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BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT
Kevin D. Johnson Arizona State University
This report is based on work toward the Master of Global Technology Development in the ASU School for the Future of Innovation in Society
Risk Innovation Lab Arizona State University January 22 2018
riskinnovation.asu.edu/blockchain-innovation-nexus/
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 2
CONTENTSABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................. 3INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 4KNOWN RESEARCH CATEGORIES .................................................................................................... 5HOW BLOCKCHAIN IS CURRENTLY BEING APPLIED .................................................................. 5HOW BLOCKCHAIN MIGHT BE APPLIED ....................................................................................... 8HOW BLOCKCHAIN WORKS .............................................................................................................. 8THE HYPERLEDGER MODEL ............................................................................................................ 14BLOCKCHAIN POSSIBILITIES: HYPERLEDGER AND INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT .. 16SOLAR POWER IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES WITH BLOCKCHAIN: A POTENTIAL EXAMPLE .............................................................................................................................................. 17
SCALING OUT THROUGH DECENTRALIZATION ..................................................................... 19LOWERING STAKEHOLDER RISK ............................................................................................... 20
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ................................................................................................................ 22DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 24REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 25
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 3
ABSTRACT
Blockchain technology is being explored in several places around the world to solve problems
and make systems of record more efficient. This paper outlines and provides a review of blockchain
technology and includes potential implications for international development in private, government,
and non-profit sectors. This research defines blockchain and other terms important to an understanding
of the technology, discusses how blockchain is currently being applied, how it might be applied,
explains how the technology works, reviews Hyperledger as a potential platform for use in a
development context, supplies an example of how the technology might be used in a solar power grid,
and provides concluding thoughts as to the positive and negative effects of implementing blockchain
technology in the developing world.
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 4
INTRODUCTION
In June 2017 IBM CEO Ginni Rometty remarked, “What the internet did for communications, I
think blockchain will do for trusted transactions.” (Rapier, 2017) Though blockchain technology is
typically associated with Bitcoin and other virtual currency platforms, the underlying innovation of
blockchain is likely how societal disruption will occur (Knight, 2017). According to Brian Behlendorf,
blockchain has the potential to rewire the way the world works (Ibid.). Blockchain carries within it the
potential to transform international trade, taxation, real estate, and even healthcare (Alexis, 2017).
Almost any system of record and the processes built around it can be replaced by blockchain. Federal
Reserve Governor Lael Brainard made clear in a meeting of the Institute of International Finance in
October 2016 that blockchain has the potential to disrupt and transform the way financial market
participants transfer, store, and maintain ownership records (Price, 2016). Of course, not everyone
agrees that blockchain carries with it such potential. Even still, given Hernando De Soto’s claim that
better recordkeeping spurs economic prosperity in developing nations blockchain also has potential
uses in the developing world (De Soto, 2007). Of course, governments aren’t far behind in seeing the
revolution blockchain may have for immediate and indisputable tax collection (Schwanke, 2017).
China has recently announced that it will use blockchain for taxation and has been busy implementing
blockchain in local and provincial governments (Lant, 2017). Blockchain may represent a fundamental
change in the way economies work and may create new socioeconomic opportunities and problems
(Cohen, et al., 2017). As such, blockchain technology and its eventual implementation is an important
topic that likely has comprehensive implications for societal innovation and human flourishing.
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 5
KNOWNRESEARCHCATEGORIES Some areas of research regarding blockchain are well-defined. Blockchain research on Bitcoin,
privacy and security, the nature of the technology itself, and basic implications are areas that are easily
identified in research. A recent literature review on blockchain technology focused on Bitcoin,
privacy, and security concerns (Yii-Huumo, Ko, Choi, Park, & Smolander, 2016). No mention of
blockchain in or concerning developing regions was provided in the review. 80% of the research
surveyed dealt directly with Bitcoin and 20% focused in the main on privacy or security concerns
(Ibid.). Blockchain research also typically lacks concrete quantitative evaluations of actual
implementations of blockchain technology (Ibid.). Other articles see blockchain primarily as a
potential platform for business (A Global Conversation About Blockchain, 2016). However,
blockchain is also being explored for governmental and other use and some even see socialist
principles at work in its design or implementation due to its distributed nature (Huckle & White, 2016).
