RISK AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

HUMAN RIGHTS ASPECTS

ETHICAL ASPECTS

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MAJEURS • MAJOR HAZARDS AGREEMENT

Conseil de l'Europe • Council of Europe

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SCHOOL OF CIVIL PROTECTION

HANDBOOK

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MAJEURS • MAJOR HAZARDS AGREEMENT

Conseil de l'Europe • Council of Europe

RISK AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT

Authors

Zoran MILUTINOVIC

Director, Council’s of Europe “European Center on Vulnerability of Industrial and Lifeline

Systems (ECILS-Skopje)”, Skopje, R. Macedonia

Head, Section for Risk and Disaster Management, Institute of Earthquake Engineering and

Engineering Seismology (IZIIS – Skopje), University “St. Cyril and Methodius”, Skopje, R.

Macedonia

• Professor, IZIIS - Skopje; Subjects: Engineering Seismology; Planning for Seismic Risk

Reduction; Aseismic Design of Life-Line Systems; Repair and Strengthening of

Engineering Structures

• Visiting Professor to Kobe University (1994), Kobe, Japan and Kyoto University (2001),

Kyoto, Japan

• Author and co-author of more than 170 professional and scientific papers, reports,

publications and other scientific and research materials

• Doctor of Engineering (Kyoto University, Japan, 1986)

Victor POYARKOV

Executive Director, Council’s of Europe ‘European Center of Technological Safety (TESEC

– Kiev)’, Kiev, Ukraine

• 1975 – Ph.D. in Nuclear Physics

Toute reproduction partielle ou totale à usage collectif de la présentepublication est strictement interdite sans l’autorisation expresse des auteurs.Reproduction interdite par quelque procédé que ce soit(impression, photographie, photocopie, scanner, etc.)Crédit photographique : tous droits réservés

1. Environmental hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. What is a disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3. The major disaster agent - increasing vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4. From hazard to disaster - level of risk . . . . . . . 4

5. Emergency management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.1. Pre-disaster event measures and activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95.2. Post-disaster event measures and activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125.3. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Table of contents page

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1. Environmental hazardsA disaster threat, or hazard, is any naturally occurring or human-induced phenomenon,process or event with the potential to create loss to humans, to their welfare and their envi-ronment. In other words, it is a general source of danger.

Many so-called “natural” hazards have both natural and human components. The com-pound effect of natural and man-made hazards is better described by the term environ-mental hazards defining a hazard environment as “extreme geophysical events, biologicalprocesses and major technological accidents characterised by concentrated releases ofenergy or materials that pose a largely unexpected threat to humans”.

Most previous disaster threat (or hazard) classifications have been dominated by geo-physical processes (Table 1). It has also been usual to emphasize the impact of single ele-ments, such as windspeed or rainfall, because this is relatively easy to quantify. In prac-tice, most severe hazards arise from compound or synergistic effects, as when wind com-bines with snow to produce a blizzard or earthquakes set off landslides in steep terrain.

2. What is a disaster ?When the interaction between the human population and a hazard results in loss on a suf-ficiently large scale, of lives, material possessions or whatever is valued by humans, theevent is termed a disaster.

Many disasters, such as earthquakes, are usually limited in time as well as in space andare disruptive to the social structure and functioning of communities. Other disasters, suchas droughts, are more gradual in their onset, but their impact may be no less severe.

The most notable natural disasters are due to a few events of a very high magnitude thatoccur relatively infrequently. Many of these disasters occur repeatedly in certain regionsthat, owing to natural geophysical characteristics, are susceptible to a variety of hazards(for example, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in tectonically active zones or extensiveflooding in lowland coastal areas due to tropical cyclones).

The typical and more notable social and economic consequences of disasters tend to be:

D loss of human life and injury

D loss of housing; leading to temporary and/or permanent migration

D damage to infrastructure (including transportation and communication systems)

D loss of industrial and/or agricultural production (hence loss of employment,income and tax revenue)

D damage to the natural resource base and to the environment

D panic; social disruption (for example, no sense of community, security or control)

D an increase in the likelihood of social unrest or violent conflict

D disordered markets and distribution; loss of commerce

D immediate downgrading of living conditions owing to the deferral or cancellationof other development plans that deal with real social needs

D short-term reduction in GDP and per capita income

D imbalances in the fiscal budget as a result of emergency reallocations of expen-diture

D immediate and medium-term inflatory pressure due to market disorders and exter-nally financed reconstruction expenditure

Most, if not all of the above consequences could be expected from disasters caused by allthe types of adverse natural and/or man-made phenomena as listed in Table 1.

