biology stpm report 2012

EXPERIMENT 20 (PRACTICAL NO.33)

TITLE: ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF A TERRESTRIAL OR AN

AQUATIC AREA

NAME OF GROUP MEMBER:

1. CHONG SET LI

2. LIM KAI YIN

3. KUA EN YI

4. ZAHIDAH HUSNA BINTI ZULKIFLI

CLASS: 6 PUSC (2012)

TEACHER’S NAME: PN. SARIMAH BT DAUD

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1. OBJECTIVE

Learning the basic principles of ecology through students’ own effort

Elements of ecosystem: biosis and abiosis

Dynamic relationship of elements and flow of energy through ecosystem

Using the simple apparatus and instruments in ecological studies

Learning the methods of collecting and analyzing ecological data

Writing an ecological study report

Inculcating nature loving attitude

Inculcating good moral values such as cooperation, independence, and self-

confidence

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SOIL ANALYSIS

1. SOIL SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Apparatus: metal cylinder and piston (to dig out soil)

Procedure: a) Press the metal cylinder into the soil.

b) Using the piston, remove the soil sample from the cylinder

Discussion:

1. There are many methods to obtain a sample of soil, however, appropriate technique

should be used to retain the original quality and structure of the soil in order to

determine the actual characteristic or composition of the soil.

2. Using a “corer”

This is the most commonly used method in soil sampling. This method does not disturb

the original structure and quality of the soil. The “corer” consists of a sharp ended metal

cylinder and a piston.

3. Scoop

Another method to obtain soil sample is using scoops and spades. This method allows

obtaining of soil from different depths. However, this method is less urged to be used as

it may destroy the soil of area being studied.

Use a garden trowel or shovel to carefully remove the top 10 cm of soil from a small area and

set it on the ground. (Depth varies according to depth of soil wishing to be sampled)

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4. Soil bore

Using a soil bore maintains the natural condition of the soil under study. Soil samples can

be obtained from various depths. Hence, a soil bore is suitable for the study of the

characteristics of the different layers of a specific soil profile. A known disadvantage of

this method is the migration of contaminants from one layer of the soil to another

Precaution :

1. Appropriate soil sampling method should be used to ensure the nature and the structure of the

soil are not destroyed.

Conclusion :

The most suitable soil sampling technique is using metal cylinder and piston as it can retain the

natural composition of the soil being studied. Apart from that, this method is convenient and the

variation cost effective.

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2. DETERMINATION OF THE TEXTURE OF SOIL

Introduction

Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of different grain sizes of

mineral particles in a soil. Particles are grouped according to their size into what are called soil

separates. These separates are typically named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture classification is

based on the fractions of soil separates present in a soil. It is also important to note that soil

texture changes slowly with time.

Soil properties related to texture

1. Porosity – an index of the relative pore volume in the soil

2. Infiltration – The downward entry of water into the immediate surface of soil

3. Erodibility – Generally, large particles are less erodible, exceptions being clay

4. Available water holding capacity – The capacity of soil to retain water

5. Soil formation – fine sand to coarse sand ratio for example

6. Permeability – The quality of the soil that enables water to move downward

through the profile

Apparatus: 500cm³ measuring cylinder

100cm³soil sample

300cm³ water

Procedure:

a) the soil sample is added to the measuring cylinder and is covered with water.

b) the contents is shake vigorously

c) the mixture is allowed to settle out, according to density and surface area of particles for 48

hours.

d) the volume of the various fraction of soil sample is measured

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Formula :

The percentage of soil component content is calculated using the following formula :

Results:

Soil Components Height of Soil

Components(cm)

Percentage of Soil

Components(%)

Stone 4.3 33.1

Sand 2.7 20.8

Fine sand 2.0 15.4

Clay 2.7 20.8

Organic matter 1.3 10.0

Total 13.0 100

Discussion :

1. Soil particles precipitate at the bottom of measuring cylinder according to their density and

surface area.

2. Stones are the major component of the soil sample, which made up 50% of the soil

component. Whereas clay and sand made up 30% and 20% of the soil component

respectively.

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3. Stone particles have highest density among the soil particles, and therefore, they accumulate at

the bottom of the measuring cylinder, followed by sand particles. Clay particles made up the

uppermost layer of the soil sediment because of their very small density and surface area.

Precaution :

1. The mixture of water and soil sample must be allowed to settle for a longer period of time to

allow the soil particles to settle completely and accentuate distinctions among types ofparticles.

Conclusion :

From the experiment conducted, it can be concluded that the texture of the soil sample being

studied is sandy loam.