In fact, little research exists of blockchain in the context of international development beyond the very
occasional article and the best research is still highly theoretical (Lemieux, 2016, p. 112). Strict
comparative or quantitative studies detailing the use of blockchain in actual societies remain elusive for
the time being since blockchain technology is so new and there is little if any data to assess and analyze
its effectiveness, outcomes, or impacts.
HOWBLOCKCHAINISCURRENTLYBEINGAPPLIED As noted above, blockchain technology is already in use in various types of applications around
the world or at least being proposed for use. IBM and Walmart, for example, are working on a
blockchain proof of concept that will provide end-to-end food traceability that tracks the life cycle of
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 6
food from its origin to purchase by a consumer (Gregor, 2017, p. 6). As a result, Walmart will be able
to pinpoint where and when compromised food has an issue and can track its source in the event of a
problem with the product. Blockchain will enable Walmart to avoid broad recalls and only pull back
the actual food that was tainted from the source (Ibid.). The global shipping company Maersk and
IBM are collaborating as well to also provide an end-to-end supply chain solution that uses blockchain
to track the many millions of shipping containers it uses to move goods across the oceans. This
solution aims to reduce paperwork, speed the movement and tracking of shipped goods, and lower
transaction costs to do so (Gupta, Keen, Shah, & Verdier, 2017, p. 187).
Of course, the financial markets are also very interested in blockchain and several companies
are previewing blockchain technology in conjunction with IBM and other vendors. CLS Group is
working on a blockchain that will standardize its payment processing while allowing external parties to
participate in the project without having to run a complete copy of the digital ledger (Gregor, 2017, p.
5). The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ is also using blockchain to consolidate and manage the
lifecycle of complex contracts involving projects, service-level agreements, and payments under one
master agreement. The common denominator among all of them will be a blockchain ledger that tracks
the contract process from start to finish.
However, blockchain technology is not only being applied in the private sector. Samsung was
recently awarded a contract with the government of Seoul to provide blockchain solutions for
maintaining and tracking citizen data for public safety and transport (Hebblethwaite, 2017). The U.S.
Federal government through the GSA has launched an initiative to study and explore blockchain
technology usage for procurement, IT asset and supply chain management, smart contracts, patents and
trademarks, personnel workforce data, and many other items where digital ledger technology could
help optimize efficiency (GSA). Dubai Customs is planning to use blockchain to check and record the
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 7
import and export of goods going in and out of Dubai and has the additional advantage of using a
cloud-based system in conjunction with IBM to do so. Dubai will replace current paper contracts with
smart contracts and sensor devices to track goods from end-to-end (Gupta, Keen, Shah, & Verdier,
2017, p. 187).
Blockchain technology is also being explored by organizations involved in international
development. The United Nations World Food Programme has developed a pilot program that uses
blockchain and iris scanning technology to verify and monitor the food purchases of Syrian refugees in
Jordan (UN WFP, 2016). Positive Women, an organization that works with families in Swaziland, is
using a system to transfer funds between the United Kingdom and schools in Swaziland through
blockchain technology. The project ensures that the money goes where it should and makes sure funds
are used for their intended use as a result. Money saved from the project has resulted in three
additional students being able to attend school (Nyamadzawo, 2017).
Some African nations have been ahead of the technology curve of developed countries like the
United States in adopting advanced national payment systems (Gupta, Keen, Shah, & Verdier, 2017, p.
186). In Tunisia, over three million citizens have no bank account and yet they have access to digital
currency through cell phones and blockchain-based accounts that are available in the Tunisian National
Post Office (Ibid.). As a result, Tunisian citizens can use this digital national currency to pay for goods
and services, make mobile money transfers, pay bills, and manage government identification
documents (Ibid.). Behind Tunisia, Senegal has also become the second nation to adopt a digital
blockchain solution for its national currency (Hojgaard, 2017, p. 2).
