blood, nutrition, and vitamins
TRANSCRIPT
Blood, Nutrition, and Vitamins
By Dr. Roman Saini
Blood
ABO Blood Group in Human Beings
● The ABO blood group system in human beings was established by K. Landsteiner.
● It is based on the presence or absence of certain antigens.
● There can be two antigens - A or B in the blood, resulting in four blood groups, namely A, B, AB and O.
● These are called ABO blood groups or Landsteiner blood groups.
● The blood of a person having A group will have the antigen A and a person having B group will have the antigen B.
● With these antigens A and B, there are certain naturally occurring antibodies in the serum of the blood.
● The antibodies in a particular individual will be found only for those antigens which are absent in the blood of this individual.
The presence of antigens and antibodies occur as follows
Blood groups Antigen Antibody in the serum
A A Anti B
B B Anti A
AB A and B None
O None Anti A and B
● Antibodies in the blood of ‘group A’ will agglutinate red blood corpuscles of the blood group B.
● Similarly the antibody in blood ‘group B’ will agglutinate red blood corpuscles of the blood group A.
● Since no antibody is found in ‘group AB’ blood, it will not agglutinate any other groups.
● ‘Group O’ will have antibodies for group A and B. Hence ‘group O’ will agglutinate group A and B.
Compatibility of Donor Blood
From the table provided it is obvious that ‘group AB’ is universal recipient. ‘Group O’ is the universal donor.
Blood group of the Donor Blood group of the Recipient
A A and AB
B B and AB
AB AB
O O, A, B, AB
Disputed Parentage and Blood Groups
Parents Blood group in progeny Impossible blood groups
O x O O A, B, AB
O x A O, A B, AB
O x B O, B A, AB
O x AB A, B O, AB
AB x AB A, B, AB O
Parents Blood group in progeny Impossible blood groups
A x A A, O B, AB
A x B A, B, AB, O None
B x B B, O A, AB
A x AB A, B, AB O
B x AB A, B, AB O
Rh Blood Group
● Rh factor in blood was discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener in 1940.
● It was initially discovered in rabbits, immunized with the blood of Rhesus monkey.
● The human beings whose blood got agglutinated with rabbit serum were designated as Rh+, and whose blood did not agglutinate were designated as Rh-.
● Wrong transfusion can cause agglutination of blood in the recipient.
● Hence before transfusion of blood, along with identification of ABO blood group, it is necessary to test the compatibility of the Rh factor.
Erythroblastosis Fetalis:
● The presence of Rh+ child in the uterus of the Rh- mother can cause agglutination in the blood of the fetus.
● Even though such an unfortunate incident may not happen in the first pregnancy, it could occur in successive pregnancies.
● The death of the foetus in such cases is due to haemolytic anemia.
● This disease is called erythroblastosis fetalis.
Nutrition
What is nutrition?
● The sustenance of life by an organism requires nutrition.
● Nutrition is provided by nutrients which function as energy providers, important structural components or important functional molecules and elements.
● Nutrition in animals comprises- a requirement of nutrients, the mode of intake of food and its utilization in the body.
Modes of Nutrition:
Two major modes of nutrition are :
1. Autotrophic Mode:
a. Autotrophs are self-nourishing individuals i.e. they manufacture their own food.
b. In ecological terms, they are the also called producers in a food chain.
2. Heterotrophic Mode:
a. Organisms cannot manufacture their own food and depend on other organisms for food.
Mode of Nutrition- Autotrophic● Autotrophic modes of nutrition are as
○ Photosynthetic
○ Chemosynthetic
Photoautotrophs:
● Photosynthetic organisms perform photosynthesis i.e. they synthesize their food in the presence of light with the help of photosynthetic pigments.
● Plants and Algae fall under the category of photoautotrophs.
Chemoautotrophs:
● Chemoautotrophs are the organisms that synthesize organic compounds for their energy requirement from inorganic chemical compounds.
● Most of the chemoautotrophs on the Earth oxidise hydrogen sulphide, sulphur compounds or methane for energy.
● The other compounds are nitrogen and iron.
● The ability of the chemoautotrophs to manufacture their food from chemicals enables them to survive in harsh environments.