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1. Atmospheric

Table 1 Potentially Hazardous Natural and Man-made Phenomena and/orProcesses

Source: Modified after Hewitt and Burton (1971)

2. Hydrologic

• Flooding: riverine (rain, snowmelt, natural damburst floods)

• Lake and sea-shore wave action

• Waterlogging

• Sea-ice and icebergs

• Run-off drought

• Glacier advance

3. Geologic

• Mass-movements: landslides, avalanches, mudflows, subsidence, etc.

• Silting (dykes, rivers, harbors, farmland)

• Earthquakes

• Volcanic eruptions

• Shifting sands

4. Biologic

• Severe epidemics in humans

• Severe epidemics in plants

• Severe epidemics in domestic and wild animals

• Animal and plant invasion (for example, locusts)

• Forest and grassland fires

5. Technologic

• Transport accidents

• Industrial explosions and fires

• Accidental releases of toxic gas

• Nuclear power plant failures

• Failures of public buildings or other structures

• Germ or nuclear warfare

Compound

• Rain and wind storms

• 'Glaze' storms

• Thunderstorms

• Tornadic storms and tornadoes

• Hurricanes

• Blizzards

• White-out'

• Drought

Single event

• Rain

• Freezing rain (glaze)

• Hail

• Snow

• Wind

• Lightening

• Temperature: 'heat wave', 'cold wave', frost

• Fog

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3. The major disaster agent - increasing vulnerabilityThe social and economic costs of natural disasters are increasing worldwide. This tenden-cy is attributed in part to increasing vulnerability in less developed countries, where peopleare often left more vulnerable to subsequent hazards after experiencing one disaster.

Many factors contribute to increasing vulnerability. These include:

D increasing population, with resultant increased densities of people and invest-ments on marginal lands (for example, increasing use of unstable and unsafelands)

D unsustainable development practices, especially in marginally productive lands

D the inability of governments faced with a rising population to provide adequatesocial services, including services related to risk reduction and emergency man-agement

D degradation of natural resources (for example, overgrazing of rangelands andoverexploitation of forests)

D increasing insecurity of food and water supplies

D rural-urban mitigation and pressures of urbanisation that concentrate people inunsafe cities

D increasing poverty and increasing numbers of poor people being exposed to haz-ards

D weak institutional capacity for confronting disasters

D inadequacy of risk management measures and forecasting techniques

D inadequate participation of the local community in risk and emergency manage-ment

D inadequate training

D inadequate communications and transport infrastructure

D lack of strict environmental control measures

D inadequate market mechanisms to help buffer against disasters and spread risks

D increasing global interdependence of economies, leading to more extensiveimpacts from a single disaster, etc.

While some societal factors tend to increase vulnerability to disasters, there are severaltechnological trends that serve to decrease it. Examples of such positive trends are:

D increased understanding of hazardous processes and phenomena

D improved analytical methods that permit the development and use of complexmodels

D enhanced communications, which permit applications resulting from this newunderstanding to be communicated in a timely manner

D advanced engineering practices, which have provided an improved understand-ing of the susceptibility of materials and structures together with the developmentof new approaches to engineering and design

These positive trends, however, must be partially balanced against the negative aspect ofan increased reliance on technology, which is often somewhat fragile and sensitive to theimpact of hazards.

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4. From hazard to disaster - level of riskRisk is defined as “the probability of meeting danger or suffering harm or loss”, or “the levelof loss or damage that can be predicted from a particular [environmental] hazard affectinga particular place at particular time”. In other words, hazard (or cause) may be defined as

“a potential threat to humans and their welfare” and risk (or consequence) as “the proba-

bility of hazard occurrence“.

So a disaster may be seen as ‘the realization of hazard’, although there is no universallyagreed definition of the scale on ‘which loss has to occur’ in order to qualify the event asdisaster. In relation to disaster, risk has been more specifically described as the probabili-ty that a disaster will occur, using the relative terms such as high risk, average risk and low

risk to indicate the degree of probability.

