ByzantineByzantineArt & Art &

ArchitectureArchitecture

Formation

Byzantine Empire Before and After Justinian

• Constantinople was founded on the ancient city of Byzantium in 324 by Constantine. • The Roman Empire remained united until the death of Theodosius I, who split it between his two sons, Honorius (West) and Arcadius (East).• Honorius moved the capital of the western half from Rome to Milan, then from Milan to Ravenna, in an attempt to avoid the encroaching invaders, but the western half soon fell, divided into warring kingdoms.• Historians use the word Byzantium to refer to the Eastern Christian Roman Empire, and the word Byzantine to refer to anything pertaining to Byzantium.• However, the Byzantine emperors did not refer to themselves as Byzantines – they called their empire Rome and themselves Romans. Although they spoke Greek instead of Latin, they never relinquished their claim as the successors to the ancient Roman emperors.

Periods• Historians divide the Byzantine Empire into three periods:-Early Byzantine (324-726) – extends from the founding of Constantinople in 324 to the onset of iconoclasm (the destruction of images used in religious worship) in 726 under Leo III.-Middle Byzantine (843-1204) – begins with the renunciation of iconoclasm in 843 and ends with the Western Crusaders’ occupation of Constantinople in 1204.-Late Byzantine (1261-1453) – corresponds to the two centuries after the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople in 1261 until its final loss in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks and the conversion of many churches to mosques.• The Byzantine Empire spread Christianity to the Balkans and Russia, and acted as a buffer which prevented Islam from spreading into Europe.• When Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire, the westward flight of Constantinople’s intellectual elite introduced the study of Classical Greece to Europe, and helped instigate the Renaissance.

St. Michael the Archangel

St. Michael the ArchangelRight leaf of a diptychEarly 6th CenturyIvory, 1’ 5” x 5.5”

• Carved of ivory, this relief bears the inscription “receive these gifts,” probably referring to the cross-surmounted orb of power St. Michael is shown offering (probably to a Byzantine emperor depicted on the missing left leaf). • Hair, face, and drapery are Classically influenced in style, but treatment of space is not.• St. Michael’s design is based on Classical depiction of winged Nike, adapted to fit a Christian narrative.• This is an example of a luxury art, produced specifically for the wealthy instead of the public.• The orb is known as the globus cruciger (cross-bearing orb), which is a symbol of Christ’s dominion over the world. It is a symbol of power when held by an angel or ruler. When held by Christ, it is a symbol of Christ as savior of the world.

Vienna Dioskorides• Another type of luxury art is the illuminated manuscript, which became popular during the Early Roman Empire with the invention of a codex (an early form of book), which replaced the rotulus (scroll). • Another development that made manuscript illumination possible was the use of vellum (treated calfskin) and parchment (treated lambskin) instead of brittle papyrus.• The word “illuminare” means to ornament, adorn, or brighten, so illuminated manuscripts are so-called because they are richly illustrated.• In the mid-first century, a Greek physician named Dioskorides compiled an encyclopedia of medicinal herbs called De materia medica. • An early sixth century copy was given to Anicia Juliana, daughter of Honorius, by the people of Honoratai, who was a great patron of the arts.• Although most of the text and illustrations were copied from the original, the dedication page is an original design. It depicts Ancia Juliana seated between personifications of Magnanimity and Prudence, with a kneeling figure labeled Grattitude of the Arts at her feet.

Illustrations from theVienna DioskoridesTempera on vellum. Honoratai, c. 512.

Justinian

Portrait from the Basilica of San Vitale

Ravenna. Mosaic.

• Ruled from 527 – 565• Ushered in Byzantium’s first golden age. • Justinian’s generals drove the Ostrogoths out of Italy, expelled the Vandals from the African provinces, beat back the Bulgars on the northern frontier, and held the Sasanians at bay on the eastern borders.• Codified the Roman law in a great work known as the Corpus juris civilis (Code of Civil Law), which became the foundation of the law systems of many modern European nations.• Constantine legalized Christianity, Theodosius made it the official Roman religion (and banned the old Roman gods), and Justinian made Christianity the ONLY legal religion, outlawing all others.• Justinian sought not only to stamp out any remaining polytheistic religions, he also sought to eradicate any versions of Christianity which differed from Eastern Orthodox (such as Arian, which believed that since the Father created the Son, he was greater, or Monophysite, which believed that Christ was only divine, not both divine and human).