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 8
HOWBLOCKCHAINMIGHTBEAPPLIED Blockchain represents an exciting new technological resource that has potential in international
development—taxation, economic growth, currency, asset recording, and non-traditional banking
services among others. Blockchain could also be used in ways that could be problematic for society
including establishing a clear and near indisputable record for governments to use in oppressing
citizens, the extension of ruling class power to digitally dominate other classes through automation,
and commoditizing the way entire societies function through application of blockchain technology. At
least one researcher is concerned that blockchain will commoditize everything in an economy and
presents the world with a dystopian future where the power of capital reigns supreme once
technologies like blockchain and Internet of things measure, automate, and influence even the most
minute details of normal life for humanity (Garrod, 2016). Other researchers are conversely asking the
question whether blockchain will aid in ridding the world of poverty (Kshetri, 2017). Blockchain has
the potential to eliminate or circumvent traditional banking resources and free up dead money in the
developing world that isn’t part of the world’s international economy (Smilansky, 2016). Common
ownership of resources like land that prohibit its transfer using normal economic means could also be
solved through blockchain in the developing world while reducing government corruption and
unnecessary bureaucracy (Murray, 2015).
HOWBLOCKCHAINWORKS Blockchain technology is essentially a series of encrypted records chained together over a
distributed environment that greatly minimize the potential for fraud. In other words, blockchain
provides a unique and verifiable record for any transaction in a system of record through secure
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 9
cryptography and a decentralized approach that enables the system to verify transactions across
multiple nodes. The cryptography is linked and built on each of the previous records so that duplicate
or fraudulent transactions on the blockchain are exceptionally difficult to achieve. Majority consensus
between nodes in the decentralized system provide a secure way to implement the blockchain across
the network. Of course, no system is ever 100% secure and various situations and efforts could
compromise the system (Li, Jiang, Chen, Luo, & Wen, 2017). If attackers gained access to a majority
of the nodes used in providing consensus when recording a blockchain, the system could be
compromised (Ibid.). Aside from difficulties like this, a blockchain enables separate parties to
participate together in a value exchange as illustrated in table 1 below.
Table Characteristics of blockchain applications. (Source: Capgemini Group, 2016)
DecentralizedInformation CryptographicSecurity
Dataisstoredinnodesondistributednetwork Builtonpublic-keyinfrastructure
CryptographicrecordIDmatchedwithanyaccompanyingdata
Cryptographicstrengthcanbevaried
Eachentryischainedtothenext Eachtransactioniscryptographicallylinkedtothelast,reducingfraud
ProcessAutomation ValueTransfer
Smartcontracts Cantransferdigitalvalue
Modularbusinessrules Cansimplyrecordassetordatainsteadoftransfervalue
Automationbuiltintoblockchainfunction Anydigitalrepresentationofasset
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 10
A blockchain network is a series of member nodes that substantiate the legitimacy of the
transaction and assign a new entry on the blockchain. This is a decentralized and distributed model
that allows for highly heterogenous application models in terms of how the blockchain might be
applied. One key example of an application model is a distributed ledger. In fact, blockchain is often
described as distributed ledger technology (Meola, 2017).
As an example, most companies today operate with their own private accounting ledgers and
employ standard double-entry bookkeeping. Security contexts are all separate for any environment and
risks to data are individualized to each party where fraud or other issues may occur. Any sharing of
data between companies is a challenge and can become a highly complex mix of programmable
interfaces between systems and companies (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Existing Accounting Infrastructure (IBM, 2016)
A distributed ledger with blockchain enables the transactions between various parties to be shared and
greatly simplifies an already complex series of transactions in any given supply chain (Figure 2).
Security is enhanced because each environment relies on the same distributed network setup and
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 11
cryptographic approach to secure the record data for the distributed ledger via blockchain. Once
entered, a blockchain record becomes immutable and therefore less subject to fraud. This provides an
independent level of trust between disparate parties to a transaction. Each party to the transaction gets
their own copy of the ledger and all ledgers remain constant across the blockchain network. As
transactions from various parties come into the network, the blockchain system cryptographically adds
them to all copies of the ledger once consensus across a majority of the nodes is provided. This
process leads to a consistent model of trust and legitimacy because a majority of nodes vote on the
legitimacy of the transactions while the cryptographic nature of the blockchain ensures that the record
being added is unique and added to the chain of previously encrypted records. Because the
cryptography of every added record is based on the encryption of records before it, inserting fraudulant
records remains extremely difficult. In this way, blockchain ledgers provide both trust and legitimacy.