● Examples are the bacteria found in hot water springs and near hydrothermal vents in deep ocean waters.
Major examples of chemoautotrophs:
● Sulphur oxidising bacteria which are found in hot sulphur springs and hydrothermal vents in deep oceans like- Thermococcus bacteria.
● Iron-oxidising bacteria that oxidise ferrous ion dissolved in water. Examples- Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Leptospirillum ferrooxidans.
● Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that fix or convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds.
● These bacteria are either free-living or found in a symbiotic relationship in plants e.g. root nodules in legumes.
● Examples: Non-symbiotic Cyanobacteria like- Anabaena and Nostoc, Genus-Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, and Clostridium.
Modes of Nutrition- HeterotrophicThe heterotrophic modes of nutrition are:● Holozoic● Saprophytic● Parasitic
Holozoic Nutrition:● The organisms take in solid or liquid food which consists of a complex
compounds which are then broken into simpler compounds to provide energy and assist in the maintenance and repair of the body.
● Human nutrition is holozoic.
Saprophytic Nutrition:
● The saprophytic organisms feed on the dead and decaying matter.
● Fungi are largely considered saprophytic.
Parasitic Nutrition:
● Parasites derive nutrition directly from another organism called a host.
● This generally happens at the expense of the host.
● Parasites are found in both plants (e.g. Cuscuta i.e. Amar bel in Hindi) is a parasitic plant) and animals.
● Parasites also live inside humans at the expense of human health and well-being.
● For example- protozoans, the malarial parasite- Plasmodium falciparum
● Helminths (multicellular organisms whose adult stage is generally visible to naked eye) like a tapeworm.
● Tapeworm – a parasite that grows in the human intestine after tapeworm eggs are ingested through contaminated food or exposure to contaminated water or soil.
● Parasitic infections are common in humans, especially among those living in the tropics and sub-tropics.
Nutrient Required by Human Body
● The human body requires essential nutrients for proper functioning.
● These nutrients are:
1. Macronutrients- that are required in larger quantities in the human body. They are: Carbohydrates, Fats (Lipids) and Protein.
2. Micronutrients- That are required in very less amount in the body. They are: Vitamins and Mineral.
3. Other essential nutrients- Water.
Process of Nutrition Uptake
● Ingestion- Taking in the food.
● Digestion- Breaking of complex molecules present in food to simpler molecules.
● Absorption- The digested molecules pass through the intestinal wall into the bloodstream.
● Assimilation- The body cells take in the digested molecules and elements which are then used for growth and repair function.
● Egestion- The undigested food passes out of the body.
Macronutrients
Macronutrients- CarbohydratesMain forms of carbohydrates that are consumed as follow:
● Starch which humans consume the most and is found in all grains, vegetables, pulses.
● Potato is a starch rich tuberous vegetable.
● Sugars which are present in fruits and vegetables in form of glucose, fructose and sucrose.
● Lactose is the sugar found in milk.
● Cellulose which is a polysaccharide which is present in the structural elements of plants.
Importance of Cellulose:
● Humans do not have requisite enzymes for digesting cellulose.
● Cellulose still is very important as it provides roughage or dietary fibre.
● Roughage provides bulk to our food.
● The bulk helps in the movement of food through the digestive system.
● It traps water in the large intestine and helps in its absorption.
Macronutrients- Lipids● Lipids are hydrophobic non-polar organic compounds that are insoluble in
water and soluble in organic solvents.
● Triglycerides (fats and oils), cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters are the dietary lipids.
● Lipids are divided based on the number of double bonds present in the fatty acid into following types
i. Saturated fats
ii. Monounsaturated fats
iii. Polyunsaturated fats
Essential Fatty Acids:
● Essential fatty acids are alpha-linolenic acid, linoleic acid and arachidonic acid.
● Human diet should be rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and low in saturated fatty acids as saturated fatty acids are linked to atherosclerosis and cardiac disorders.
● Source of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids – plant oils, fish oil etc.
● Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and hence are needed through external sources, otherwise essential fatty acid deficiency arises.
Importance of Lipids:
● They are an integral part of cell membranes.
● Certain lipids are hormones such as steroid hormones e.g. male sex hormone testosterone and female sex hormone oestrogen.
