-10.

Varol, M., & Şen, B (2012). Assessment of nutrient and heavy metal contamination in surface water and sediments of the upper Tigris River, Turkey. Catena, 92, 1–10.

Venkatramanan, S., Chung, S., & Ramkumar, T (2016). Evaluation of geochemical behavior and heavy metal distribution of sediments : The case study of the Tirumalairajan river estuary , southeast coast of India. International Journal of Sediment Research, 30(1), 28–38. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-6279(15)60003-8.

Wu M-L, Wang Y-S (2007). Using chemometrics to evaluate anthropogenic effects in Daya Bay, China. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 72: 732-742.

Xu, S., Song, J., Yuan, H., Li, X., Li, N., Duan, L., & Yu, Y (2011). Petroleum hydrocarbons and their effects on fishery species in the Bohai Sea , North China. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 23(4), 553–559. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(10)60447-0.

Zhang, J., & Gao, X (2015). Heavy metals in surface sediments of the intertidal Laizhou Bay, Bohai Sea, China: Distributions, sources and contamination assessment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 98(1), 320–327.

Zheng B, Zhao X, Liu L, Li Z, Lei K, Zhang L, Qin Y, Gan Z, Gao S, Jiao L (2011). Effects of hydrodynamics on the distribution of trace persistent organic pollutants and macrobenthic communities in Bohai Bay. Chemosphere 84: 336-341.

Zietz BP, Nordholt G, Ketseridis G, Pfeiffer EH (2001). Mutagenicity of Baltic Seawater and the Relation to Certain Chemical and Microbiological Parameters. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42: 845-851.

Zingde, M. D (1999). Marine pollution-What are we heading for?, Ocean science, Trends and future directions, Somayajulu, B.L.K.: 229-245P.


37

Appendix I Pre tested questionnaire

Name of the data collector :

Data entered : Yes/No

Entered data verified with raw data : Yes/No

A preliminary survey of the states of fish landing sites along the Western and Northwestern coast of Sri Lanka

Date :.............................................

Name of the village :.............................................

1. Type : harbor/landing site(circle the appropriate) Category

Type Months

Permanent

Temporary /seasonal

Less than 20 vessels A

20-75 vessels B

74-150 vessels C

More than 150 vessels

D

Site No.

GPS location


38

2. Vessels and gears

Type of vessel

Mechanized(M)/non- mechanized (NM)

Number of vessels per day

Average distance

covered

(km)

Frequency of visit

Type of fuel

Quantity of fuel per travel

Fuel consumption per km

One day boat

Theppam

Wallam

Multiday boat

Type of vessel

Description Average Variation Remarks - indicate reason

Species

One day boat

Theppam

Wallam

Multiday boat


39

Type of gear used

Type of gear

Type of vessel

Typical mesh size

Dimensions

(length x width x height) (m)

Weight

(kg)

Average

life span

(years)

Type of material

Fate once used is over

Season used

3. Harbor management or landing site management : Responsible agencies

Agency

Staff TOR

Category No category No Category No

4. Storage facilities

Any storage facilities in the harbor/landing site

If No,

Yes No

Distance to the nearest ice factory( km)

Location


40

If Yes,

Type of facility

(ice/fish/salt/

other)

Capacity

(kg/H/day)

Working condition

Used/not used

Frequency of cleaning

Chemicals used for cleaning

Fate of chemicals

5. Fish collection from harbor/landing site

Type of vehicles

No of vessels

How often

Amount of purchase(kg)

Type of fish collected

Remarks

6. Fish quality assurance (preservation methods)

At the site of fishing


41

Type of vessel

In percentage (%) Remarks

comes already iced in vessel

iced in the harbor

sold directly without icing

thrown away as trash fish

sent for preparing dried fish

By-catch utilized

One day boat

Theppam

Wallam

Multi day boat

7. Fate of by-catch and by catch characterization

Species (other than fish)

Type of gear Area In last six months (How many?)

What do you do?

a. By-catch management (fish species)

Type of fish Type of gear and vessel

Month of highest catch

Final fate Remarks


42

b. Any indirect uses of by-catch

Uses Species

Bait

Shells

Fish meal

8. Type of coast

Type

Rocky

Sandy

Muddy

Coral

a. Presence of natural geographical features

If present, mark (x) for relevant natural geographical features

Rivers

Streams Lakes Bays Canals Sand bars

Coral reef

River mouths

Lagoon Estuary Protected areas

Sea grass beds


43

Accordingly.............

Feature Name Distance from the harbor/landing site (m)

Important points

9. Waste management

1. Type

Category Examples Amount per day(Kg)

Final fate Location Remarks**

Solid

De

grad

able

Fish guts

Fish fins

Fish heads

Shells

Rotten fish

By-catch

No

n d

egr

adab

le

Fishing nets

Buoy

Ridiform boxes

Polythene bags


44

Plastic

Liq

uid

Ch

em

ical

s

Petrol

Desal

Kerosin

Greece

Oth

er

Fish blood

11. People

Number of houses :..............................................................................

Number of families depending on harbor :...............................................................................

Type of work carried out in the harbor :...............................................................................

Type of other occupations :...............................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................

Number of people having toilet facilities :.............................................................................


45

Household waste disposal

Type of garbage Amount per day by family (kg)

Final fate Remarks

Remarks:

boblme-2015-ecology-67...difficult to trace to points of origin (guo et al., 2010; zheng et al.,...

Documents