biology sol cheat sheet · web viewyou can pass your biology sol! *****scientists use the...
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YouCANPassYourBiologySOL!*****ScientistsusetheSCIENTIFICMETHODtohelpthemanswerquestionsandsolveproblemsaboutthenaturalworld.*****
Step1:MakeanOBSERVATION.Thetwotypesare:
→QUALITATIVE:Descriptionswithoutnumber.(Ex)Thebookisheavy.→QUANITATIVE:Descriptionsthatusenumbers.(Ex)Thebookhas250pages.
Step2:MakeaHYPOTHESIS.Thisisaneducatedguessbasedonqualitativeandquantitativedata.
⇒Scientistshouldlookfor2variablesintryingtofindanswerstotheproblem.
◊INDEPENDENTVARIABLE(IV)ThethingIchange◊DEPENDENTVARIABLE(DV)ThethingImeasure
HowtoIdentifyVariableson aGraph:
XaxisistheIV. ThethingIchange
Step3:SetupaCONTROLLEDEXPERIMENT.Eachhas:
1. CONTROLGROUP:thegroup thatstaysthesame(doesn’t receivetheIV).It’sneededto compare.
2. EXPERIMENTALGROUP:the groupthatismanipulated(the groupyouareperformingthe experimenton).Thisgroup receivestheIV.
Step4:MakeaCONCLUSIONorTHEORY
⇒Ifthedatagatheredfromyourcontrolledexperimentsupportyourhypothesis,youacceptyourconclusion.⇒Ifthedatadoesn’tsupportyourhypothesis,startover!
*Watermakeslifepossible!It’sauniversalsolvent,comesinthreestates,andhasahighspecificheattoregulatetemperature*
ThechemicalformulaofwaterisH2O.Ithas2hydrogenand1oxygen.
Waterhasapositiveside(hydrogen)anda negativeside(oxygen).Thesecharges allowwatertosticktootherthingsthat alsohaveacharge. HYDROGENBONDSholdwatertoitself andtootherchargedsubstances.
Whenwaterstickstootherthings(likea carwindow)ADHESIONistakingplace. WhenwaterstickstoitselfCOHESIONis takingplace
Watercomesin3states:solid,liquidor gas.Inthesolidstate(ice),waterisless densethantheliquidstate.Icefloats! WaterhasaHIGHSPECIFICHEAT.Itcan absorbalotofenergywithoutincreasing itsowntemperature.Thisiswhywater takessolongtoboil!
Weusethispropertytohelpus regulateourbodytemperature. Whenourbodytemperaturegets toohigh,westarttoPERSPIRE (sweat).
Wedonotwantourbodytemperature tofluctuateverymuchbecauseit wouldalterchemicalreactions (METABOLISM).Whenmetabolismisthrownoff, HOMEOSTASIS(balance)isalso thrownoff.Thiscanleadtodeath!!!!
SubstanceswithapHbelow7arecalledAcids.SubstanceswithapHabove7arecalledBases.SubstanceswithapHof7areNeutral.Wateris theonlyneutralsubstance.
ThepHscaleactuallymeasurestheamountofHYDROGENIONS(H+)thatarepresentinasolution.pHcouldstandfor“THEPOWEROF HYDROGEN.”ThelowerthepHvalue,thegreatertheamountofhydrogenions(H+)presentinthesolution
Wat
er &
its
Prop
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*Alllivingthingsarecomposedof4macromolecules.Macromoleculesarelargepolymers(theprefix“poly”means“many”) thatarecomposedoflotsofsmallerbuildingblockscalledmonomers(theprefix“mono”means“one”).*
1. Carbohydrates:Theonlymacromoleculethatisusedfor ENERGY.Carbohydrateisafancy wordforSUGAR.Themostimportant sugarisGLUCOSE(C6H12O6).The buildingblocksofcarbohydratesare MONOSACCHARIDES.
2. Lipids:Theonlymacromoleculeused toSTOREENERGYandtoprovide INSULATION.Therearethreeclasses
oflipids(fats,oils&waxes).ThebuildingblocksoflipidsareFATTYACIDS.
3. Proteins:Theonlymacromolecule thatcanSPEEDUPCHEMICAL REACTIONSandprovide STRUCTURE&SUPPORT.The buildingblocksofproteinsareAMINO ACIDS.
4. NucleicAcids:Theonly macromoleculesthatTRANSMITS HEREDITYINFORMATION.There aretwotypesofnucleicacids:DNA& RNA.Theirbuildingblocksare NUCLEOTIDES.