● Cholesterol is important for the human body.
● It is needed for the structural integrity of the cell membrane and is a precursor for the steroid hormones.
● However, excessive intake of cholesterol is linked with cardiovascular disorders and increased risk of heart attacks.
Macronutrients- Proteins● They are important structural and functional components.
● In cases of energy deprivation, proteins can also be broken down as a source of energy.
● They have a calorific value similar to carbohydrates, i.e. 4 Kcal /g, but their metabolism is much less efficient than that of carbohydrates.
● Muscles, bones, cartilages, blood vessels, connective tissues, skin, hair, nails etc. are mainly composed of proteins.
● For example, keratin which is the structural component of hair, collagen and elastin which provide elasticity to the skin.
Important functional components:
● Actin and myosin proteins in muscles are involved in the movement.
● Enzymes are biological catalysts involved in complex reactions and are chiefly composed of proteins with a non-protein part called co-factors.
● Many hormones are proteins.
● Examples- Insulin that converts glucose to glycogen for storage in tissues of liver, fat cells and muscles.
Building blocks of Proteins:
● Amino Acids are the building blocks of proteins.
● There are 20 amino acids required in the human body.
● 11 can be synthesized in the body, the other 9 need to be taken from the diet.
● These 9 amino acids are called essential amino acids.
Sources of Proteins:
● Proteins from animal sources like chicken, organ meat have high biological value.
● Proteins from plant sources have low biological value.
● Egg protein is taken as a reference protein due to excellent bioavailability and near completeness in terms of providing the 9 essential amino acids.
Micronutrients
Micronutrients- Vitamins● Vitamins are organic compounds.
● They are necessary for the normal functioning of the body, growth and health.
● Their deficiency leads to serious deficiency disorders.
● Vitamins needed by the human body are 13 in number:
● They are as follow
○ Five Vitamins- A, C, D, E, K
○ Eight B vitamins- Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Pantothenic acid, Biotin, Vitamin B-6, Vitamin B-12 and Folate.
Source of Vitamins:
● Vitamins D and K can be synthesized in the human body.
● Vitamin B12 is synthesized by gut bacteria in the colon, however the absorption of this vitamin is less, and therefore should be supplemented in the diet.
● The other vitamins need to be taken from dietary sources.
Solubility of Vitamins:
● Water soluble- All 8 B vitamins and Vitamin C
● Fat soluble- Vitamins A, D, E, K.
1. Vitamin A- RetinolImportance:
● Needed for good low-light and colour vision, reproductive function and healthy development of an embryo, maintaining the immune system, the health of the cells, gene transcription.
● Provitamin A (provitamins are substances that are later converted to vitamin form in the body) beta-carotene fights the disease-causing free radicals.
Sources :
● Fortified dairy products like cheese, yogurt, butter, and cream, egg yolk, leafy vegetables like spinach, brightly coloured vegetables like carrots, meat and fish.
● The pro-vitamin beta-carotene is found in vegetables like carrots, broccoli, spinach, and sweet potatoes.
2. Vitamin C- Ascorbic Acid
Importance:
● Necessary for wound healing.
● Also, it is a powerful antioxidant and helps fight ageing signs.
● It helps in iron absorption.
Sources:
● Citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage, green vegetables, potato.
3. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)
Importance:
● Human body can synthesize Vitamin D but for which exposure to the sun is required.
● Regulates levels of calcium and phosphorus which are necessary for the healthy bones.
Sources:
● Milk and dairy products, fortified cereals, fish, cod liver oil.
4. Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Importance:
● Functions as an antioxidant and fights the free radicals that damage cells.
Sources:
● Nuts, wheat germ and wheat germ oil, almond oil, oils like sunflower and sesame oil, dark green leafy vegetables like spinach, mango and papaya.
5. Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
Importance:
● Needed for synthesis of proteins that are precursors to blood clotting.
Sources:
● Human body can produce Vitamin K and dietary sources include cabbage, cauliflower, eggs, meat, fish, cereals and green and leafy vegetables.
6. Vitamin B1- Thiamine
Importance:
● Necessary for cellular development and normal functioning of cells.