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3. DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT OF SOIL

Introduction

　　The state of water in soil is described in terms of the amount of water and the energy

associated with the forces which hold the water in the soil. The amount of water is defined by

water content and the energy state of the water is the water potential. Plant growth, soil

temperature, chemical transport, and ground water recharge are all dependent on the state of

water in the soil. While there is a unique relationship between water content and water potential

for a particular soil, these physical properties describe the state of the water in soil in distinctly

different manners. Soil water is held in the pore spaces between particles of soil. Within the soil

system, the storage of water is influenced by several different forces. Soil water can be further

subdivided into three categories:

1. Hygroscopic water - found as a microscopic film of water surrounding soil particles

2. Capillary water - held by cohesive forces between the films of hygroscopic water

3. Gravity water - water moved through the soil by the force of gravity

Apparatus : Aluminum foil pie dish

Electronic balance

Oven

　 Desiccator

Tongs

Thermometer

Materials : 80 gm soil

Procedure :

a) An empty aluminum foil pie dish is weighted. The mass (a) is recorded.

b) The broken-up soil sample is added to the pie dish and is weighed. The mass (b)

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is recorded.

c) The pie dish containing the soil sample is placed in the oven at 110 oC for 24

hours.

d) The sample is removed from the oven and is cooled in a desiccators.

e) The sample is then weighted and the mass is recorded.

f) The sample is returned to the oven at 110 oC for a further 24 hours.

g) Steps (d) and (e) are repeated until consistent weighing are recorded (constant

mass) . The mass (c) is recorded.

h) The percentage of water content is calculated as follows:

i) The soil sample is retained in the desiccator for experiment 4.

Formula :

The percentage of water content of soil is calculated using the following formula :

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Results :

Soil Sample Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2

Mass of aluminum

foil pie dish, a (g)

62.3 g

Mass of foil pie dish

containing soil sample

before dried, b (g)

82.3 g

Mass of foil pie dish

containing soil sample

after dried, c (g)

58.2 g

Mass of soil, b-a (g) 20 g

Mass of water , b-c

(g)

24.1 g

Percentage of Water

Content ( % )

120.5%

Discussion :

1. The soil samples are heated in the oven at 110 C to eliminate all the water content in the soil.

2. The soil sample from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 area contains 120.5% of water content.

3. The amount of water content in the soil depends on the texture and the properties of the

soil.

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Precaution :

1. During the experiment, the soil samples must be reheated, re-cooled, and re-weighed until

constant masses were obtained to ensure that the water content in the soil samples were totally

removed.

2. The soil samples must be retained well before conducting the experiment to prevent the loss of

water from the soil samples to the surrounding due to evaporation.

3. The soil samples must be placed in the dessicator for cooling to prevent condensation which

may affect the results of the experiment.

Conclusion :

The percentage of water content of soil samples from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 is 120.5%

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4. DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT

Introduction

Organic matter in soil consists of plant and animal material that is in the process of

decomposing. Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of soil. It can be divided into

three general pools: living biomass of microorganisms, fresh and partially decomposed residues,

and humus. Soil organic matter is frequently said to consist of humic substances and non-humic

substances. Non-living components in soil are a heterogeneous mixture composed largely of

products resulting from microbal and chemical transformations of organic debris. Humus is the

well-decomposed organic matter and highly stable organic material which feeds the soil

population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus maintaining high and healthy levels of

soil life.

Humification of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to break down

into simpler forms which are then made available to growing plants for uptake through their root

systems. During the humification process, microbes secrete sticky gums; these contribute to the

crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together, allowing greater aeration of the soil.

Toxic substances such as heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can be chelated (that is,

bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from entering the wider

ecosystem

Apparatus : Desiccators

Crucible and lid

Tripod

Bunsen burner

Asbestos mat

Fireclay triangle tongs

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Material : Dried soil sample

Procedure:

1. The crucible and lid is heated strongly in the Bunsen Flame to remove all traces of

moisture.

2. The crucible and lid placed in the desiccator to cool. The mass (a) is weighted and

recorded.

3. The dried soil sample (kept from the previous experiment) is added from the desiccators and

weighted. The mass (b) is recorded.

4. The soil sample in the crucible is heated, covered with the lid, to red-heat for 1 hour to

burn off all the organic matter. The soil sample is allowed to cool for 10 min and is

removed to the desiccator.

5. The crucible and soil sample is weighted when cooled.

6. Steps (c) and (d) are repeated until constant mass is recorded.

7. The percentage of organic content is calculated as follow:

8. The experiment on soil samples taken from different areas is repeated to demonstrate

variation of organic content.

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Formula :

The percentage of organic matter content in soil sample is calculated using the following

formula:

Results :

Soil Sample Bandar Tun Husesein Onn 2

Mass of crucible and

lid, a

(g)

37 g

Mass of crucible and lid

containing dried soil

sample

before heating, b (g)

77 g

Mass of crucible and lid

containing dried soil

sample

after heating, c (g)

31.6 g

Mass of soil sample, b-a

(g)

40 g

Mass of organic matter,

b-c

(g)

45.4 g

Percentage of Organic

Component ( % )

113.5%

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Discussion :

1. Soil samples are heated strongly to burn off all the organic matters present in the soil.

2. The soil sample from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 contains 113.5% of organic matters

3. The organic constituents in the soil composed of undecayed plant and animal tissues, partial

decomposition products, and the soil biomass.

4. Humus is important soil organic matter which supply nutrients for plants grow and microbes

in terrestrial ecosystems.

Precaution :

1. The soil samples used are retained from Experiment 3 to ensure that the water content in the

soil samples is totally removed.

2. The soil samples must be burnt cooled, weighed until a constant mass is obtained to ensure the

complete decomposition of organic matter.

3. The lid of the crucible should be opened occasionally to ventilate the air inside the crucible to

allow the entry of oxygen for the decomposition of organic matter in the soil.