In an engineering context, risk is a way of describing the probability and consequences ofa disaster. Risk tries to identify the expected losses from the impact of a given threat to agiven vulnerable element over a specified period of time.

Four main categories of risk can generally be distinguished:

D perceived risk

D acceptable risk

D calculated or estimated risk

D real risk

Perceived risk is the risk as understood by those at risk.

Acceptable risk is a risk level chosen as a limiting requirement by those setting standardsand making decisions for society.

Calculated or estimated risk is the figure computed by designers and planners for therisk of failure of something to be built.

Real risk is the true risk which can only be known if there is access to everything that canbe known about the situation.

The distinction between perceived and real risk iscritical to the work of emergency systems. The per-ceptions of people, even if statistically sound, aremajor influences on behaviour and need to be takeninto account, both in the presentation of risk analysisand in the formulation of risk management policies.

Risk analysis is the systematic use of all availableinformation to determine how often specified eventscan occur and the magnitude of their consequences.It includes an evaluation of all the elements that arerelevant to an understanding of existing hazards andtheir effect on a specific environment, involving thefollowing four basic components (Fig. 1):

D the hazard

D the exposure

D the location of the exposure relative to the hazard

D the vulnerability of the exposure at the location of the exposure relative to thehazard

RISK

HAZARDS EXPOSURE

VULNERABILITY LOCATION

Fig. 1 Basic componentsof risk assessment

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Exposure is defined as any element of human value (people and what they value) sensi-tive to the realization of the hazard. Thus, people and/or what they value, for example, theelements at risk, are the essential point of reference for all risk assessments and for all dis-asters. That is why when large numbers of people exposed to hazard are killed, injured ordamaged in some way, the event is usually termed a disaster. While hazard can exist evenin an uninhabited region, the risk can occur only in an area where people and their pos-sessions exist.

Location is defined as the position of the exposure relative to the hazard.

Vulnerability, i.e. the concept of vulnerability, implies a measure of risk combined with thelevel of social and economic ability to cope with the expected/resulting event. In its sim-plest (physical) form, the vulnerability is defined as “the factors (of the community) which

allow a hazard to cause a disaster”; that is “the factors that increase the chances of a com-

munity being unable to cope with an emergency”.

Vulnerability analysis results in an understanding of the level of exposure of persons andvalues (property) to the various environmental hazards that have been identified. In anarea exposed to multiple hazards, vulnerability analysis should be carried out for each typeof hazard. In general, vulnerability analysis shell provide information on:

• the sectors at risk, for example, physical (building, infrastructure, critical facilities,agriculture); social (vulnerable groups, their livelihood, local institutions, poverty);and economic (means of production, stocks, income, market interruption)

• the type of risk (damage to public infrastructure, production facilities, housing,or casualties)

Vulnerability of a community, thus, can manifest itself in the following areas:

D physical (physical vulnerability)

D social (social vulnerability)

D economic (economic vulnerability)

For organisation and training of emergency systems, of the most crucial importance is thephysical vulnerability of the exposure, that is, of the population, the man-made propertyand the environment.

The most essential and concerned physical vulnerability aspects are related to population,buildings, infrastructure and agriculture.

The vulnerability of buildings is primarily controlled by factors such as the characteristicsof the building site, their design and shape, the materials used, construction techniques,maintenance and proximity to other buildings. The weight attached to each of these factorswill vary according to the type of hazard encountered because different hazards producedifferent forces affecting these structures.

The vulnerability of infrastructure is also specific, depending on the type of hazard.Infrastructure may be considered in three broad groups:

• transport systems (roads, railways, bridges, airports, port facilities)

• utilities (water, sewerage and electricity)

• telecommunications

Hazard protection measures such as flood embankments are also considered as a part ofthe infrastructure once they have been installed

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Vulnerability analysis is especially concerned with the risk faced by critical (essential) facil-ities, which are vital to the functioning of societies in disaster situations. Such facilitiesinclude: hospitals and dispensaries, emergency control centres, key government offices,police and emergency services, key transport and communication systems, essential serv-ices and utilities, high occupancy buildings and structures such as dams, power plants, etc.Special consideration should also be given to assessing the vulnerability of buildings ofgreat historic and cultural importance.