Figure 2. Blockchain Accounting Infrastructure (IBM, 2016)
The value of blockchain, however, is extended once smart contracts and decentralized
autonomous organizations (DAO) are added to a basic blockchain ledger. Smart contracts and DAO
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 12
enable blockchain to minimize a great deal of bureaucracy involved in traditional transaction
counterparts. One example relevant to developing economies is the recording of a land title. The
process even in some of the most developed countries can be highly complicated, inefficient, and
plagued with roadblocks. A smart contract in conjunction with a blockchain ledger would automate,
speed resolution, and minimize potential difficulties in the sale or transfer of land. (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Before/After Smart Contract (Smart Contracts Alliance, 2016, p. 30)
From an accounting perspective, a blockchain ledger could be set up to finally enable triple-entry
momentum accounting instead the double-entry bookkeeping so popular today. Triple-entry
momentum accounting as envisioned originally by Yuji Ijiri enables companies to forecast the force at
which wealth accrues in a company (Ijiri, 1986). “Force” means the factors that are responsible for
judging the changes in earning rates and signifies the momentum of a company in terms of wealth
generation (Ibid., p. 745). The faster a company generates wealth is directly related to the earnings it
either accomplishes or expects. Income and balance sheets today only present a view of a company’s
health from historical data and accountants and investors use that historical data to forecast future
results with varying success. Conceptually, this is like driving a car down the road by looking in the
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 13
rear window (Henke, 1995). However, triple entry accounting would allow for a view which in
addition to the historical data also considers both present and even future information. The immediate
value add for blockchain is that information shared between various parties could provide triple-entry
accounting entries for companies, an entire industry, or even an entire economy.
Triple-entry momentum accounting uses statistical techniques like the Pearson correlation
coefficient in conjunction with known values to calculate the force at which a company is moving
financially (Melse, 2008). Owner’s equity is found in a company with the formula Owner’s Equity =
Assets – Liabilities. That can also be expressed Present = Past (traditional double-entry accounting).
Triple-entry accounting adds Present = Past = Future, or Capital = Wealth = Budget. Some items in
accounting like expected rent and hiring an employee imply future obligations and can be used via
predictive analytics to observe the momentum at which a company generates capital (Henke, 1995).
Double-entry accounting was not designed to function in this way and so an additional entry is needed
to provide the necessary input to the statistical analysis to enable better models in probability for the
financial momentum a company may experience.
Additionally, blockchain digital ledger technology combined with smart contracts and DAO
implementations means that better and more transparent forecasting of the growth and momentum of
companies, industries, communities, and even entire economies could take place in a way never
envisioned. Blockchain technology could provide more accuracy, more speed, more transparency, and
more efficiency in monitoring and managing economies and things like the Gross Domestic Product of
developing nations. These potentialities are why blockchain has also been looked at for cryptocurrency
use and there are even firms that are attempting to peg blockchain currencies to the International
Monetary Fund’s Special Drawing Rights in creating a global digital currency (Balvers & McDonald,
2017, p. 3).
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 14
So far, many cryptocurrency platforms are public, open, and permissionless. Bitcoin and
Ethereum are blockchain systems that are open for anyone and use a consensus protocol for
submissions or participation in the blockchain (Smart Contracts Alliance, 2016, p. 11). A consensus
protocol is a set of rules that governs how submissions are made and processed by the blockchain
(Ibid.). An additional issue with permissionless cryptocurrency is scalability. Given that anyone can
work with a platform like Bitcoin and it has become increasingly popular, scalability is a problem
inherent in the system. Bitcoin’s ever-growing use is creating difficulties in terms of handling
transactions and this design issue is a problem for any permissionless system that attempts to scale out
far beyond their original use (Marshall, 2017).
Private companies like banks, however, require a blockchain that is scalable, private, and
permissioned for use by clients or internal departments. Identity management and consensus protocols
in place can only be done with an administrative capability that is present with permissioned
blockchains (Ibid.). This is one reason why the open source Hyperledger blockchain environment was
created.
