boas anthropology

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Anthropology

Franz Boas

Science, New Series, Vol. 9, No. 212. (Jan. 20, 1899), pp. 93-96.

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and certainly never seeing an instrument

in the lecture room. The advanced course

is a theoretical discussion of the funda-

mental conceptions in psycholgp. The

course is very difficult, but the fact that

about one hundred advanced students take

the course this year shows sufficiently how

earnestly they feel the need, in our time-in

which a thoughtless playing with psy-

chology has become the fad of society-of

discussing the principles of tha t science

from a higher standpoint, and not only as

a superficial introduction into experimental

psychology.

Those who are interested in the details

of the experimental work and want to fol-

low i t beyond the first elements which the

lectures offered enter the training course in

the laboratory, performing a prescribed set

of individual experiments, working in

groups of two. The question how far this

training course

ought to lead offers again

methodological difficulties. We tried dif-

ferent schemes. My assistants gave las t

year two courses, the first training merely

in well-known experiments, the second

training in the scholarly attitude of the

psychological investigator by carrying out

some small investigations from which no

gain for science was expected. This year

we have dropped the second course and

welcome every one, already after a-half

year's elementary training course, to the

regular original research work of the lab-

oratory, in which, of course, everything i s

adapted to the effort to work towards the

progress of science. We have come to this

shorter circuit because with regard to the

pedagogical value of original research work

psychology has again quite an exceptional

position the self-observation factor, which

stands in the way of the experimental work

in the lecture room, becomes the greatest

advantage for the psychological education

in the research work. I n physics or

physiology you take the part of the in-

vestigator or you are outside in psychology

you can take a different part---you may be the

investigator or the self-observing subject.

And this subject part is, as every experi-

ment is self-observation, in no way a less

important and less scientific fmtor of the

research, and yet i t is still free from the

administrative responsibilities of the in-

vestigator who carries on the experiment.

To work for a time as subject in different

investigations-every student of my labora-

tory takes part in a t least three different

investigations of different fields-is thus

the very best bridge between the simple

training course and the work which points

towards publication and the Ph. D. My ad-

vice is thus to open the doors of the research

laboratory rather earlier than the other ex-

act sciences would wish to do to work un-

der constant supervision some time as sub-

ject seems to me even a better preparation

than any special training course. The

psychological seminary finally has to ac-

company this highest sta,ge by advanced

debates and papers this work, in Professor

James' hand, alternates in Harvard be-

tween more general questions and problems

of abnormal psychology. The only defect

which must regret in this scheme is tha t

we have so far no specialists for animal,

child and social psychology. Child psy-

chology finds a refuge in the department of

pedagogy, social psychology in the depart-

ment of sociology. They find in many uni-

versities to-day a very large amount of

good will in both departments, but-and

that is the last methodological principle

which wish to lay down-good will alone

,is also for psychological studies not always

sufficient.

HUGOM~NSTERBERG.

HARVARD

UNIVERSITY

ANTHROPOLOGY.

ANTHROPOLOGYs one of the subjects that

have been added to the university curricu-


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lum quite recently.

Fo r this reason will

devote my remarks to a consideration of the

field that anthropological instruction is in-

tended to cover and of it s relations to al-

lied sciences ra ther than to a discussion of

methods of instruction.

According to purely theoretical defini-

tions, anthropology is the science of man

and might be understood to cover a vast

range of subjects. Th e physical as well as

the mental characters of man may be con-

sidered in a certain may as the proper field

of anthropology. But sciences do not grow

up according to de6nitions. They are the

result of historical development. The sub-

ject-matte r of antllropology has been ac-

cumulated principally by travellers who

have made us acquainted with the people

inhabiting distant countries. Another part

of the subject-matte r of antl~ropology is

due to th e investigation of prehistoric re-

mains found in civilized countries. Only

after certain methocls had developed which

were based largely on the information thus

collected was the whi te race made the sub-

ject of investigation.

Fo r this reason the aim of an thropology

has been largely to explain th e phenomena

observed among tribes of foreign culture.

These phenomena are naturally divided

into three groups (1) the physical appear-

ance of man ; 2 ) the language of man,

and

3 )

th e customs and beliefs of man.