Barberini Ivory

Justinian as World Conqueror (Barberini Ivory)

c. 650. Ivory, 1’ 1.5” x 10.5”

• Was owned in the 17th century by Cardinal Barberini • Comprised of 5 pieces (right center one is missing)• Center panel: emperor (probably Justinian) on a rearing horse, barbarian recoiling behind, bountiful Earth personification below, and palm-bearing Victory above.• Bottom panel: barbarians offering tribute and seeking clemency, accompanied by a lion, tiger, and elephant• Left panel: Roman soldier bearing a statue of Victory• Upper panel: two angels holding aloft a youthful image of Christ with a cross, who blesses Justinian with a gesture of his right hand, indicating his approval of the emperor.

Squinches vs. Pendentives• Earlier architects placed domes directly on the ground, or on top of cylindrical drums. • Byzantine architects began to experiment with placing domes on top of square bases, in order to combine the traditional basilica-plan and central-plan church designs.• To accomplish this, they developed two primary solutions: the pendentive and the squinch.• The pendentive system places the dome on top of another dome, except the architect omits the sides and top of the lower dome. The sides are replaced with four arches, which form a square at their base (the weight is distributed to the four pillars). This leaves only four downward-pointing curved triangles, known as pendentives. • The squinch system uses a totally square base. The opening at the top of the square base is made octagonal by adding four squinches (one in each corner). This “rounding off” of the square corners allows the round dome to be placed on top.

squinchpendentive

Hagia Sophia

Hagia SophiaAnthemius of Tralles andIsidorus of MiletusConstantinople, Turkey532 – 537 CE270’L x 240’W x 180’H

• Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) was built by Justinian in Constantinople as his greatest church (he built over 30 in Constantinople alone).• Justinian employed two architects: Anthemius of Tralles (who was really a mathematician) and Isidorus of Miletus (who was really a physicist).• The minarets at the four corners were added later by the Ottoman Turks.• The base of the dome is pierced with forty windows, which fill the church with light and give the illusion that the dome is resting on light itself.• The exterior is built of brick, and the interior is decorated with a variety of differently colored marble, which gleamed and reflected the light from the windows.• Light itself is a symbol for heaven and God.• Is this an example of pendentives or squinches?

Hagia Sophia

Hagia SophiaAnthemius of Tralles andIsidorus of MiletusConstantinople, Turkey

• Anthemius and Isidorus used pendentives to transfer the weight from the great dome to the eight piers beneath rather than to the walls. This created the impression of a dome suspended above, rather than held up by, walls.• The weight of the dome required buttressing at the base of the eight piers. The weight was also dissipated through a series of exterior half-domes. • The columnar arcade of the nave has no structural function.• The load-bearing piers are made of ashlar masonry, but the rest of the structure is built of brick (+ interior marble veneer). • The nave was reserved for the clergy. The worshippers, segregated by sex, were restricted to the aisles and galleries.• The emperor was the only layperson allowed into the sanctuary. • When the emperor participated with the patriarch in the liturgy, his rule was again sanctified and his person exalted. Church and state were thus symbolically made one.

• Ravenna was captured by Justinian’s army, and it became the Byzantine’s foothold in Italy for the next 200 years.• Construction was begun under Bishop Ecclesius using funds (26,000 solidi, or about 350 pounds of gold) from a wealthy citizen, Julianus Argentarius (Julian the banker).• Designed using a central plan, feauturing a dome-covered clerestory-lit central space defined by piers alternating with curved, columned exedrae.• A cross-vaulted choir preceding the apse interrupts the ambulatory and gives the plan some axial stability.• The narthex is at an odd angle, undermining its longitudinal axis, the reason for which is not known (it may have paralleled a street which no longer exists).• The apse mosaic depicts the second coming of Christ, who sits atop the world and holds a scroll with 7 seals. The 4 rivers of paradise flow below. Christ offers a golden martyr’s wreath to St. Vitalis. Bishop Ecclesius offers Christ a model of the church. Angels may represent Trinity.