*Enzymesarebiologicalcatalysts.Theyspeedupchemicalreactionsandregulatemetabolism.Enzymesareproteinsthatcan lowerachemicalreaction’sactivationenergy*
EnzymesareCATALYSTS.CatalystsSPEEDthingsup! Withoutenzymes,chemicalreactions(metabolism)wouldhappentooslowlyto keepyoualive. Enzymesareshapespecific.Enzymescan onlycatalyzereactants(Substrates)if theycanfitinsidetheenzyme’sACTIVE SITE. Enzymesspeedupchemicalreactionsby LOWERINGACTIVATIONENERGY.Activationenergyistheamountofenergy neededtostartachemicalreaction. ActivationEnergyworkslikeaspeed bump.
• Thebiggertheactivationenergy theslowerthechemicalreaction
• Thesmallertheactivation energythefasterthechemical reaction.
Enzyme
Enzy
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sM
acro
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*Themicroscopeisoneofthemostimportanttoolsinbiology.Itallowedscientiststodiscoverthecellandallofitsstructures.*
Theareonly2thingsthatyouneedtoknowaboutmicroscopes:
Microscopes&theCell
1. DeterminingTotal Magnification:Multiplythe eyepiece(thatisalways10x)by theobjectivelens(thelensesthat canberotated)
Oncethemicroscopewasinvented,
ROBERTHOOKEwasabletoseeand namethetinystructuresthatmakeuplife
whilestudyingcork.Hewasthefirst persontousethewordCELL.
WiththehelpofHookeandotherscientistsworkingwiththemicroscope, theCELLTHEORYwascreated.
THECELLTHEORY:
1. Alllivingthingsarecomposedof10xObjectiveLens=TotalMag.
2. MakingaWetMountSlide: Alwaysplacethecoversliponat a45 Angletopreventair bubbles.
cells.
2. Cellsarethebasicunitsof structureandfunctionoflife.
3. Cellscanonlycomefrompre‐ existingcells.
****Everythinglivingthingsismadeupofatleastonecell.Cellsarethelowestlevelofstructureoflivingthingsthatcanstill
A lllivingthingsaremadeupofonlyoneof twotypeofcells:
PROKARYOTICCELLSor E UKARYOTICCELLS.
Prokaryotesaresimple,small,
andlackanucleus.Theonly
exampleofaprokaryoteisBACTERIA.
• Eukaryotesarecomplex,large,andcontainanucleusandlotsof
organelles.Allprotists,fungji,
plantsandanimalsaremadeup ofeukaryoticcells.
performalltheactivities(metabolism).****
CellofEukaryotes
PlantCell AnimalCell
****Eukaryotescontainmembrane bound‐ ORGANELLES.Eachorganelleperformsaspecificjobinthecelltohelpmaintain
1 . NUCLEUS:Thisisthecontrolcenter ofthecell.Itcontainsthecell’sDNA andcontrolsthecell’smetabolismand homeostasis.
2. MITOCHONDRIA:Thisisthepower plantofthecell.Thecell’senergy supply(ATP)ismadeherevia CELLULARRESPIRATION.
3. RIBOSOMES:Thesearethesitesof proteinsynthesisforthecell.
4. GOLGIAPPARATUS:Thisisthepost officeofthecell.Itpackagesand exportsmaterialsinandaroundthe cell.
5. ENDOPLASMICRETICULUM:There aretwokinds:smoothandrough. Bothhelptomovethingsaroundthe cell.Theyworklikeasystemofroads inthecell.
6. LYSOSOMES:Thesearethegarbage cansofthecell.Theybreakdown waste.
metabolismandhomeostasis.****
7. CHLOROPLAST:Thisisfoundinplantsandisthesiteofphotosynthesis.
8. CELLWALL:Thisisarigidlayerfoundontheoutsideofplant
cells.Itgivesplantcellstheiruniquerectangularshape.9. CELLMEMBRANE:Thissurroundsallcells.Itmaintains
homeostasisbycontrollingwhatcanenterandleavethecell.It’scomposedoftwolayersofPHOSPHOLIPIDS.
ThePHOSPHOLIPIDBILAYERhasapolarheadandtwo non polartails.This‐allowsthingsthataresmalland
non polar tocrossthemembranewithoutaskingforpermission.
Foodandrawmaterialsforchemicalreactionsmustbe
abletocrossthemembrane.
Wastemustbeabletoleave
themembrane.