When a disaster strikes, human vulnerability (casualty) is dominantly related to behaviourand reliability of physical elements-at-risk. While human vulnerability is the primary con-cern of social vulnerability, the casualty (mortality and injury, and its epidemiology) predic-tions are of the utmost essence for organisation and training of emergency services (civilprotection, police, fire brigades, first medical aid, etc).

The statistical analysis of risk is based on mathematical theories of probability and scien-tific methods for identifying causal links between different types of hazardous activity andthe resulting adverse consequences. The risk analysis comprises, in general, the followingthree distinct procedural steps:

D an identification of hazards likely to result in disasters - what hazardous eventsmay occur?

D an estimation of the risks of such events - what is the probability of each event?

D an evaluation of the social consequences of the derived risk - what is the loss cre-ated by each event?

The process used to determine risk management priorities by evaluating and comparinglevel of risk against predetermined standards, target (acceptable) risk levels or other crite-ria is termed risk assessment.

Risk management is the systematic application of management policies, procedures andpractices to the tasks of identifying, analysing, assessing, treating and monitoring risk. Riskmanagement involves a formal, quantitative evaluation of potential injury or loss over aspecified period of time, or the prospect of future disfunctioning of safety or security sys-tems. In the case of emergencies or natural disasters, it is a measure of the occurrenceand the severity of losses from a particular hazard.

For risk management the quantitative element is important. While the process of analysingthe risk situation itself can be valuable for identifying interdependencies and exposingcause-and-effect relationships between parts of the problem, the benefits are much greaterwhen the contributing factors are understood in real terms. This may not be straightforwardin dealing with complicated situations such as emergency management in a major city, oradverse environmental events where there may be many variables inter-related in complexways.

For sound risk management, there should be an additional, fourth step in risk analysis thataddresses the need to take post-audits of all risk assessment and management exercises.In practice, very few studies have followed risk assessment to ask what happened after theassessment was undertaken and what were the effects of any mitigation or protectiveactions that were implemented. The general lack of such feedback is one of the most seri-ous deficiencies in the understanding and the reduction of environmental hazards at thepresent time.

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5. Emergency managementNot every manifestation of a hazard is disaster, assuming that disaster is a physical statein the affected region after a hazard manifestation. The capability and capacity to avoid adisaster situation depends on how society responds during the hazard impact phase, orimmediately after it. If the response is adequate and successful, the effects are reduced tothe most direct ones. On the contrary, if the response is inadequate and unsuccessful,even in weak hazard impacts the consequences may be unacceptable, in fact disastrous.

The manifestation of a hazardous event requiring the 'organisation and response of socie-

ty outside normal condition' is termed an emergency. More specifically, the emergency is

‘any [hazard] occurrence which requires an immediate response’ and normally can bemanaged at the local level.

This definition (WHO, 1995) clearly allows for emergencies to be caused by events otherthan disasters. It also assumes that a disaster (complex emergency) is a special aspect ofan emergency (or emergency management) that implies the failure to cope, in an organ-ized way, with natural or man-made threats. Some characteristic properties of an emer-gency and a disaster are comparatively presented in Table 2.

Emergency management comprises organized analysis, planning, decision-making, andassignment of available resources to mitigate (lessen the effect of, or prevent), prepare for,respond to, and recover from the effects of all hazards.

The ultimate goals of emergency management are:

D to save lives

D to prevent casualty (deaths and injuries)

D to protect property and the environment if an emergency occurs

Effective emergency management depends on consistent implementation of a sequentialseries of actions. The emergency management activities can be thought of as constitutinga continuum, which flows from one event to the next. The traditional concept views thephases of the progressive restoration of normality as a straight line or a straight continu-um (Fig. 2). The up-to-date emergency management concept treats this continuum as aclosed cycle (Fig. 3). The individual stages of the cycle often overlap or they may occur

Table 2 Comparative properties of an emergency and a disaster

Emergency (routine)

Small number of people

No disruption to the overall social system

Minimal destruction/disruption to transport,

communication and other utilities

Absorbed with the coping capacity of the local

community priorities for many years, and

require substantial external input

Response is primarily by emergency service

professionals

In general familiar tasks and procedures for

emergency services

Disaster (non-routine)

Large number of people

Some destruction of the overall social system

Widespread destruction/disruption

Recovery process may alter community's

overall priorities for many years, and require

substantial external input

Immediate (and effective) response is by non-

professionals

Unfamiliar situations; needs for flexibility and

adaptability by professionals

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simultaneously, but it is crucial that they operate as a closed loop because a major aim ofhazard/emergency management is to learn from experience and feedback.