San Vitale

Choir and apse of San Vitale with mosaic of Christ between two angels, Saint Vitalis, and Bishop EcclesiusRavenna, Italy, c. 550exedrae

choir

• These two mosaics are situated across from each other, on opposite walls of the apse.• The orders of the figures express precedence and rank.• Justinian and Theodora are both shown in the centers of their panels, wearing gold/purple robes, with halos behind their heads, linking them with the image of Christ above.• Justinian and his cohort are meant to seem as though they are in the church itself, whereas Theodora is in the church’s atrium, waiting to enter. • To the right of Justinian is Bishop Maximianus (name written), who finished the church after the death of Ecclesius.• 3 groups: imperial guard (left, with chi-rho shield), the emperor and his staff, and Maximianus and the clergy (right).• Leader of each group indicated by placement of feet.• Justinian’s feet make him seem behind Maximianus, but his paten (golden bread bowl) appears in front of Maximianus, symbolizing the balance of power between the two men.• 3 magi are sewn on Theodora’s cloak, representing her wisdom and important influence.• How are these figures different from Ara Pacis procession?

San Vitale

Justinian, Maximianus, and Attendants (North wall of the apse),

San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, c. 550

Theodora and Attendants(South wall of the apse),San Vitale Ravenna, Italy, c. 550

• This church held the corpse of St. Apollinaris (who suffered martyrdom in Classe, Ravenna’s port) until the 9th Century.• Visible above the central cross medallion is the hand of god.• In the clouds next to the cross are the prophets Moses and Elijah, and below are 3 sheep representing John, Peter, and James.• Below is the patron saint of this church, Apollinaris with 12 sheep that may symbolize church congregants.• Who is depicted above the apse?• The artist avoided overlapping, shading, and any depiction of real 3D space, instead lining up the flat symbols side-by-side.• The large cross represents not only Christ’s death and later transfiguration, but also the death (and subsequent salvation) of his martyrs. Lambs, as a sacrificial animal, appropriately represent the martyred apostles John, Peter, and James.• This communicates to the worshippers that the death of the martyr, in imitation of Christ, is a triumph over death that leads to eternal life. The way of the martyr is open to them, and the reward of eternal life is within their reach.

Sant’Apollinare in Classe

Saint Apollinaris Amid Sheep.Sant’Apollinare in Classe,Ravenna, Italy. c. 550.

Transfiguration of Jesus

Transfiguration of JesusApse mosaic, Church of the Virgin,

monastery of Saint Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt, c. 550

• Monasticism (men leaving their regular lives to live the austere, hermit-like life of a monk) greatly increased in the 3rd century. Eventually, monks began living together in communal compounds known as monasteries.• The image to the left is from a church within a monastery on Mount Sinai, Egypt. The church, now called St. Catherine’s, is located where it was believed Moses first talked to the burning bush.• Justinian rebuilt the monastery at Mount Sinai because it was an important pilgrimage destination (it protected pilgrims as well).• The mosaic depicts Jesus during the Transfiguration (when he turned into light before John, Peter, and James).• Jesus is enveloped in an almond-shaped mandorla. • To the sides are the prophets Moses and Elijah, and below, in poses of shock, are John, Peter, and James.• The scene is framed with portraits of saints in medallions. • Plain gold background instead of specific setting enables worshippers to contemplate the eternal and motionless world of religious truth.

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George

• This artwork is an example of an icon (Greek for “image”), which was a small, portable artwork (usually a painting) depicting Jesus, Mary, saints, or a combination thereof.• This image depicts an enthroned Mary, holding the infant Jesus, surrounded by two saints. Behind them are two angels looking upwards, and in the upper center is a shaft of light and the hand of god.• Some Eastern Christians, called iconophiles, considered icons a personal and intimate medium for spiritual transaction with holy figures. Some icons were even regarded as wonder-working, and believers ascribed miracles and healing powers to them.• Other Christians, known as iconoclasts, were deeply suspicious of icons, and felt that they violated the second Commandment which prohibited the worshipping of idols.• During iconoclasm (instigated by Leo III), which lasted from 726 to 843, all religious imagery depicting saints, Jesus, Mary, or the Father/Holy Spirit were banned. No new images were made, and old images were destroyed.