Cell
Stru
ctur
esCe
lls: A
n O
verv
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Mic
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****Substancesneedtobeabletotravelintoandoutofcellacrossthecellmembrane.Thismovementcaneitherhappenspontaneously(byitself)orwiththeinputofenergy(ATP)****
Therearetwotypesoftransport:PASSIVE&ACTIVE
1. PASSIVETRANSPORT:This
movessubstancesacross
membranesfromregionsofhigh concentrationtolowconcentrationwithoutenergy.
2. ACTIVETRANSPORT:Thismovessubstancesacross
membranesfromregionsoflow concentrationtohighconcentrationwithenergy(ATP) Examples:Endocytosis&
Exocytosis
Thereare3typesofPASSIVETransport:
1. DIFFUSION:themovementofsubstancesfromaregionofhighconcentrationto lowconcentration.
2. OSMOSIS:themovementofwaterfromaregionofhighconcentrationtolow concentration.
3. FACILITATEDDIFFISION:themovementofsubstancesfromhightolowwiththe helpofatransportprotein.
****CELLULARRESPIRATIONandPHOTOSYNTHESISareprocessesthatallowcellstouseandmakeenergytokeepthecellalive.Theyhaveacyclicalrelationshipwithoneanother.Theydependononeanother!****
CellularRespiration Photosynthesis
CELLULARRESPIRATIONisaprocess th atturnssugar(glucoseC6H12O6)into usableenergyforthecell(ATP).
HETEROTROPHS(organismswhocannot
m aketheirownfood)usethisprocessto releaseATPfromfoodintheMITOCHONDRIA.
INPUT(Reactants):Mitochondria
CO2 O2
Chloroplast
PHOTOSYNTHESISisaprocessthatturns lightenergyfromthesunintofood (glucose)forplants.Plantsandorganisms thatmaketheirownfoodarecalled AUTOTROPHS.Autotrophsperform photosynthesisintheirCHLOROPLASTS.
INPUT(Reactants):Chloroplasts takeincarbondioxideandsunlight.
takeinoxygenandglucose
OUTPUTS(Products):Mitochondria
releasecarbondioxideandATP!!!!Mitochondria
Glucose OUTPUTS(Products):Chloroplastsreleaseoxygenandglucose.
****DNAisadouble helixcomposedof2complementarystrands.Ithas4nucleotidescomposedofeitherA,T,C,orG:Apairs‐withT,GpairswithC.ThisstructuremakesDNAREPLICATIONandPROTEINSYNTHESISpossible.!****
WhenDNAneedstodivide,DNAREPLICATIONbegins.Theweakhydrogenbonds thatareholdingthetwostrandsofDNAtogetherbreakapartandtheDNA“unzips.” ThetwooriginalstrandsofDNAthenbecometemplatesfornewdaughterstrandsof DNAthatwillform.
DN
AM
etab
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mTr
ansp
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****TheprocessofturningDNAintoproteinsfollowsaspecificorder.Itstartsinthenucleusandendsattheribosome.****
Frst,DNAisturnedintoMESSENGERRNA(mRNA).RNAistheskinnycousinofDNAwhichmeansitcanleavethenucleus.RNA
issingle stranded.Itonestrandlooks‐almostidenticaltoDNAwiththeexceptionofthenitrogenbaseURACIL.Uraciltakestheplaceofthymine.,soUpairswithA.
♦ MakingRNAfromDNAiscalledTRANSCRIPTION.
Next,themessagetransferredfromDNAtomRNAmakesitwaytotheribosome(thesiteofproteinsynthesis).
♦ MakingproteinsfrommRNAis calledTRANSLATION.
****DNAisthecell’sgeneticmaterial.Itmustbecopiedbeforethecellcandivide.Tohelpwiththis,theDNAispackaging
intostructurescalledCHROMOSOMES.Humanshave46chromosomesthatmustbecopiedexactlybeforethecellcandivide.
TheprocessofcelldivisioniscalledMITOSIS.Mitosishas4steps:PROPHASE,METAPHASE,ANAPHASE&TELOPHASE.****
ChromosomeStructure:
****GENETICSisthestudyofheredity.AGENEisabasicunitofheredity.AnALLELEisoneoftwoormorealternativeforms
ofaspecificgene.Twoallelesmakeupagene.GREGORMENDELcrossedpeastodevelopthegenetictheorywestilluse.****
Therearetwotypesofalleles: ‐DOMINANTALLELES:Theexpressedtrait.Representedbyacapitalletter.
‐RECESSIVEALLELES:Theunexpressedtrait.Representedbyalowercaseletter.