Conclusion :

The percentage of soil organic content for the soil samples from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 is 113.5%

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5. DETERMINATION OF AIR CONTENT OF SOIL

Introduction

Soil air is the part of ground air in the soil and is similar to the air of the atmosphere but

depleted in oxygen content and enriched in carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the gaseous phase of

soil is called soil air. As the soil water content increases the amount of air in the soil decreases.

The composition of air in an well-aerated soil is close to the composition of atmospheric air, as

the oxygen consumed in the soil by plants and micro-organisms is readily replaced from the

atmosphere.

Two important gases in soil air are carbon dioxide and oxygen. Carbon dioxide is

produced as a by-product of plant root respiration and biological activity. Oxygen is

consumed in the soil by the same processes, and plant roots require oxygen to function

normally. Hence, the oxygen in the soil is consumed by plants and micro-organism and is

replenished by oxygen from the atmosphere above the soil surface. Under reducing

conditions soil air may contain methane, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia.

Apparatus : Tin can

500 cm³ beaker

Metal seeker

Material : Water

Procedure

1. The empty can is placed with open end uppermost into a 500cm³ beaker and the

beaker is filled with water above the level of the can. The water level in the beaker is

marked.

2. The can that containing the water is removed carefully and the volume of water in the

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can is measured in a measuring cylinder. The volume (a) is recorded. The water level

in the beaker will fall by an amount corresponding to the volume of water in the can.

3. The base of the can is perforated by using a drill, making about eight small holes.

4. The open end of the can is pushed into the soil from which the surface vegetation has

been removed until soil begins to come through the perforations. The can is gently

dig out, turned over and the soil is removed from the surface until it is level with the

top of can.

5. The can containing the soil is placed with open end uppermost, gently back into the

beaker of water and the soil in the can is loosen with seeker to allow air to escape.

6. The water level in the beaker will be lower than the original level because water will

be used to replace the air which was present in the soil.

7. Water is added to the beaker from a full 100cm³ measuring cylinder until the original

level is restored. The volume of water added (b) is recorded.

8. The percentage air content of soil sample can be determinate as follows:

9. The experiment on soil samples is repeated from different areas

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Formula :

The percentage of air content in soil sample is calculated using the following formula :

Results :

Soil sample Initial volumes

of soil sample, a

(ml)

Final volumes

of soil sample, b

(ml)

Volumes of air

in soil sample,

a-b (ml)

Percentages of

volume of air in

soil sample (%)

Bandar Tun

Hussin Onn 2

450 ml 200 ml 250 ml 55.56%

Discussion :

1. Soil air contains oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane, hydrogen

sulphide, and ammonia.

2. The soil sample from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 contains 55.56% of air content.

3. The can containing soil sample is immersed into the beaker of water and the water flows into

the can through the perforation at the base of the can to allow the air in the soil dissolves in it.

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Precaution :

1. The surface vegetation of the soil must be removed before pushing the perforated can into the soil to obtain the soil sample.

2. The soil sample in the can needs to be loosen by using a seeker to allow the air in the soil sample to escape.

Conclusion :

The percentage of air content in the soil samples from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 is 55.56%

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6. DETERMINATION OF SOIL PH

Introduction

The pH of soil or more precisely the pH of the soil solution is very important because

soil solution carries nutrients in it such as Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P) that

plants need in specific amounts to grow, thrive and fight off diseases. Many crops, vegetables,

flowers and shrubs, trees, weeds and fruit are pH dependent and rely on the soil solution to

obtain nutrients.

The pH value of a soil is influenced by the kinds of parent materials from which the soil

was formed. Human distractions like pollution can alter the pH of soil. Application of

fertilizers containing ammonium or urea speeds up the rate at which acidity develops. The

decomposition of organic matter also adds to soil acidity.

If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize the nutrients they need. In acidic

soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants eventually die of

toxicity. Knowing whether the soil pH is acidic or basic is important because if the soil is

too acidic the applied pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides will not be absorbed and they will

end up in garden water and rain water runoff, where they eventually become pollutants in our

streams, rivers, lakes, and ground water.

Apparatus : Long test-tube

Test-tube rack

Spatula

10 cm3 pipete

Material : BDH universal indicator solution

Barium sulphate

Distilled water

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Procedure :

a) 1 cm3 of soil is put in a test-tube. 1 cm3 of barium sulphate is added to the test-tube to

ensure flocculation of colloidal clay.

b) 10 cm3 of distilled water and 5 cm3 of BDH universal indicator solution. The test-tube is

sealed with the bung. The test-tube is shaken vigorously and the contents are allowed to settle for

5 minutes.

c) The colour of liquid in the test-tube is compared with the colours on the BDH references

colour chart and corresponding pH is read off.

d) The experiment is repeated on soil samples from different areas.

Results :

Soil Sample Colour of Liquid

In The Test-tube

pH value of soil

sample

Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 Yellow 3-6

Discussion :

1. The pH of the soil is important to provide suitable medium for the growth of plants.

2. Barium sulphate is added to the soil sample in the test-tube to ensure flocculation of colloidal

clay in the soil.

