biology review - rankin county school · pdf file · 2014-05-07• all living...
TRANSCRIPT
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Biology Review
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Organic Compounds • All living things are made of organic
compounds. • Contain the element Carbon and
Hydrogen • Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
Acids
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Carbohydrates • Monomer (building
blocks)- monosaccharide • Function- energy source
and structure • Tests: glucose-Benedicts
starch- Iodine
fructose • Ex. Cellulose, glycogen,
starch 1:2:1 Ratio of C:H:O
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Lipids • Made of fatty acids and glycerol • Function- energy storage and insulation • Tests: brown paper test • Examples: fats and steroids
Lipid vs. water
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Nucleic Acids
• Monomer (building blocks) - nucleotide
• Function- carry genetic information
• Ex. DNA and RNA
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Proteins • Monomer- amino acids
• Function- building and repairing cells, communication, transport, and regulation
• Examples: enzymes, hemoglobin
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Enzymes • Catalysts in living things • Specific to a particular substrate • Reusable • Affected by temperature and pH
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Chemistry of Foods Lab Benedict’s is normally blue, but turns
orange, yellow, or green in the presence of monosaccharides.
Solutions need to be HEATED with Benedict’s
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Chemistry of Foods Lab Iodine is normally yellow/brown, but turns
dark purple/black in the presence of starch (polysaccharides)!
Solutions do NOT need to Be heated!!!
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Chemistry of Foods Lab Biuret is normally blue, but turns purple in
the presence of proteins.
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Chemistry of Foods Lab
Lipids are transparent on brown paper bags (or paper towels)!
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Cells Prokaryotes • Simple, no membrane bound
organelles (no mitochondira, no ER, etc.)
• Bacteria only • One circular chromosome • Includes: chromosome,
ribosomes, and cell (plasma) membrane
Eukaryotes • Membrane bound
organelles (has mitochondria, has ER)
• Plants and Animals • True nucleus containing
chromosomes
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Nucleus • “Control Center” • Contains chromosomes
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Mitochondria Singular: Mitochondrion
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Produces energy in the form of ATP
• Site of Aerobic respiration
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Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis
• Contains the pigment chlorophyll
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Vacuole • Storage of excess
materials • Plant cells usually
contain one large vacuole
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Ribosomes • Proteins are synthesized • Found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
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Plasma Membrane aka: Cell Membrane
• Surrounds the cell • Regulates what
enters/leaves the cell
• Helps maintain homeostasis
• Made of phospholipids with embedded proteins protein
Receptor protein
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Cell Wall • Surrounds cell and provides support and
protection. • Made of cellulose • Found only in plant cells
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Eukaryotes
Plant • Cell wall • Chloroplast • Large central vacuole
Animal
Fungi, Protists, also
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Cell Organization Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Individual organism
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Cell Specialization • cells develop to perform different
functions • Regulated by genes
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Cell to Cell Communication
• Chemical Signals (hormones) can be sent from one cell to another
• Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane receive the signal
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Diffusion • Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY
NEEDED) across a membrane • Solutes move from high concentration
to low concentration
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Osmosis • Diffusion of water (also passive
transport)
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Active Transport • Particles moving against
the concentration gradient which REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
• Low concentration to high concentration
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ATP
• Energy storing molecule
• Can be used for quick energy by the cell
• Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds
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Photosynthesis • Water and Carbon
Dioxide used to produce Glucose and Oxygen
• H2O+CO2àC6H12O6+O2
• Occurs in the chloroplast
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Aerobic Respiration • Used to release energy
(ATP) for cellular use • C6H12O6+O2àH2O+CO2 + ATP • Occurs in the mitochondria
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Anaerobic Respiration aka Fermentation
• Does not require Oxygen • also used to release energy, but not as
efficient as aerobic respiration (less ATP) • Products include CO2 and lactic acid or
alcohol • Two Types: Alcoholic Fermentation and
Lactic Acid Fermentation
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Autotroph vs. Heterotroph • Obtain energy from
the environment • Photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis • “Producers”
• Obtain energy from other living things
• “Consumers”
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• Watson and Crick built DNA model • DNA is called “double helix” or twisted
ladder • Franklin & Wilkins saw first X-ray
DNA
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DNA / RNA • Carry genetic information • Made of a chain of nucleotides • Nucleotides contain a sugar, phosphate,
and a nitrogen base Nitrogen bases: Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine
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DNA / RNA DNA • Double stranded • “Double Helix” • Four base pairs: ATGC • Sugar is Deoxyribose • Found in nucleus RNA • Single stranded • Four base pairs: • G-C A-U ( uracil ) • Sugar is Ribose
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Base Pair Rule
• In DNA, Adenine always pairs with Thymine, and
Guanine always pairs with Cytosine
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Replication • Making of an
identical strand of DNA ( DNA is copied )
• Results: new strand and original strand
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Central Dogma ( Protein Synthesis )
DNA à RNA à protein à trait
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Transcription
• DNAàmRNA • Occurs in
nucleus( DNA cannot leave the nucleus )
• Complementary mRNA strand is produced from a segment of DNA
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Transcription ( cont ) • DNA strand - ATTGTCCAT • mRNA strand ? - - - - - - - - -
• Each 3 letter sequence is called a “codon” ( code for an amino acid )
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Translation • tRNA uses mRNA code to make a
protein • This happens in the cytoplasm • tRNA looks like a “ bent hairpin” and
carries the “anticodon”
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Translation • Connects amino acids in the correct
order to make a protein • Occurs in the cytoplasm within the
ribosomes A- amino acid B- tRNA C- anticodon D- codon E- mRNA F- Ribosome G-polypeptide
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Codon • Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
that code for an amino acid
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Mutations • Change in DNA code • May cause a change in protein
produced • NOT always harmful
Sickle Cell Mutation
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Mitosis • Cell division • Produces two identical
diploid daughter cells • Remember that diploid
means there are 2 copies of each chromosome
• Occurs in body cells to grow and repair
• Start with 1 cell and end up with 2 cells that each have the same number of chromosomes as the original cell.