Emergency management consists of several technically distinct, but intimately relatedcomponents. The phases (Fig. 3) are broad categories of pre- and post-event emergencymanagement work, which for convenience of discussion are usually defined as:

D prevention

D mitigation

D preparedness

D response

D recovery

D development

NORMALITY T I M E

DISA

STER

STR

IKE

IMPACT

RELIEFREHABILITATION

RECONSTRUCTION

PERMANENT

REBUILDING,

NEW JOBSTEMP. HOUSING

FINANCIAL AID

DISRUPTION

SEARCH

RESCUE

CARE

Fig. 2 Stages in the progressive restoration of normality in an area follow-ing a disaster strike through relief, rehabilitation and reconstructionactivities

Fig. 3 The emergency management cycle

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The cycle can be, and often is portrayed in other forms; also, alternative terminology maybe used. The important factor is that its format indicates that emergency and its manage-ment is a continuum of inter-linked activities; thus, it is not a series of events which startand end with each disaster occurrence.

5.1 Pre-disaster event measures and activities

5.1.1 PreventionPrevention is defined as and covers "Measures which are aimed at impeding the occurrence

of a disaster and/or preventing such an occurrence from having harmful effects on commu-

nities or on key installations". The following are usually classified as preventive measures:

• the construction of a dam to control flood waters so that the latter cannotadversely affect people, buildings and other installations, livestock, means ofproduction and subsistence, and so on.

• controlled burning-off in a wildfire-prone area prior to the high fire risk season;which action can remove potential fuel and actually prevent a fire ignition, or ifit is ignited, prevent it from reaching threatening proportions.

• some forms of legislation can also be regarded as prevention. Examples includeland-use regulations which ensure that communities are not allowed to developon vulnerable sites, such as the disaster-prone areas of a flood plain, or onsteep hill slopes susceptible to landsliding in normal or seismic conditions.

Under this definition, prevention should prudently be understood in the context of the fol-lowing aspects:

• national development planning

• national emergency management policy

• emergency/disaster legislation

• counter-disaster planning

• special emergency-related circumstances in which particular national assetsmay be at risk

5.1.2 MitigationAction within this segment usually takes the form of specific programmes intended toreduce the effects of disaster on a nation or a community. There are various definitions ofdisaster mitigation. The one most widely used defines it as ”Measures aimed at reducing

the impact of an environmental (natural or man-made) disaster on a nation or community”.With this definition, the basis premises is that whilst it may be possible to prevent someeffects of disaster, other effects will obviously persist, but they can be modified or reducedprovided appropriate action is taken.

Mitigation activities are broadly classified into structural and non-structural mitigation

measures. Typical non-structural mitigation measures are:

• development/improvement of legal framework

• incentives/government grants or subsidies aimed at promoting mitigationmeasures, technical assistance, insurance benefits, etc.

• training and education

• public awareness

• institution building

• development/installation of warning systems, etc.

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Typical structural mitigation measures are:

• construction of structures to resist the forces generated by environmental haz-ards (earthquakes, highwinds, floods, etc.)

• strengthening existing structures to render them more resistant against envi-ronmental hazard forces

Structural measures should be developed based on:

• adequate site planning

• assessment of forces created by potential environmental hazards

• planning and analysis of structural measures to resist such forces

• design and proper detailing of structural components

• construction with suitable materials

• good workmanship under adequate supervision

Some simple examples of typical mitigation measures are presented in Table 3.

5.1.3 PreparednessEmergencies often evolve rapidly and become too complex for effective improvisation.Consequently, a society can successfully discharge its emergency management responsi-bilities only by taking certain actions beforehand. This is preparedness and it is defined as“Measures that enable governments, organisations, communities and individuals to

respond rapidly and effectively to emergency situations".

Preparedness involves establishing authorities and responsibilities for emergency actionsand garnering the resources to support them, thus a jurisdiction must assign or recruit stafffor emergency management duties and designate or procure facilities, equipment, andother resources for carrying out assigned duties. This investment requires upkeep mainte-nance of facilities and equipment, use of forecasting and warning systems, training of staff,and other activities. Consideration also must be given to reducing or eliminating the vul-nerability of the jurisdiction’s emergency response organisations and resources to the haz-ards that threaten the jurisdiction.