3. The pH value of the soil samples from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 is between pH3 to pH6.

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Precaution :

1. The test tube containing the soil solution must be shaken vigorously and the contents are

allowed to settle for 5 minutes to ensure the complete flocculation of colloidal clay in the soil.

Conclusion :

The soil samples from Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 have a pH value of 3 to 6.

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DETERMINATION OF TYPES OF SOIL ORGANISMS

Introduction

Soil organisms are part of soil population. The types of soil organisms commonly found

include Nematoda, Annelida, Myriapoda, Insecta, Mollusca and Amoeba.

Tullgren funnel is a device used to separate insects and mites from leaf mold and similar

materials to study the types of organisms presented. A soil or leaf litter sample is placed in the

removable upper part of the funnel. Heat and light from the lamp creates a temperature gradient

of approximately 14°C in the soil sample. This stimulates the downward movement of soil

arthropods, and similar organisms, through the gauze to a the collecting tube attached to the base

of the funnel. The position of the lamp is adjustable to enable the temperature of the soil to be

raised gradually.

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Baermann funnel is a device used to extract nematodes from a soil sample or plant material.

A muslin bag containing the sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the lower end by

a rubber tube and clip. Being heavier than water, the nematodes pass through the muslin and sink

to the bottom. This device relies on the phenomenon of the migration of the nematodes

downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature. After permitting sufficient time to

permit migration, the warm water is drained off, centrifuged, and examined microscopically for

the presence of the nematodes.

BAERMANN FUNNEL

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Apparatus: Baermann funnel, Retort stand, Beakers, Magnifying glass, Microscope, glass slide

Material : 4% formalin solution

Procedure :

Using Baermann funnel

1. A beaker containing 4% of formalin solution is prepared.

2. A muslin bag containing the soil sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the

lower end by a rubber tube and clip.

3. The nematodes sank to the lower end of the rubber tube and are collected in the beaker

containing formalin solution by drawing off the clip at the lower end of the rubber tube

after 48 hours.

4. The solution in the beaker is drained off, centrifuged, and examined by using

microscope.

5. The appearance of the soil organisms is drawn and the name of the types of the animals

is stated.

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Results:

Types of soil organism Appearance of organism

Nematoda

Annellida

26

Myriapoda

Insecta

Mollusca

27

Amoeba

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Discussion :

1. The application of Baermann funnel relies on the characteristic of nematodes which migrate

downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature.

2. The soil organisms found in the soil sample being studied are Myriapoda, Nematode,

Amoeba, Insecta, and Annelida.

Precaution :

1. The temperature of the soil in the Tullgren funnel is raised gradually by adjusting the

position of the lamp to prevent the slower moving soil organism from being trapped in hard dry

cakes of soil.

2. The Tullgren funnel and Baerman funnel are set up for 48 hours to provide sufficient time for

the migration of the soil organisms in the soil sample.

Conclusion :

1. The soil organisms can be isolated by using Tullgren funnel and Baermann funnel devices.

2. The soil organisms found in the soil sample being studied are Ascaris, Phertima, Lulus,

Locust, Helix Aspersa and Amoeba.

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DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES

A. QUADRAT SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Introduction

Quadrats are generally used for the quantitative assessment of biodiversity occurring within an

area. The objective generally relates to the quality of a particular feature, where species richness

may be an important or valued attribute of that feature. Quantitative counts using quadrats

provide a structured way to estimate the abundance of species to estimate their population size or

to assess species richness and diversity of a biotope. There are three factors need to be

considered in relation to the use of quadrats.

Distribution of plants

Shape and size of the quadrat

Number of observations needed to obtain an adequate estimate of density

Systematic quadrat sampling is applied when samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually along

a line. Random quadrat sampling is usually carried out when the area under study is fairly

uniform, very large and when there is limited time available. When using random sampling

techniques, large numbers of samples are taken from different positions within the habitat. A

quadrat frame is most often used for this type of sampling.

SYSTEMATIC DISTRIBUTION OF QUADRAT RANDOM DISTRIBUTION OF QUADRAT

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Apparatus : Quadrats measuring 1m2

Procedure :

1. A quadrat frame is placed on the field being investigated.

2. The frequency and the coverage of the plants inside the quadrat is counted, measured andrecorded.

3. 10 quadrats are sampled systematically at uniform distance all over the investigated field.

4. The percentage of relative species cover, relative density and relative frequency of the plant species found in the investigated field are determined

Formula :

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RANDOM QUADRAT

Results :

Table of data for the measurement of relative frequency of each species in quadrat sampling

Habitat : Tropical plainLocation/Place : Open grass field in school areaType of plants : Tropical plantsQuadrat size : 1 m2

NAME OF SPECIES

NUMBER OF QUADRATS TOTAL NUMBER OF QUADRAT WITH

PARTICULAR SPECIES

FREQUENCY OF EACH SPECIES (%)

RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF EACH

SPECIES (%)Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10

SPECIES A / / / / / / / / - / 9 90% 22.5%SPECIES B / / / / / / / / / / 10 100% 25.0%SPECIES C - - - - - / - - / / 3 30% 7.5%SPECIES D - / - / - / / / / - 6 60% 15.0%SPECIES E - - - / - / / - - / 4 40% 10.0%SPECIES F / - / - / - - / / - 5 50% 12.5%SPECIES G - - / - / - / - - - 3 30% 7.5%TOTAL 40 400% 100%