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between

Saints Theodore and George,Icon, c. 600.

Encaustic on wood, 2’ 3” x 1’ 7”

Monastery of Saint Catherine,

Mount Sinai, Egypt

Iconoclasm

• The destroyed images were not limited to icons. Mosaics and frescoes in churches were also pried off or smeared over with ash. • Images of people of the bible were replaced with symbols, such as the cross.• During the 100 years leading up to iconoclasm, the Byzantine Empire was losing ground to its enemies. A new threat, the Arabs, under the banner of the new Islamic religion, had overtaken the Eastern provinces as well as Persia.• Leo III may have felt that the Byzantines’ bad luck was due to idol worship, and thus enacted the ban. It is also possible that he enacted the ban as a way to assert the authority of the state over the church.• The iconoclasm years marked the end of the long line of the Roman Empire, and marked the beginning of the medieval era of Byzantine history.

Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between

Saints Theodore and George,Icon, c. 600.

Encaustic on wood, 2’ 3” x 1’ 7”

Monastery of Saint Catherine,

Mount Sinai, Egypt

Middle Byzantine Art• In the late 700s and early 800s, a strong reaction against iconoclasm set in.• The case in favor of icons had been made earlier in the 8th Century by St. John of Damascus, who argued that God the Father had made an image of himself in the son Jesus and in humankind in general, and that although icons were likenesses of holy figures, they were not identical to them.• Two empresses also lead the movement to restore image-making: Irene in 780 (whose ban was short-lived) and Theodora (widow of the emperor Theophilos) in 843, whose ban on iconoclasm became permanent.• Shortly thereafter, a new line of emperors, the Macedonian dynasty, resuscitated the Early Byzantine tradition of lavish imperial patronage of religious art and architecture.

Christ as PantokratorDome mosaic in the Church of the Dormition, Daphni,

Greece, c. 1100

Christ as Pantokrator• The interior of the Church of the Dormition is high and narrow, forcing the viewer’s gaze upward and around.• In the center of the dome is a large mosaic of Christ as Pantokrator, which is literally translated from Greek as “ruler of all” but is usually used to mean Christ in his role of final judge of humankind.• The Daphni Pantokrator is like a giant icon hovering dramatically in space. The image serves to connect the awe-struck worshipper in the church below with Heaven through Christ.• In addition to the Pantokrator, there are several more mosaics below depicting New Testament scenes.

Christ as PantokratorDome mosaic in the Church of the Dormition, Daphni,

Greece, c. 1100

The Crucifixion• One of the mosaics below the Christ as Pantokrator dome mosaic in Daphni is the Crucifixion.• This image is typical of post-iconoclastic Byzantine art in that it is a subtle blend of the painterly naturalistic style of Late Antiquity and the later, more abstract and formalistic Byzantine style. • Jesus is flanked by the Virgin Mary and Saint John.• A skull indicates that this is Golgotha (the Jewish word for “place of the skulls”). Whose skull might it be?• Symmetry and closed space combine to produce an effect of the motionless and unchanging aspect of the deepest mystery of the Christian religion, as recalled in the ceremony of the Eucharist.

The CrucifixionMosaic in the north arm of the east wall of the

Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece, c. 1100

St. Mark’s

St. Mark’sVenice, Italy. First built in 829, but rebuilt after a fire in 976, and rebuilt again in 1063.

• During the Middle Byzantine Empire, Venice (Italy) became independent, ruled by its doges (dukes), and was a crucial link between Byzantium and the West.• Venice acquired the relics of St. Mark from Alexandria (Egypt) in 829, and the doges constructed the first Venetian shrine dedicated to the evangelist. • The third and most ornate version of St. Mark’s was built by Doge Domenico Contarini, who incorporated lavish decorations, such as the golden Pala d’Oro altarpiece.• Design featured a cruciform plan with a central dome over the crossing and four other domes over the four equal arms of the Greek cross.• St. Mark’s housed many icons brought back after the sack of Constantinople in 1204.• Light enters through clerestories at the bottom of each dome, illuminating 40,000 square feet of mosaics.• The mosaic in the central dome depicts Christ’s ascension in front of Mary and the 12 apostles.• Mosaics have labels in Latin and Greek, indicating Venice as the key link between East and West.