Table 3 Some examples of typical mitigation measures

Non-structural

• Enforcement of building codes, adop-

tion of land-use regulations and controls

to restrict activities in high-risk areas

• Safety regulations related to high-rise

buildings, control of [usage, transport,

handling...] hazardous substances, etc.

• Safety codes governing land, sea and

air transport systems

• Economic diversification, that is, com-

pensation of losses in one sector by

increased output in other sectors

• Programmes aimed at reducing the

effects of a hazard on agricultural [food]

production

Structural

• Strengthening buildings to render them

more resistant against the impact of

environmental hazards

• Development/construction of systems to

protect key installations, such as power

supplies and vital communications

• Developments in infrastructure, such as

the routing of a new highway or region-

al transportation routes away from dis-

aster-prone areas

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Accordingly, preparedness measures should not be improvised or handled on an ad hocbasis. A key element of preparedness is the development of plans that link the manyaspects of a jurisdiction’s commitment to emergency management.

The maintenance of effective emergency preparedness is a dynamic process. Left it to itself,preparedness will quickly fade away, even to the point of becoming virtually nonexistent.

Effective preparedness requires:

• a clear and comprehensive national policy

• adequate and sound disaster legislation

• a clear and workable organisational structure

• a national emergency management structure

• reliable assessments for emergency preparedness actions

• a planning framework

• an accurate and up-to-date inventory of resources to be used

• a high level of co-ordination of preparedness and emergency operation efforts

• operational facilities and systems

• equipment and supplies

• training

• public awareness and education

• account of crisis pressure and compensation measures, etc.

The critical problem areas in preparedness are:

• organisation and planning /inadequate policy directions for overall emergencymanagement, lack of appropriate or outdated counter-disaster plans, over-con-centration on response and/or recovery measures, etc./

• resources /low resources or unclear allocation of roles and responsibilities ofstockpiling organisations/

• co-ordination /inadequate co-ordination, different levels of preparedness or dif-ferent priorities of organisations involved, friction or lack of co-operationbetween disaster-related organisations/

• readiness /lack of national or central emergency operation centres - EOCs, lowpreparedness of EOC’s, lack of communications equipment, etc./

• training and public awareness /lack of suitable training, inadequate or low pub-lic awareness and information/

Examples of typical preparedness measures are:

• the formulation and maintenance of valid and up-to-date counter-disaster planswhich can be used whenever required

• special provision for emergency action, such as the evacuation of the popula-tion or its temporary movement to safe havens

• the provision of warning systems

• emergency communications

• public education and awareness

• training programmes, including exercises and tests, etc.

The aspect of preparedness which is not always given an adequate priority is individual

and/or family preparedness. In many circumstances where government resources and

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emergency services are limited, such individual and family preparedness and skill in self-

protection and management may be vital for survival.

Some emergency management cycles divide preparedness into sub-segments such as:

D warning

D threat

D precaution

5.1.4 ReadinessPossible weaknesses in preparedness, as listed above, may significantly affect the effec-tiveness and efficiency of emergency response operations, and even hamper them com-pletely. To assure adequate and in-time emergency relief, WHO (1995) promotes"Readiness" as a state which links effective preparedness to efficient relief. While pre-paredness, readiness and response, on an intellectual level, should be deconstructed forbetter interpretation and analysis, at the point of practical implementation, they should notbe separated - they are inter-linked and inter-dependent. The success of one is intimatelydependent on the strength of others.

Readiness is basically a state of the current capacity and capability of specific relief agen-cies and services, such as NGOs and the UN, as well as national civil protection, ambu-lance and fire services, etc. to respond quickly and efficiently to all emergencies.Consequently WHO defines a state of readiness [for emergency response] as “organiza-

tion of the existing technical capacity of a particular sector, institution or organisation”, con-sidering that preparedness is the development of new or additional capacity and capabili-ty so that the next response will be managed better than the last.

Elements of readiness are:

• refresher training

• early warning systems

• specialised communication systems

• databases

• stockpiling

• buffer stocks

• simulation exercises

• dissemination of updated technical information related to particular hazards, etc.

These listed elements are readiness activities because they are essentially the organisa-tion of existing general resources or information to suit the needs of the management ofan emergency. Under normal conditions, these resources fulfil other functions.Preparedness programmes define the adaptation or refinement of those functions to makethem suitable for use in emergencies.