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Table of data for the measurement of each species cover in quadrat sampling


NAME OF SPECIES

AERIAL COVER OF SPECIES IN EACH QUADRAT TOTAL SPECIES COVER OF EACH

SPECIES (m²)

SPECIES COVER OF EACH SPECIES (%)

RELATIVE COVER OF EACH


SPECIES A 0.18 0.10 0.10 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.09 0.29 - 0.09 1.66 m² 16.6% 38.83%SPECIES B 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.09 0.007 0.10 0.09 0.04 0.003 0.045 0.725 m² 7.25% 16.96%SPECIES C - - - - - 0.002 - - 0.08 0.005 0.807 m² 8.07% 18.88%SPECIES D - - - 0.003 - 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.01 - 0.023 m² 0.23% 0.54%SPECIES E - - - 0.08 - 0.09 0.04 - - 0.04 0.25 m² 2.50% 5.85%SPECIES F 0.14 - 0.08 - 0.15 - - 0.08 0.06 - 0.51 m² 5.10% 11.93%SPECIES G - - 0.07 - 0.11 - 0.12 - - - 0.30 m² 3.00% 7.02%TOTAL 4.275 m² 42.75% 100%

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Table of data for the measurement of relative density of each species in quadrat sampling


NAME OF SPECIES

AERIAL COVER OF SPECIES IN EACH QUADRAT TOTAL NUMBER OF PLANT IN EACH SPECIES

DENSITY OF EACH SPECIES (m²)

RELATIVE DENSITY OF EACH SPECIES (%)

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10SPECIES A 257 176 192 264 365 295 161 296 - 161 2167 216.7 m² 59.18%SPECIES B 83 212 254 136 19 173 167 69 6 70 1189 118.9 m² 32.47%SPECIES C - - - - - 2 101 15 118 11.8 m² 3.22%SPECIES D - 1 - 2 - 1 1 2 35 - 42 4.2 m² 1.15%SPECIES E - - - 10 - 12 7 - - 8 37 3.7 m² 1.01%SPECIES F 21 - 17 - 23 - - 16 10 - 87 8.7 m² 2.38%SPECIES G - - 4 - 8 - 10 - - - 22 2.2 m² 0.60%TOTAL 3662 366.2 m² 100%

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Summary of the measurements obtained by the random quadrat sampling technique

NO. NAME OF SPECIES FREQUENCY (%)

RELATIVE FREQUENCY (%)

SPECIES COVERAGE (%)

RELATIVE SPECIES

COVERAGE (%)

DENSITY (m²) RELATIVE DENSITY (%)

1. SPECIES A 90% 22.5% 16.6% 38.83% 216.7 m² 59.18%

2. SPECIES B 100% 25.0% 7.25% 16.96% 118.9 m² 32.47%

3. SPECIES C 30% 7.5% 8.07% 18.88% 11.8 m² 3.22%

4. SPECIES D 60 % 15.0% 0.23% 0.54% 4.2 m² 1.15%

5. SPECIES E 40% 10.0% 2.50% 5.85% 3.7 m² 1.01%

6. SPECIES F 50% 12.5% 5.10% 11.93% 8.7 m² 2.38%

7. SPECIES G 30% 7.5% 3.00% 7.02% 2.2 m² 0.60%

TOTAL 400% 100% 42.75% 100% 366.2 m2 100%

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SYSTEMATIC QUADRAT

Results :

Table of data for the measurement of relative frequency of each species in quadrat sampling


NAME OF SPECIES

NUMBER OF QUADRATS TOTAL NUMBER OF QUADRAT WITH

PARTICULAR SPECIES

FREQUENCY OF EACH SPECIES (%)

RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF EACH


SPECIES A / / / / / / - / / / 9 90% 32.14%SPECIES B - - / / / / / / / / 8 80% 28.57%SPECIES C - - - / / - / / - - 4 40% 14.29%SPECIES D - - - - / - / - / - 3 30% 10.71%SPECIES E - - - - - - / - / - 2 20% 7.14%SPECIES F - - - - - - - / - - 1 10% 3.57%SPECIES G - - - - - - - - / - 1 10% 3.57%TOTAL 2 4 2 3 2 4 4 3 4 5 28 280% 100%

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Table of data for the measurement of each species cover in quadrat sampling


NAME OF SPECIES

AERIAL COVER OF SPECIES IN EACH QUADRAT TOTAL SPECIES COVER OF EACH

SPECIES (m²)

SPECIES COVER OF EACH SPECIES (%)

RELATIVE COVER OF EACH


SPECIES A 0.54 0.29 0.26 0.29 0.23 0.18 - 0.1 0.09 0.1 2.080 m² 20.80% 75.74%SPECIES B - - 0.006 0.04 0.09 0.08 0.003 0.12 0.05 0.15 0.539 m² 5.39% 19.56%SPECIES C - - - 0.003 0.001 - 0.01 0.003 - - 0.017 m² 0.17% 0.62%SPECIES D - - - - 0.002 - 0.08 - 0.005 - 0.087 m² 0.87% 3.16%SPECIES E - - - - 0.01 - 0.005 - 0.005 - 0.020 m² 0.20% 0.73%SPECIES F - - - - - - - 0.008 - - 0.008 m² 0.08% 0.29%SPECIES G - - - - - - - - 0.005 - 0.005 m² 0.05% 0.18%TOTAL 2.756 m² 27.56% 100%