THEHYPERLEDGERMODEL Hyperledger started as an open source initiative to provide cross-industry support for
blockchain technologies that are secure, scalable, and enterprise grade. 183 companies sponsor the
effort worldwide including the Linux Foundation and IBM as well as industry leaders in finance,
banking, and supply chain management (Linux Foundation, 2017). The first release of the Hyperledger
environment took place in July of 2017 (Irrera, 2017). Although other blockchain efforts with similar
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 15
goals exist, Hyperledger is offered here as a model of blockchain technology that is supported by a
wide consortium of companies and organizations that may have more potential than strict business use.
Hyperledger offers a variety of open source frameworks and tools to fully implement
enterprise-grade blockchain digital ledger technologies (Linux Foundation). Several different types of
environments are made available to make Hyperledger a sort of Swiss Army Knife for blockchain
implementations. Nine different frameworks and tools already exist:
Hyperledger Sawtooth – A platform for developing and deploying distributed ledgers with a
consensus algorithm and proof of elapsed time built for large distributed platforms
Hyperledger Iroha – A business blockchain framework that emphasizes simplicity and ease in
adapting to existing infrastructure projects requiring distributed ledger technology
Hyperledger Fabric – An application foundation framework designed to develop modular
applications and solutions
Hyperledger Burrow – A permissible smart contract machine with a modular blockchain client
and built in line with the Ethereum Virtual Machine specification
Hyperledger Indy – A toolset providing libraries and reusable components for digital identities
for blockchain to allow for interoperability across administrative domains and applications
Hyperledger Cello – A platform designed to provide blockchain services on-demand to reduce
setup and management of blockchain environments
Hyperledger Composer – A collaboration tool for building blockchain networks to accelerate
the implementation of smart contracts
Hyperledger Explorer – A tool designed to view and deploy query blocks, transactions, and
associated data stored in the blockchain ledger
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 16
Hyperledger Quilt – A tool that provides interoperability between ledger systems for the
transfer of value between them (Linux Foundation)
In essence, a comprehensive permissioned blockchain environment can be built using the above
tools from Hyperledger or other similar platforms.1 While Hyperledger was originally envisioned as a
business blockchain environment, the technology itself is open and could be adapted for international
development, governmental, or other non-profit use (Strange, 2016).
BLOCKCHAINPOSSIBILITIES:HYPERLEDGERANDINTERNATIONALDEVELOPMENT An open source blockchain platform like Hyperledger is ideal when international development
is carried out with models like Asset-Based Community Development. Asset-Based Community
Development emphasizes that communities and organizations working together and with the
capabilities and assets of individuals, associations, and local institutions in mind. Relationships are
built among community members for mutually beneficial problem-solving that mobilize a
community’s assets for economic development and information sharing (Tamarack Institute). Once a
broadly representative group of a community is formed, a blockchain platform like Hyperledger could
be implemented to support asset-based local development in conjunction with outside partners and
international organizations wanting to help make a difference in a community.
1 Stellar (stellar.org) is a non-profit company that is also developing open source distributed ledger technology to facilitate financial inclusion for underbanked and unbanked people worldwide. Stellar is working on partnerships in Nigeria (Strange, 2016). However, the difference between Hyperledger and Stellar is that Hyperledger provides a complete open source platform design that is vendor and network independent, while Stellar requires use of their service platform and design for any co-development and use.
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 17
SOLARPOWERINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESWITHBLOCKCHAIN:APOTENTIALEXAMPLE For example, a blockchain platform like Hyperledger could leverage Asset-Based Community
Development to provide sustainable grassroots solar power in developing countries. The blockchain
solution could provide energy credits as blockchain transaction units through both paying an electric
bill and/or using the electricity. Some companies in the developing world are already providing a
similar technology through peer-to-peer networks that even allow for the trading of solar power
between individual customers (Thomason, 2017). In this instance, power usage would be tracked both
in a home and through business activity in the community regardless as to whether the consumer pays
the bill. Through tracking both use and payment, blockchain contracts and their accounting
information would provide a verifiable record of legitimate power capability back to the sponsoring
foundation and support organizations. An illustration of this potential project is provided below
(Figure 4).
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 18
Figure 4. How blockchain could be used in a solar power implementation. Blockchain measures and tracks power
generated, bills for use, and the social value across the organizations involved.
Just as airlines provide reward miles, social value could be tracked and seen in terms of all sorts
of measurable social impacts made possible by the energy supply of solar in the developing world.