5.2 Post-disaster event measures and activities5.2.1 Response

Response measures are those "Measures taken immediately prior to and following the dis-

aster impact". Such measures are directed towards saving life and protecting property anddealing with the immediate damage caused by the onset of the disaster. Response oper-ations usually have to be carried out under disruptive and sometimes traumatic conditions.Often, they are difficult to implement and they tend to make heavy demands on personnel,equipment and other resources. Without a sound basis of planning, organisation and train-ing, emergency response operations are unlikely to achieve optimum success.

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Effective response to the impact of disaster is critical, mainly in order to:

• limit casualties

• alleviate hardship and suffering

• restore essential life support and community systems

• mitigate further damage and loss

• provide the foundation for subsequent recovery

Consequently, the major emergency response aspects are:

• Rescue: To rescue persons who may be trapped in building and under debris,isolated by floodwaters, or need rescuing for any other reason

• Treatment and care of victims: to dispose of the dead, to render first aid, toensure identification tagging of casualties, to identify needs in terms of medicaltreatment, hospitalisation and medical evacuation, and to deal with thoseaccordingly

• Evacuation: To determine whether persons need to be evacuated from thestricken area immediately, or whether such a requirement is likely to arise later

• Shelter: To provide shelter for victims whose housing has been destroyed orrendered unusable. This may involve:

• urgent repair to some housing

• issuing tents, tarpaulins and/or containers to provide means of temporaryshelter

• accommodating groups of homeless people in community buildings suchas schools, sports halls, etc.

• Food: To organise and distribute food to disaster victims and emergency work-ers, to estimate damage to food stocks, to estimate food reserves available(including those unharvested)

• Communications: To re-establish essential radio, telephone, telex, facsimileand informatics /Internet/ links

• Clearance and access: To clear key roads, airfields and ports in order to allowaccess for vehicles, aircraft and shipping also to prepare helicopter landingsites

• Water and power supply: To re-establish water and power supplies, or tomake temporary arrangements for them. The provision of potable water is oftendifficult, particularly in the early post-impact stages. Water purifying equipmentmight therefore have to be obtained and/or water purifying tablets used

• Temporary subsistence supplies: To provide supply, such as clothing, dis-aster kits, cooking utensils and plastic sheeting, so as to enable victims to sub-sist temporarily in their own area, thus helping to reduce the need for evacua-tion

• Health and sanitation: To take measures to safeguard the health of people inthe stricken area and to maintain reasonable sanitation facilities

• Public information: To keep the stricken community informed on what theyshould do, especially in terms of self-help, and on what action is in hand toassist them, to prevent speculation and rumour concerning future situations

• Security: To maintain law and order, especially to prevent looting and unnec-essary damage; to restrict entrance to severely damaged buildings unsafe forany kind of use

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• Construction requirements: To estimate high priority building repair andreplacement requirements; to remove unstable building elements that pose adirect hazard to occupants or pedestrians; to demolish severely damagedbuildings whose unexpected collapse may endanger humans or the otherbuildings in the vicinity

• Disaster welfare enquiry: To make arrangements for handling national andinternational enquiry concerning the welfare of citizens and residents, includingtracing of missing persons and reuniting families

• Maintenance of public morale: Depending on cultural and other local cir-cumstances, to make arrangements for counselling and spiritual support of thestricken community. This may involve religious bodies, welfare agencies andother appropriate organisations

• Other requirements: Depending on individual circumstances, other require-ments, additional to those above, may arise

There are certain characteristics that typically apply to the response effort. These include:

• the type of emergency and the warning period

• severity and extent of the impact

• the ability to take pre-impact action

• the capability and capacity for sustained operations

• identification of likely response requirement

Wide international experience has shown that effective response depends fundamentallyon the following two factors:

• information

• resources

Without these two vital components, the best emergency plans, management arrange-ments, expert staff and so on become virtually useless. Consequently, the major require-ments for effective and efficient response are:

• general background of preparedness /policy directions, planning, organisationand training/

• readiness of resource organisations

• warning

• activation of the response system

• co-ordination of response operations

• communications

• survey and assessment

• information management

• evacuation

• the major problem areas of response are:

• lack of background factors

• inadequate preparedness

• inadequate warning factors

• slow activation of the response system

• disaster impact effects and crisis pressure

• difficulties in damage surveys and needs assessment

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• inaccurate and/or incomplete information from the survey

• convergence of people [in disaster area]

• poor information management

• inadequate relief commodities

• logistic problems

• poor co-ordination of response operations

• inadequate public awareness

• problems with the media

• international assistance, and so on

Wide international experience indicates that most governments find it expedient to keepthe period of emergency response operation down to a fairly limited period. This periodtends to be 2 to 3 weeks, after which remaining relief and associated needs are metthrough the normal systems and process of government. Undue extension of the emer-gency is usually regarded as undesirable in order to avoid:

• over-dependence on emergency aid /especially food supplies/

• adverse effects on the local economy and the commercial system

• unnecessary delay in returning to normal community life

5.2.2 RecoveryRecovery is "the process by which communities and the nation are assisted in returning to

their proper level of functioning following a disaster". The recovery process can be veryprotracted, possibly taking 5 to 10 years or even more. Three main categories of activitiesare normally regarded as coming within the Recovery segment, that is:

• restoration

• rehabilitation

• reconstruction

Typical activities include:

• restoration of essential services

• restoration of repairable homes and other buildings/installations

• provision of temporary housing

• measures to assist the physical and psychological rehabilitation of personswho have suffered from the effects of disaster

• long-term measures of reconstruction, including the replacement of buildingsand infrastructure which have been destroyed by the disaster

5.2.3 DevelopmentThe development segment provides the link between disaster-related activities and nation-al development. Its inclusion in the emergency management cycle is intended to ensurethat the results of disaster are effectively reflected in future policies in the interests ofnational progress. For instance, to produce the best possible benefits by:

• introducing improved and modernized building systems and programmes

• using international disaster assistance to optimum effect

• applying disaster experience in future research and development programmes

• using any other means appropriate to a particular situation

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At the same time, this linkage should be utilized to ensure that national development doesnot create further disaster problems, nor exacerbate existing ones.

5.3 SummaryIn general, the emergency management cycle consists of two inter-linked segments:

• Pre-disaster event measures and activities: Long-term development (whichincludes disaster prevention, mitigation and emergency preparedness)

• Post-disaster event measures and activities: Response (response andrecovery)

Disaster prevention and disaster mitigation programmes are generally specific long-termtechnical activities aimed at reducing the susceptibility component of risk, i.e., their aim isthe elimination of a hazard or the reduction of its impact through addressing the intrinsicfactors of hazards. While it is true that those development projects with a social componentmay contribute to disaster mitigation or emergency preparedness, it is unusual for suchprojects to have a primary objective of disaster prevention.

Emergency preparedness programmes are concerned with the extrinsic factors of hazards,that is, the causes of vulnerability of communities. Their concerns are less technical andmore managerial, and they aim to strengthen national capacity and capability for emer-gency management as a whole, through the inter-sectoral linking of planning processes.

Response and recovery are technical and managerial activities that also have specifichumanitarian and social goals, but the lessons learned from response and recovery arevery important for effective prevention, mitigation and preparedness. Good emergency pre-paredness programmes ensure that a feedback loop exists and functions.

The most strategic policy issue is the interlinkage and relationship between response andlong-tem development. A cycle itself reinforces the fact that emergencies are inevitable,rather than exceptional. If this is the case, then strategies for coping with them should beprovided during the regular development planning process. Disasters (failure to cope withemergencies) should not be thought of as inevitable, since they can be prevented or theireffects mitigated with good planning.

Bibliography and reference documentsCarter, W. N., "Disaster Management - A Disaster Manager’s Handbook", Asian Development Bank, Manila,

1991.

UNDRO, "Mitigating Natural Disasters - Phenomena, Effects and Options: A manual for Policy Makers and

Planners", New York, 1991.

Smith, K., "Environmental Hazards - Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster", 1996.

World Health Organisation, "Planning for Emergencies, Part 2: Concepts and Definitions for Emergency

Management in Health Sector", 1995.

Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space - UNISPACE III,

"Disaster Prediction, Warning and Mitigation", 1998.

Asian Development Bank, "Disaster Mitigation in Asia and Pacific", 1990.

Alexander D., "Natural Disasters", Chapman & Hall, New York, 1993.

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