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Table of data for the measurement of relative density of each species in quadrat sampling


NAME OF SPECIES

AERIAL COVER OF SPECIES IN EACH QUADRAT TOTAL NUMBER OF PLANT IN EACH SPECIES

DENSITY OF EACH SPECIES (m²)

RELATIVE DENSITY OF EACH SPECIES (%)

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10SPECIES A 520 337 365 296 295 257 - 176 161 192 2599 259.9 m² 69.99%SPECIES B - - 19 69 173 83 6 212 70 254 886 88.6 m² 23.86%SPECIES C - - - 2 1 - 101 1 - - 39 3.9 m² 1.05%SPECIES D - - - - 2 - 35 - 15 - 118 11.8 m² 3.18%SPECIES E - - - - - - 25 - 11 - 36 3.6 m² 0.97%SPECIES F - - - - - - - 21 - - 21 2.1 m² 0.57%SPECIES G - - - - - - - - 14 - 14 1.4 m² 0.38%TOTAL 3713 371.3 m² 100%

38

Summary of the measurements obtained by the systematic quadrant sampling technique

NO. NAME OF SPECIES FREQUENCY (%)

RELATIVE FREQUENCY (%)

SPECIES COVERAGE (%)

RELATIVE SPECIES

COVERAGE (%)

DENSITY (m²) RELATIVE DENSITY (%)

1. SPECIES A 90% 32.14% 20.80% 75.47% 259.9 m² 69.99%

2. SPECIES B 80% 28.57% 5.39% 19.56% 88.6 m² 23.86%

3. SPECIES C 40% 14.29% 0.17% 0.62% 3.9 m² 1.05%

4. SPECIES D 30% 10.71% 0.87% 3.16% 11.8 m² 3.18%

5. SPECIES E 20% 7.14% 0.20% 0.73% 3.6 m² 0.97%

6. SPECIES F 10% 3.57% 0.08% 0.29% 2.1 m² 0.57%

7. SPECIES G 10% 3.57% 0.05% 0.18% 1.4 m² 0.38%

TOTAL 280% 100% 27.56% 100% 371.3 m2 100%

39

COMPARE PARAMETERS BETWEEN SYSTEMATIC AND RANDOM QUADRAT

SYSTEMATIC QUADRAT

NAME OF SPECIES RELATIVE DENSITY RELATIVE COVER RELATIVE FREQUENCY

Species A 69.99% 75.47% 32.14%

Species B 23.86% 19.56% 28.57%

Species C 1.05% 0.62% 14.29%

Species D 3.18% 3.16% 10.71%

Species E 0.97% 0.73% 7.14%

Species F 0.57% 0.29% 3.57%

Species G 0.38% 0.18% 3.57%

RANDOM QUADRAT

NAME OF SPECIES RELATIVE DENSITY RELATIVE COVER RELATIVE FREQUENCY

Species A 59.18% 38.83% 22.5%

Species B 32.47% 19.96% 25.0%

Species C 3.22% 18.88% 7.5%

Species D 1.15% 0.54% 15.0%

Species E 1.01% 5.5% 10.0%

Species F 2.38% 11.93% 12.5%

Species G 0.6% 7.02% 7.5%

40

Discussion :

1. Quadrat sampling technique can be used to investigate the plants communities in a definedarea.

2. Quadrat sampling technique involves the counting of the number of the plants and the aerialcoverage of each plant species in a defined area.

3. Systematically distribution of quadrats is selected as the plant characteristics are close to theactual natural condition.

41

B. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USING LINE TRANSECT

Introduction :

A transect refers to a line that cut across a community to investigate the progressive

invasion of plants into the community without causing any obvious change in that habitat.

Transect is very useful especially when existing plants are zoned. This means the transect

forms uniform sequential zones representing different communities. The division into zones

is usually related to the uniform variation in physical factors in that habitat along lines that

are perpendicular to the zones. An advantage of transect charts is that they can show a range

of specific plants. By charting these transects at suitable time intervals, any progression

change in the plants along the transect line can be detected and measured. Other information

can be obtained from a series of transects through a specific plants area include composition,

extrapolation, individual occurrence frequency and width of occurrence of different species.

Line transect are the simplest and easiest sampling method to used. A line transect can be

prepared by placing a measuring tape (15-30m) along desired line and marking the locations

of individual plant that touch one or both sides of the tape.

Apparatus : Rope (15.3 meters)

Procedure :

1. A base line along the border of the area is determined under investigation.

2. A series of points along this base line is chosen either randomly or systematically. These

points are used as the starting points for the transects to run across the area being investigated.

The plants which touch the line as seen vertically above or below the transect line is recorded.

3. 10-20 lines are placed randomly in the area to provide enough samples to investigate the

community.