Attaching the blockchain to achievements such as the number of women working in the community on
an ongoing basis or the number of children in full-time school could also serve to provide a cost-based
system to the economic and social benefits provided by the energy supply not previously measured.
This information would be very valuable for fundraising and accountability purposes in terms
of how the sponsoring foundation could provide verifiable proof for the good it was doing in providing
solar power in the developing world region. While narratives of success stories are certainly valuable
and help to raise money, having the social value quantified in a more sophisticated and socially
relevant way for funding partners via the blockchain would only strengthen the foundation’s capability
to raise money and operate an open source model for solar power in the developing world.
Foundation Special Purpose Entity
Support Org
Solar Installation
Metered Use Blockchain
Smart Contract
Home Power Usage
Business Power Usage
Service Blockchain
Social Value
Market Value
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 19
Having measurable and verifiable social value through blockchain technology could also be
attractive to its use by international organizations that might want to expand the work in the developing
world where energy services are needed and social value needs to be measured. The potential for
expansion and use is only limited by the extent to which social value can be mapped, quantified,
measured, and applied to the blockchain.
Blockchain technology could also potentially mitigate any currency risk that an energy provider
might have in a conflict region since the system could be set up to be valid only for communities.
Providing a decentralized implementation on a community by community basis makes it possible to
record use with blockchain systems of record until such time that a centralized monetary supply could
be reinitiated once peace in a conflict region is more permanent. Once a conflict is over and the
national government stabilizes, the blockchain could provide a record of use and the company could be
reimbursed through national insurance or some other method provided by the new government while
the people and communities retain their ability to use the solar power in the interim.
SCALINGOUTTHROUGHDECENTRALIZATION
Scaling up or replicating the efforts of this general design would look somewhat like the
Powerhive model though without the for-profit emphasis and without a need to adopt a company’s
proprietary platform due to the open source nature of Hyperledger (Powerhive, 2017). Powerhive
provides off-grid proprietary solar platforms in the developing world for rural homes and businesses
that enables financing, monetization, and management of these systems (Ibid.). In conflict regions,
there would be no reason to scale up in terms of making this project like a public utility since a
distributed, decentralized off-grid implementation of community by community would be preferred
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 20
instead of a nationalized solution. Replication could occur on a case-by-case basis using widely
available or easily manufactured parts and a service model developed by the support organization
referred to in Figure 4 above. Non-profit funding could occur on a case-by-case basis as each
community is targeted for solar services and that community could be highlighted in funding
campaigns in the United States and wherever else funding for such development activity might be
available. International development organization assistance may also be required to capably deal with
any political or other unforeseeable risks in implementing repeated projects in the developing world.
Potential "on-the-ground" partnerships with institutions like local universities would also provide a
potential link between project leaders and communities.
LOWERINGSTAKEHOLDERRISK
Stakeholder risk would be lowered by maintaining a non-profit transparent implementation
process of blockchain-based solar power where the interests of end-users are involved from start to
finish. Following Sovacool, the planning and implementation will be inclusive and community wide,
the program will be closely monitored with regular feedback intervals, accountability will be in place
for both local end-users and corporate stakeholders, training provided, and parallel systems should be
available through local and remote access to enable sustainability for the project overall (Sovacool,
2014, p. 27). An equitable division of both ownership and implementation costs could be handled by
allowing community businesses to pay for the bulk of the blockchain power services while maintaining
free access for individual consumers and homes. Training would also be paramount in providing a
local support matrix in the case that remote support is unavailable due to the challenges of living and
providing energy services the developing world (Ibid.).
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 21
The open source design and implementation process for a blockchain solution using a platform
like Hyperledger provides significant opportunity for local and remote stakeholders to contribute both
to the design and the implementation of the solar project on a community by community basis. The
distributed design of the solar project makes it more difficult for parties in a conflict region to
destabilize or work against the effort to provide energy to a community. Staged development offers the
region the ability to incrementally focus on building energy access across communities through local
and remote efforts at design and implementation of the blockchain solution.
The enterprise model gives the blockchain solar project the capability to appeal to a wide
variety of potential financing through non-profit giving and other non-financial contributions (like the
creative work of software developers). The socially responsible model of making sure funding does not
adversely affect poor users or stakeholders keeps the project from becoming a burden to the
community and thus exponentially increases its social value. Noting and dealing with the obvious or
foreseeable risks of any design and implementation makes the blockchain solar project stable overall.