I n this Inann,er three branches of anthro-

pology have developecl (1 ) somatology, or

physicill anthropology

(2)

linguistics, and

3 ) et'rruology. Up to this time anthropo-

logical investigation Ems cltanlt allno it ex-

clusively with subjecti that may be classed

under these three headings. These suk?jects

are not taken up by any other branch of

science, an d in developing them anthro-

pology fills a vacant place in th e system of

sciences.

The treatment of these three sul)jects re-

quires close cooperation betnreeu anthro-

[N S VOL IX. KO 212

pology and a number of sciences.

The in-

vestigttion of the pllysical characteristics

of man has also been t aken up by anato-

mists, but t he point of view of the an-

atomist and that of the anthropologist a re

qui te difyerent. While t he former is pri-

marily interested in the occurrence of cer-

tain

modifications

of the huma n form and

in their genetic interpretation, th e anthro-

pologist is interested in the geographical

distribution of varieties of form, in t he

variabi lity of th e human species in differ-

ent areas and in their interpretation. The

thorough study of physical anthropology,

or somatology, requires the combined tra in-

ing of the anatomist and of the anthropol-

ogist.

I n t he stndy of linguistics t he anthropol-

ogist deal with a subject that has been

partia lly talien up by the student of special

linguistic stocks. Th e study of the struc-

ture of the Aryan languages, of the Semitic

languages and of the Nongol languages has

been carried on with great success by phil-

ologists ; but the ailthropological problem

is a wider one-it deals with th e general

question of human language.

I n t he stncly of ethnology the field of

investigation of t he nlltl~ropologistadjoins

that of the field of research of the psychol-

ogist and of the sociologist. Th e develop-

ment of a truly empirical psychology makes

it necessary to draw largely upon material

furnished by antliropological studies. On

the other hand, sociologists have found tha t

tho analysis of the cnlture of civilized 60-

ciety cannot be carried out successfully

without a comparative study of primitive

society, which

is

the subject-matter of an-

thropological research.

The method of anthropology is an in -

dnctive nlethotl, and the science must be

placed side hy side with the other inductive

sciences. Our cor:clusions are based on

comparisons bc~t ~rc~enhe forms of develop-

ment of the liuman body, of human lan-


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guage of human activities an d must be a s

truly inductive as those of an y other sci-

ence. By including psychology an d an -

thropology in the present discussion on the

methods of teaching science we have given

expression to the conviction tha t the method

of investigation of mental phenomena must

be no less an inductive method th an tha t of

physical phenomena.

Th e teaching of anthropology m ay be

made to supplement in many ways the

teaching of allied subjects and will

briefly outline its functions in t he uni-

versity curriculum.

Physical anthropology h as come to be

primarily study of the varieties of man.

The differences between different types of

man defined either geographically or so-

cially are slight-so slight indeed that th e

biologist until quite recent times would

have disregarded them entirely. Slight

differences in type have been of importance

to the student of anthropology a t an earlier

time tha n to the student of zoology be-

cause we are more deeply interested in the

slight differences th at occur in our own

species tha n among animals. This has led

to the result th at in anthropology sooner

th an in zoology the insufficiency of descrip-

tion was felt. Anthropology was th e first

of t he biological sciences to subst itute meas-

urement for description and the exact num-

ber for th e vague word. Th e method of

measuring variable phenomena--in the case

of knthropology of the variations compos-

ing a type-had to be developed. I t is

only natural tha t in the course of this de-

velopment mistakes were committed which

had to be rectified and tha t the sound

method of metric description developed

slowly. I t would seem that a t present we

have reached the stage where the methods

of metric description may be clearly recog-

nized and we may therefore expect confi-

dently a rapid an d wholesome development

of physical anthropology. glance a t

recent biological lite rature shows very

clearly t ha t descriptive zoology and descrip-

tive botany are passing

at present to the

substi tution of metric description for ver-

bal description t ha t took place in anthro-

pology some time ago. The study of

anthropological methods may prevent biol-

ogists from repeating the same errors that

were committed in the early days of an-

thropology. Anthropological subjects will

for a long time to come remain the mosb

available material for metrical studies of

variat ions in th e higher forms of life be-

cause th e mater ial can be obtained in

greater numbers and with greater ease tha n

in studies of most of the higher animal

forms. The metric method which is a t

present principally an anthropological

method will in a very short time become

of great importance to th e s tuden t of

biology who ought for this reason to profit

by the experiences of the anthropologist.