Pala d’Oro

The Lamentation• This wall painting depicts the followers of Christ lamenting over his death. At Christ’s feet are Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea. Saint John holds Christ’s hand, and the Virgin presses her cheek to Christ’s face. • The artist is trying to evoke the strong emotions of the moment through the gestures and expressions of the figures. He also includes Mary and John, who were not at the entombment (according to the Gospels). Their presence raises the emotional charge.• The artist chose blue for the sky instead of gold, and included a hilly background because they wanted the scene to be as convincing and emotional as possible.

LamentationWall painting, Saint

Pantaleimon, Nerezi, Macedonia, c. 1100

Paris Psalter• Another example of this classical revival style is a page from a book of the Psalms of David (a book of psalms is known as a psalter). • The original manuscript was probably from the mid-900s, the so-called Macedonian Renaissance, a time of enthusiastic and careful study of the language and literature of ancient Greece, and of humanistic reverence for the classical past.• David, the psalmist, surrounded by sheep, goats, and his dog (not unlike Orpheus), plays his harp. • Melody (personified) looks over his shoulder and Echo peers out from behind a column.• A reclining male figure points to a Greek inscription identifying him as representing the mountain of Bethlehem.• The personified figures are not from the bible, but rather Greco-Roman imagery. Probably, the artist had seen a work from Late Antiquity or perhaps earlier and partly translated it into the Byzantine pictorial style.

David Composing the Psalms, Folio 1 verso of the Paris Psalter

C. 950. Tempera on vellum, 1’ 2” x 10”

Vladimir Virgin• The Vladimir Virgin is the most renowned Middle Byzantine icon produced in Russia.• The image has been repainted many times, and damaged from incense smoke.• Originally located in Kiev (Ukraine), it was moved first to Vladimir (hence its name), then as a wonder-working icon to Moscow, to protect the city from outside invaders.• The virgin displays the stylized characteristics of the Byzantine icon of the Virgin and Child: long, straight nose, small mouth, golden rays in the infant’s drapery, the flat silhouette against the golden background.• This image, however, is different from others of the Virgin with child (such as the one from Sinai) in that here, Mary is depicted as the Virgin of Compassion, who presses her cheek against her son’s in an intimate portrayal of Mother and Child.• Mary appears troubled as she contemplates the future sacrifice of her son.

Virgin of Compassion icon (Vladimir Virgin)

c. 1100. Tempera on

wood,2’ 6” x 1’ 9”

The Anastasis• This artwork dates from the late period of the Byzantine Empire (between when Constantinople was taken over by Western Crusaders and when it was finally overtaken by the Ottoman Turks). • This fresco is located in the apse of the parekklesion (side chapel, in this case a funerary chapel) of the Church of Christ in Chora. • This image depicts the Anastasis, in which Christ, encircled in a luminous mandorla, frees several Old Testament figures (in this case, Adam and Eve) from Hell.• Christ tramples Satan, and all of the locks and keys of his prison house of Hell, and reaches out to Adam (left) and Eve (right) to raise them up.• Looking on are John the Baptist, King David, and King Solomon (left), and various martyr saints (right).• The figures appear weightless, and cast no shadows.• The clothing of the figures is soft and flowing, unlike the geometric, straight-edged clothing of earlier mosaics.

AnastasisFresco in the apse of the parekklesion of the

Church of Christ in Chora, Constantinople, Turkey, c. 1300

The Anastasis• Throughout the centuries, Byzantine artists looked back to classical illusionism. But unlike classical artists, Byzantine artists did not believe that the systematic observation of the real world should be the source of their representations of the eternal. • Instead, they drew their images from a persistent and conventionalized vision of a spiritual world unsusceptible to change.

AnastasisFresco in the apse of the parekklesion of the

Church of Christ in Chora, Constantinople, Turkey, c. 1300