Maximizing the project’s impact for social and economic value is accomplished through
providing blockchain technology to monitor usage of the system, provide for any potential billing, and
tracking measurable social value. Overall, the plan provided above details significant capabilities in
terms of providing a blockchain solar power solution to communities to increase the reliability and
usability of energy in the developing world. In this way, the blockchain solar project remains a
potential grassroots energy project that could be implemented with a platform like Hyperledger once
the above criteria, risks, and capabilities of stakeholders and communities are considered.
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 22
CONCLUDINGTHOUGHTS Like any new technology, blockchain provides new opportunities, great challenges, and even
unintended consequences (Healy). Already, some are grappling with the fact that one Bitcoin
transaction alone uses as much electricity as the average American household in a week’s time
(Malmo, 2017). In fact, Bitcoin miners use 24 terawatt-hours annually as they compete to produce
more Bitcoins. This creates a serious question in terms of the environmental and sustainability impacts
of blockchain technology and this is just one instance of a blockchain platform in view. In addition to
electricity consumption, Bitcoin is also responsible for excessive carbon emissions especially when
coal-based power is used to generate the computer calculations. Malmo indicates that every hour of
mining Bitcoin in Mongolia using coal for power results in the CO2 equivalent of driving a car over
125,000 miles (Ibid.). Bitcoin’s situation is somewhat unique due to its architecture because new
blockchain units come about through processing extremely compute intensive mathematical problems.
This is also why Bitcoin will have difficulty scaling to a national or international level were it to do
something like provide support for a national currency of any large size.
Other platforms like Hyperledger would use much less electricity and scale better overall since
they don’t generate blockchain units in the same way. Hyperledger doesn’t require highly compute
intensive mining of mathematical problems to generate a blockchain. For Hyperledger and business
systems in general, blockchain units will be cryptographically generated by accounting or other
business transactions without the need for mining. At scale, however, even platforms like Hyperledger
face potential performance issues and this is one reason why companies like IBM are focusing on the
use of mainframe computers to handle the load they foresee in using these platforms on a wide scale
(IBM, 2017). Mainframe computers provide performance advantages both for the encryption and the
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 23
transactional volume envisioned through wide-scale adoption of blockchain technology (Ibid.). So,
regardless of the kind of blockchain technology implemented, computer usage and power requirements
at scale should be a major concern of any future development using blockchain technology.
Overall, this paper has defined and illustrated blockchain technology and its current and future
use around the world. From the national currencies of Tunisia and Senegal to the shipping and supply
chain platforms of giants like Walmart and Maersk, blockchain is already being proposed or
implemented to provide technology services in a highly efficient and capable manner. Open source
platforms like Hyperledger will enable international organizations and communities to extend their
development in ways not previously thought possible. The ability of blockchain technology to change
the world for the better carries great potential and as a result remains an area of investigation and
research as the technology continues to mature.
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 24
DEFINITIONSBlockchain – a distributed digital ledger technology with a unique encrypted record identification that
allows for secure transactions on a computer network (Morrison, et al., 2016).
Distributed or Digital Ledger Technology – A database that is updated and held independently by
each node participating in a network. The data is created and distributed to the network independently
of the other nodes but each node on the network verifies and processes the new data. Once most nodes
accept the new data, it is added to the ledger as valid (Bauerle, 2017).
Smart Contracts – automated sets of rules that govern blockchain transactions and enable the
functionality of Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (2017).
Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAO) – an autonomous organization that exists to run
smart contracts as rules and functions as a single economic entity virtually independent of any
governmental organization (Bannon, 2016).
Hyperledger – an open source implementation of blockchain that is being developed by leading
companies for business to enable privacy, identity services, and a modular architecture that can
implement the technology in many different ways (2017).
Cryptocurrency – blockchain is used today in platforms like Bitcoin and Ethereum to enable virtual
currency and transactions online. This technology is typically what many people today think
blockchain is or is used for but blockchain’s potential goes well beyond applications like
cryptocurrency (Morrison, et al., 2016).
BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT 25
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