The fuller development of physical an-

thropology will lead to a study of the

physiology and experimental psychology of

the races of man. Bu t in these lines of

work we have hardly made a beginning

Th e relation of these inquiries to physiology

and to. psychology will be the same as that

of physical anthropology to anatomy.

may be allowed to pass by briefly th e

relations of the linguistic method of an-

thropology to other sciences. You will

recognize at once th at th is subject as well

as its methods must have a stimulating

effect upon the teaching of philology be-

cause its conclusions are based upon the

broad grounds of hum an language not on

th e studies of a single family of languages.

Th e science of linguistics is growing slowly

on account of it s intrinsic: difficulties. These

difficulties ar e based as well on the lack of

satisfactory material as on the amount of

labor involved in the acquisition of knowl-

edge in its particu lar line of research.

Work in thi s field is most urgently needed


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96 SCIENCE [N S. VOL

IX.

O 212

because the languages of primitive man

ar e disappearing rapidly thu s depriving us

of valuable n~aterialor comparative study.

Ethnology the last division of an th ro-

pology covers a vast field. I t s main ob-

ject may be briefly described as the dis-

covery of the laws governing the activities

of the human mind and also the recon-

struct ion of the history of hum an culture

and civilization. Th e methods applied by

ethnologists are twofold. The investiga-

tion of t he liistory of the cul ture of definite

areas is carried on by means of geographical

and of arc h~o log ica l ethods. The methods

are geographical in so far a s the types

inhabi ting a country the ir languages and

thei r customs ar e compared to those of

neighboring tribes. They are arc h~o log ica l

in so far au they deal with the prehistoric

remains found in the country in question.

I n thi s case we apply inductive methods for

the solution of historical questions. The

investigation of the laws governing the

growth of hum an culture is carried out by

means of comparative methods and is

based on the results of the historical analy-

sis referred to before. These laws are

largely of a psychological nature.

Their

great value for t he study of t he human mind

lies in the fact t ha t the forms of thought

which are tlle subject of investigation have

gro vn up entirely outside of t he conditions

whice govern our own thoughts. They

furnish therefore material for a trul y com-

parative psychology. Th e resnlts of the

study of comparative linguistics form an

important portion of this mater ial because

the forms of though t find their clearest ex-

pressions in th e forms of language.

t appears from these brief statemen ts of

th e scope and methods of anthropological

research tha t a n acquaintance with the

whole field is indispensable for th e sociolo-

gist that a knowledge of resplts and meth-

ods will be of advantage t o the psycholo-

gist and tha t the statistical method de-

veloped in physical anthropology will be

very helpful to the studeu t of biology. I n

a general way a knowledge of the outlines

of anthropology seems to be of educational

value particularly in so far as it broadens

th e historical views of tlie student because

i t extends his view over cultures and civ-

ilizations that have grown np uninfluenced

by our own. The advances made by ou r

own race will appear to h im in a truer light

when h e is able to compare them with th e

work done by other races and if he under-

stands how much our own civilization owes

to the achievements of people wlioappear to

be a t present on a low level of culture. The

metliodological value of the teaching of

anthropology lies in the fact tha t it shows

the possibility of applying induct ive rneth-

ods to the stud y of social phenomena.

FRAKZ

OAS.

TIJEREare some phases of botanical

teaching th at do not belong in the present

discussion. University teaching where sa-

lected well-trained devoted students pur-

sue original investigation under the criti-

cism an d advice of great specialists is

excluded for there is here no question of

methods but o111y of men. I t represents

the ideal relation of teacher to student th e

true ideal for all botanical teaching. TVe

have in this country some but far too little

of it . Again college work proper consist-

ing in advanced thorough courses upon the

practicum plan and in the investigation

spirit hardly belongs here. S~ lc h~v ork as

been stimulated by university example to a

high degree of excellence and in botany

much of i t is being done to-day in our col-

leges a fact with an important bearing upon

our present subject for thu s are being

trained the teachers of tlie near future who

are to elevate the teaching of the schools.

Bu t in the teaching of systematic elemen-

tary courses in botany where these are not

boas anthropology

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