42

Formula :

a) The frequency of a species is calculated by using the following formula :

b) The percentage of surface cover of each species is calculated as follow:

c) The relative species cover is calculated as follow :

43

RESULTS:

LINE TRANSECT 1

NAME OF SPECIES

Number of interval with cross sectional length (cm) Total cross sectional length of each

species (m)

Surface cover of each species (%)

Relative species cover

(%)

Frequency of each species

(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 9 14 20 15 28 17 - 30 29 29 1.91 12.73 70.48 90SPECIES B 3 - 10 11 - 12 9 8 1 - 0.54 3.60 19.93 70SPECIES C - 6 12 - 2 3 1 2 - - 026 1.73 9.59 60SPECIES D - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES E - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES G - - - - - - - - - - - - - -TOTAL 12 20 42 26 30 33 10 40 30 29 2.71 18.06 100 220

44

LINE TRANSECT 2

NAME OF SPECIES

Number of interval with cross sectional length (cm) Total cross sectional length of each species

(m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 10 21 19 25 9 18 13 9 13 13 1.50 10.00 58.82 100SPECIES B 8 10 13 9 14 11 6 7 - 7 0.85 5.67 33.33 90SPECIES C - 3 5 4 - 2 3 2 - 1 0.20 1.33 7.85 70SPECIES D - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES E - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES G - - - - - - - - - - - - - -TOTAL 18 34 37 38 23 31 22 18 13 21 2.55 17.00 100 260

45

LINE TRANSECT 3

NAME OF SPECIES


(m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 12 10 20 9 6 20 17 10 15 28 1.47 9.80 53.45 100SPECIES B 5 14 7 13 8 - 6 4 3 3 0.63 4.20 22.91 90SPECIES C 1 4 4 - 2 4 3 2 1 2 0.23 1.53 8.36 90SPECIES D 3 2 5 6 - - 3 5 4 1 0.30 2.00 10.91 80SPECIES E - - 1 - - - - - - - 0.01 0.07 0.36 10SPECIES F - - - - - 1 - - - 1 0.02 0.13 0.74 20SPECIES G 2 - 1 3 - - - 2 1 - 0.09 0.60 3.27 50TOTAL 23 30 38 31 16 25 29 23 24 35 2.75 18.33 100 440

46

LINE TRANSECT 4

NAME OF SPECIES


(m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 17 24 28 27 16 21 19 20 18 25 2.15 14.33 59.56 100SPECIES B 10 6 8 12 17 - 13 4 4 - 0.74 4.93 20.50 80SPECIES C 8 6 12 3 4 7 11 10 6 5 0.72 4.80 19.94 100SPECIES D - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES E - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES G - - - - - - - - - - - - - -TOTAL 35 36 48 42 37 28 43 34 28 30 3.61 18.06 100 280

47

LINE TRANSECT 5

NAME OF SPECIES


species (m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 27 40 35 28 36 29 36 27 33 20 3.11 20.73 96.28 100SPECIES B - - 3 - 1 1 - 2 1 - 0.07 0.47 2.17 50SPECIES C 1 2 - - 1 - - 1 - - 0.05 0.33 1.55 40SPECIES D - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES E - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES G - - - - - - - - - - - - - -TOTAL 28 42 38 28 38 30 36 30 34 20 3.23 21.53 100 190

48

LINE TRANSECT 6

NAME OF SPECIES


(m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 30 25 29 28 16 18 27 24 17 11 2.25 15.00 76.27 100SPECIES B 2 2 1 3 - 5 6 - 4 2 0.25 1.67 8.47 80SPECIES C 1 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 2 1 0.18 1.20 6.10 100SPECIES D 2 3 1 1 - 3 2 4 2 - 0.18 1.20 6.10 80SPECIES E 1 1 - - - 1 - - 1 - 0.04 0.27 1.36 40SPECIES F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES G - - 2 - - 1 1 - - 1 0.05 0.33 1.70 40TOTAL 36 32 35 35 17 30 38 31 26 15 2.95 19.67 100 440

49

LINE TRANSECT 7

NAME OF SPECIES


(m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 34 32 25 27 23 39 17 21 31 20 2.69 17.93 85.40 100SPECIES B 4 1 1 3 2 2 1 5 2 3 0.24 1.60 7.62 100SPECIES C 1 1 2 3 1 - 1 2 2 2 0.17 1.00 4.76 90SPECIES D - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES E 2 1 1 - 1 - 1 1 - - 0.07 0.47 2.22 60SPECIES F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES G - - - - - - - - - - - - - -TOTAL 41 35 29 33 27 41 20 29 35 25 3.15 21.00 100 350

50

LINE TRANSECT 8

NAME OF SPECIES


species (m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 21 30 25 26 21 20 30 20 14 14 2.21 14.73 45.29 100SPECIES B 9 15 18 13 - 5 18 17 8 - 1.03 6.87 21.10 80SPECIES C 6 5 3 12 11 9 2 - 14 17 0.79 5.27 16.19 90SPECIES D 4 - - 6 8 5 12 10 3 3 0.51 3.40 10.45 80SPECIES E - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES F 2 1 1 3 2 3 4 4 - - 0.20 1.33 4.10 80SPECIES G 3 1 1 - - 2 2 - 2 3 0.14 0.93 2.87 70TOTAL 45 52 48 60 42 44 68 51 41 37 4.88 32.53 100 500