● It helps in the conversion of carbohydrates to energy.
Sources:
● Egg, Legumes like peas, whole grains, meat, nuts, fortified bread, and fortified cereals.
7. Vitamin B2- Riboflavin
Importance:
● Needed for function, growth, and development of cells, metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids.
● Like all B vitamins, it is involved in the conversion of glucose to energy.
Sources:
● Milk, cheese, eggs, green leafy vegetables, almonds, mushrooms, legumes, meat.
8. Vitamin B3- Niacin
Importance:
● Like all B-vitamins, it is needed for conversion of glucose to energy.
● Also, it helps to control LDL (low density) cholesterol which is colloquially called "bad cholesterol."
Sources:
● Nuts, Poultry, Eggs, Legumes, meat, fortified bread, cereals, fish, potato, peanuts, beetroot.
9. Vitamin B5- Pantothenic Acid
Importance:
● Needed for energy metabolism.
● Also, it is needed for the synthesis and metabolism of fats and proteins.
Sources:
● Milk, mushrooms, eggs, lentils, legumes, vegetables belonging to the cabbage family, meat, whole grains.
10. Vitamin B6- Pyridoxine
Importance:
● Needed during synthesis of neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine etc., processing amino acids and brain development.
Sources:
● Nuts, organ meat, poultry, whole grains (as the processing of grains removes majority of this vitamin), banana, legumes.
11. Vitamin B7- Biotin
Importance:
● Needed for healthy hair and skin.
Sources:
● Milk, Nuts, Cereal, Yeast, Chocolate, egg yolk.
12. Vitamin B9- Folic Acid
Importance:
● Needed during DNA and RNA synthesis, amino acid production, and cell division.
● Important for pregnant women.
Sources:
● Beetroot, lentils, peanut butter, fortified cereals, lentils, beans, green leafy vegetables, green vegetables, orange juice, and yeast.
Important to know- Vitamin B9 or Folic Acid
● In India, adolescent anaemia is prevalent in school going, adolescent girls and boys and out of school adolescent girls.
● While anaemia is usually associated with deficiency of iron, it is also caused due to folic acid deficiency.
● The Weekly Iron and Folic Acid Supplementation (WIFS) Programme launched by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOHFW) under the National Health Mission aims to control and prevent this problem.
13. Vitamin B12- Cobalamin
Importance:
● Needed for the functioning of the nervous system, DNA synthesis and replication, metabolism of organic compounds.
Sources:
● Dairy products, poultry, meat, and shellfish, fortified foods.
● It is necessary for those following vegan or pure vegetarian diet to consume B12 supplements.
Vitamin Deficiency
● It occurs when dietary sources do not provide an adequate amount of a particular vitamin or the diet is restricted.
● Vitamin deficiency is also called “hypovitaminosis”.
Vitamin Deficiency Disease Symptoms
Vitamin A
Keratomalacia Damage to the cornea in the eye causes blindness
Night Blindness Difficulty to see in low-light
Vitamin Deficiency Disease Symptoms
Vitamin B1
Beriberi Impairment of nervous system and cardiovascular system, weak muscles,
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Brain disorder
Vitamin B3 Pellagra Inflammation of skin, diarrhoea, dementia
Vitamin B12 Pernicious anaemia Not enough red blood cells, tiredness
Vitamin Deficiency Disease Symptoms
Vitamin C Scurvy Gum disease, bleeding gums, fatigue
Vitamin D Rickets Problems in calcification of bones, weak bones.
Vitamin K Hypovitaminosis K Bleeding symptoms due to inability to clot blood.
Folic Acid Anaemia Less production of red blood cells, fatigue.
Micronutrients- Minerals● Minerals are the chemical elements (other than carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
and oxygen) that are significant for nutrition.
● Many of them are important as they are important co-factors for enzymes.
● Some essential minerals for the human body are as follow
○ Calcium- Needed for healthy bones and teeth, nerve cell function, muscle cells function; also helps in the process of blood clotting.
○ Sodium- Nerve stimulation, water balance in the cells.
○ Potassium- Nerve function, water balance in the cells, important for heart rhythm.
● Iron- An important element in haemoglobin; present in the red blood cells which transports oxygen to the tissues.