Thetwoletters(representingtwoalleles)
representanorganism’sGENOTYPE. T herearetwotypesofgenotypes:
Exampleofamonohybridcross:Consideracrossbetweenatruebreedingtallplant(TT)andatruebreedingshortplant(tt).
‐HOMOZYGOUS:twoidenticalalleles(TT)or(tt)‐HETEROZYGOUS:twodifferent
alleles(Tt)
Theexpressionofthegenotype(physical
appearanceofthegene)isthePHENOTYPE.
Wecanusetheparentgenotypesto
predictwhatoffspringmightlooklike.MonohybridcrossescanbecompletedbyusingaPUNNETSQUARE.
Gen
etic
sCe
ll D
ivis
ion
DN
A (c
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****Alloflifecanbeclassifiedinoneof6kingdoms.Eachkingdomcanbebrokendownintoevensmallerunitsforclassification.Themoderndayclassificationsystemisbasedonatwo wordnamingsystemcalled‐ BINOMIAL
NOMENCLATURE.Thisnamingsysteminvolvesanorganism’sGENUSandSPECIES.****
The6kingdomsofthelifeare:1. Archaebacteria:Prokaryoticorganismsthatareonly foundin
extremeenvironments.2. Eubacteria:Single celled,prokaryoticorganismsthat‐ cancause
sickness(Example:streptococcus& salmonella)3. Protist:Single celled,eukaryoticorganismsthatcan‐ beeither
heterotrophic(protozoa)orautotrophic (algae).4. Fungi:Multicellulareukaryoticorganismswithcell wallscomposed
ofchitin.Theseorganismsare externaldigesters(heterotrophic).
5. Plant:Multicellulareukaryoticautotrophswithcell wallscomposedofcellulose.
6. Animal:Multicellulareukaryicheterotrophsthatdonothavecellwalls.
****EVOLUTIONistheprocessbywhichspecieschangeovertime.It’sbroughtonbytheprocessofNATURALSELECTION. Naturalselectionallowsforindividualswithcertaintraitstosuccessfullysurviveandreproduce,passingthosetraitstothe
nextgeneration.****ASPECIESisagroupofindividualsthatcaninterbreedandproduce
SPECIATIONistheprocessbywhichnewspeciesarise. Therearetwomechanismsthatcan
leadtonewspecies:
fertileoffspring.Thehorseandzebraarebothmembersoftheirownspecies.‐ Howdoweknow?Whenweforcethem
tomate,theiroff‐ spring(azebroid)isnotfertile.
o GeographicIsolation:thephysicalseparationofspecies
populationsbygeographic barriers(Example:oceansandmountains)
o ReproductiveIsolation:IsolationWITHOUTthepresenceofaphysicalbarrier.
(Example:Onegroupof individualsonlymatesinthefall,andanotheronlyreproducesinthespring.)
EvidenceforEvolution****Scientistshave3areasoffocusthatprovideevidenceforevolution.****
1.Fossils 2.Anatomy 3.Biochemistry
Sc ientistscanuselayersofundisturbedrocktodeterminetherelativeageof fossilizedorganisms.TheOLDESTfossils willalwaysbeatthebottomofthecolumn andtheYOUNGESTatthetop.
ThistechniqueiscalledthePRINCIPLEOFSUPERPOSITION.
HOMOLOGOUSSTRUCTURES:Structures thatlookSIMILARtooneanother.These demonstratedescentfromaCOMMON ANCESTOR(DivergentEvolution)
ANALOGOUSSTRUCTURES:Differentstructuresthatperformsimilarfunctions. Theenvironmentforcesunrelated individualstodevelopstructuresto performsimilarfunction.NOCOMMON ANCESTOR!(ConvergentEvolution)
Remember:OrganismsthathavemoreDNAin commonarecloselyrelated!Thismeansthat organismsthathavemoreproteinsincommon arealsocloselyrelated. Lookattheaminoacidchainofunknownanimal:
MetGlySerTyrTyrArgHisHisGluLys
Itmostcloselyresembles? Horse:Met Gly Ser Ser Tyr Arg Arg Asp His Glu‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Dog:Met Gly Ser Tyr Tyr Arg His Asp Glu Lys‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Cat:Met Gly‐ ‐Ser Tyr Tyr Arg His His Arg Cys‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Mouse:Met Gly Ser Tyr‐ ‐ ‐ ‐Tyr Arg His Glu Val Val‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Ourunknownanimalismostcloselyrelatedto thedog!There’sonly1differenceintheprotein sequence.
Met Gly Ser Tyr Tyr Arg His‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐Asp Glu Lys‐ ‐
Evol
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