51

LINE TRANSECT 9

NAME OF SPECIES


species (m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 13 19 24 15 10 18 17 20 34 17 1.87 12.47 49.87 100SPECIES B 8 10 6 4 9 11 5 6 7 5 0.71 4.73 18.93 100SPECIES C 5 2 4 1 1 3 4 2 - 1 0.23 1.53 6.13 90SPECIES D - 6 4 11 5 10 12 9 5 2 0.64 4.27 17.07 90SPECIES E 2 1 1 2 - 1 3 2 1 2 0.15 1.00 4.00 90SPECIES F - 1 1 - 2 - - 1 1 - 0.06 0.40 1.60 50SPECIES G 2 - 1 2 2 - - 1 1 - 0.09 0.60 2.40 60TOTAL 30 39 41 35 29 43 41 41 49 27 3.75 25.00 100 580

52

LINE TRANSECT 10

NAME OF SPECIES


(m)



(%)


(%)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

SPECIES A 21 16 13 28 24 30 32 23 17 14 2.18 14.53 57.82 100SPECIES B 10 8 7 3 5 5 6 12 11 15 0.82 5.47 21.75 100SPECIES C 5 3 3 1 - 6 7 4 2 6 0.37 2.47 9.81 90SPECIES D - 2 4 1 5 1 - 3 - 8 0.24 1.60 6.37 70SPECIES E - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES F - - - - - - - - - - - - - -SPECIES G 3 - 4 2 1 1 - 2 2 1 0.16 1.07 4.25 80

TOTAL 38 29 31 35 35 43 45 44 32 44 3.77 25.14 100 440

53

Summary of the measurements obtained by the line transect technique

NAME OF SPECIES

Number of line transect Number of intervals where

species are found

Surface cover of each species

(%)


(%)


(%)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10SPECIES A 191 150 147 215 311 225 269 221 187 218 10 142.25 653.24 990SPECIES B 54 85 63 74 8 25 24 103 71 82 10 39.21 176.71 840SPECIES C 26 20 23 72 5 18 15 79 23 37 10 21.19 90.28 820SPECIES D - - 29 - - 18 - 51 64 24 5 12.47 50.90 400SPECIES E - - 1 - - 4 6 - 15 - 4 1.81 7.94 200SPECIES F - - 2 - - - - 20 6 - 3 1.86 6.44 150SPECIES G - - 9 - - 5 - 14 9 16 5 3.53 14.49 800TOTAL 47 222.32 1000 4200

54

Picture of species found in randam quadrat, systematic quadrat and line transect

Species A

Species B

55

Species C

Species D

56

Species E

Species F

57

Species G

58

IMPLEMENTATION DATE

59

60

DATE ACTIVITY NUMBER OF STUDENTS

5/10/2011 Briefing in class about the experiments that are going to be conducted by Pn.Sarimah Daud and Pn. Noliza Kastor

1. Chong Set Li2. Kua En Yi3. Lim Kai Yin4. Zahidah Husna

1/11/2011 Experiment 20

1. Soil sampling technique2. Determination of the texture of

soil3. Determination of air content of

soil4. Determination of soil pH


2/11/2011Experiment 20

1. Determination of water content 2. Determination of organic

matter content


8/11/2011 Determination of the density of plant sampling

1. Quadrat sampling technique (Random and systematic)


9/11/2011 Determination of the density of plant sampling

1. Line transect technique2. Calculation for random and

systematic quadrat and line transect technique


10/11/2011 to

19/3/2012

1. Documentation 1. Zahidah Husna2. Chong Set Li3. Kua En Yi4. Lim Kai Yin

REFERENCES

Brady, N. and Weil, R. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th ed. 2002

Dodd, M. (2011), Methods in Ecology and Evolution. DOI:10.1111/j.2041-210X.2011.00118.x.

Aiken, George. United States of America. United States Geological Survey. Organic Matter in Ground Water. 2002. 1 May 2007

Success in Biology for STPM Volume Penerbitan Fajar Bakti SDN. BHD.Lee soon ChingLiew Shee LeongChoong Ngok Mang

Longman Pre-U Text STPM Biology Volume 2Pearson Malaysia SDN. BHDLee ChingJ,ArunasalamFirst Edition for 2011

Southwood, T.R.E. (1994). Ecological methods. Chapman & Hall. ISBN 0-412-30710-3

61

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-30710-3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-30710-3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapman_%26_Hall

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2041-210X.2011.00118.x

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2041-210X.2011.00118.x

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we would like to thank to our Biology teacher, Puan Sarimah Bt Daud

for the valuable guidance and advice. She inspired us greatly to work in this experiment.

Her willingness to motivate us contributed tremendously to our experiment. We also

would like to thank her for showing us some example that related to the topic of our

experiment. Besides, we would like to thank our friends who are willing to share

information related to our report. Finally, an honorable mention goes to our families and

friends for their understandings and supports on us in completing this experiment.

Without helps of the particular that mentioned above, we would face many difficulties

while doing this.

Sincerely,

_____________ ___________ ____________ _________________

(CHONG SET LI) (KUA EN YI) (LIM KAI YIN) (ZAHIDAH HUSNA

62

biology stpm report 2012

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