● Magnesium- It is an important co-factor for more than 300 enzymatic reactions.
● Zinc- Co-factor of enzymes, an important part of the enzyme that solubilizes carbon dioxide in the blood.
● Cobalt- Part of Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin).
● Copper- Essential co-factor in enzymes.
● Fluoride- Decreases demineralization of teeth which occurs due to excessive consumption of sugars that causes calcium loss from teeth.
● Iodine- It is an essential component of the hormones secreted by the thyroid gland.
An essential Nutrient- Water
Water does not have calorific value but is very important for sustaining life.It performs various important functions like:
● Regulation of body temperature.
● Protection of soft organs and tissues in the body.
● Lubrication and cushioning of joints like knee joints.
● Prevention of constipation.
● Works as a solvent for minerals and water soluble vitamins.
● Water carries away the toxins from the body.
● Kidneys excrete the body toxins and water forms a major component that carries those toxins.
● Present in blood, therefore it is important for carrying the gases and nutrients.
Balanced Diet
● A balanced diet is a diet that provides all the nutrients in their correct proportion so as to fulfil the biological requirement of an individual.
● Balanced diet is different for different individuals and is dependent on the biological need of an individual.
● For example the biological demand for carbohydrates, fats, proteins and the vitamins required for the metabolism will be much higher in an athlete than in a person with a sedentary desk job.
● A balanced diet should contain
○ Cereals Pulses,
○ Vegetables and Fruits,
○ Milk and milk products,
○ Oils and fats, and
In cases of non-vegetarians, it should also contain animal proteins and eggs on a regular basis.
● An unbalanced diet or a diet that contains one nutrient in a much higher proportion to others or essential nutrients in very low quantities gives rise to malnutrition.
Malnutrition
● Malnutrition is the condition arising when the consumption of nutrients is not enough or is too much.
● The excessive or very low consumption of nutrients causes disorders in the body and impair of normal body functions.
● Poverty in developing and underdeveloped nations, consumption of low quality food and protein energy malnutrition are common reasons behind severely malnourished children in these nations.
Malnutrition- Protein Energy Malnutrition
● Protein Energy malnutrition (PEM) is usually seen in children.
● It is generally seen in children who have been weaned off from mother’s milk.
● Two disorders associated with PEM are:
○ Kwashiorkor
○ Marasmus
Kwashiorkor:
● It is a disorder seen in children weaned off from milk in their diet that is deficient in proteins but adequate in calories.
● It results in the child developing a protein deficiency.
● Muscle wasting and retarded growth are seen.
● A classical feature of kwashiorkor is a child with a distended belly and edema (swelling).
● Also, there is anaemia caused by decreased haemoglobin synthesis.
Marasmus
● It is a disorder of both proteins as well as calorie intake.
● Because of deficiency in calorie intake, most of the protein in the diet is used for energy.
● There is gross muscle wasting and retarded growth of the child.
Importance of Nutrition● The nutrients carry out important functional and structural functions in an
organisms.
● Food intake needs to have a correct amount of macro and micronutrients.
● A reduced, unbalanced or excessive intake of nutrients can result in various health related problems.
● For example deficiency of vitamin(s)due to the less than required intake of vitamins; or obesity and associated disorders like diabetes and cardiovascular diseases due to excessive intake of calories.
Malnutrition- A serious problem in India● Malnutrition is a serious problem in India, especially among young children.
● The malnutrition existing in India is mostly related to low consumption of essential nutrients, low consumption of proteins during growing years, poverty and inability to purchase high quality nutritious food thereof.
● World Bank data has shown that India has one of the highest population of malnourished children in the world.
● The Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2017 has ranked India 100 out of 119 countries, indicating the serious hunger situation.
● Amongst South Asian nations, India ranks third behind only Afghanistan and Pakistan with a GHI score of 31.4.
Malnutrition- A serious problem in India● The Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2018 has ranked India 103rd out of 119
countries, indicating the serious hunger situation.● Following countries are better than India -
○ China (25th), ○ Nepal (72), ○ Myanmar (68), ○ Sri Lanka (67) and ○ Bangladesh (86).
● Pakistan has ranked behind India at 106th position.
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