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Cancer • Mitosis that has gone haywire! • Error in cell growth with causes uncontrolled
cell division • Has environment and genetic variables
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Meiosis / Ferilization • Cell division • Produces
four different haploid daughter cells (gametes)
• Occurs in sex cells to form gametes
• Start with 1 cell, end up with 4 cells that each have half the number of chromosomes as the original cell
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Crossing Over • Homologous
chromosomes exchange parts of their DNA
• Creates variation in gametes
• This is why every egg and sperm are different and therefore every sibling is different from each other
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Nondisjunction • Homologous
chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
• Can lead to Down Syndrome, Turners Syndrome, and Klinefelters Syndrome
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Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
Asexual • One parent • Identical offspring • Variation only thru
mutations • Examples: budding,
fragmentation, fission
• Cell division involved: mitosis
Sexual • Two parents • Offspring different
from parents • More variation • Fertilization (fusion of
gametes) • Cell division involved to
make the gametes: meiosis
• Once the zygote (fertilized egg) is formed, mitosis occurs
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Inheritance • Traits are specific
characteristics inherited from parents
• Genes are the factors that determine traits
• The different forms of a gene are called alleles
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Dominant/Recessive Alleles • Dominant alleles are expressed, if
present, and recessive are hidden
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Genotype actual alleles an individual has for a trait
Homozygous • Both alleles are the
same • Ex. BB or bb
Heterozygous • Both alleles are
different • Ex. Bb
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Phenotype • The actual characteristic displayed by
the individual (ex. brown eyes, Hemophiliac) (How they look!)
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Incomplete Dominance
• Heterozygote shows a blending of the dominant and recessive phenotypes
• Red x white = pink • (snapdragon flowers)
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Codominance • Heterozygote expresses BOTH
dominant and recessive traits • Red x white = roan • Ex. Roan animals
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Polygenic Traits • Traits are
influenced by more than one gene
• Ex. skin color • BBCCdd is an
example (4 dominant alleles would cause the individual to express the dominant phenotype)
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Multiple Alleles • More than two alleles for a trait (an
individual still only inherits two) • Ex. Blood Type (IA,IB, i) type A = IAIA or IAi type B = IBIB or IBi type AB= IAIB
type O = ii
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Sex Linked Traits • Sex Chromosomes
– Female = XX – Male = XY
• Sex linked traits are carried on the X chromosome
• Ex. Hemophilia, red-green colorblindness
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Test Cross • used to determine the phenotype of an
unknown dominant individual • uses a homozygous recessive individual
as the “test”
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Pedigree • similar to a family tree • Shows pattern of inheritance of a
specific trait through a family
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Karyotype • Picture of someone's
chromosomes • Can detect
chromosomal disorders
Ex. Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, and Turners Syndrome
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Human Genome Project
• Sequencing of human DNA
• Being used to develop gene therapies
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Gel Electrophoresis • Technique used to
separate molecules (DNA or proteins) based on their size
• Sometimes called a DNA fingerprint
• Used to analyze and compare DNA
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Recombinant DNA • Cell with DNA from
another source • Bacteria used to
produce human insulin
• Human gene inserted into bacterial plasmid
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Transgenic Organism • An organism with a
gene from another source
• used to improve food supply, research, and healthcare
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Clone • An organism made from one cell of
another organism • A genetically identical copy
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Origin of Life • Abiotic earth LACKED Oxygen • Early organims anaerobic prokaryotes
Miller and Urey Experiment recreating The abiotic atomospere
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Endosymbiotic Theory • Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotes • Early prokaryotes engulfed other
prokaryotes and developed symbiotic relationships
• Evidence includes mitochondria and chloroplast have prokaryotic type DNA
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Abiogenesis • Living from non-living or
spontaneous generation • Disproved by Redi and
Pasteur’s experiments
Biogenesis • Living from Living
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Natural Selection • Theory of Evolution • Fit organisms
survive, reproduce, and pass on traits
Requirements: • Variation • Competition
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Adaptations • Trait that increases
survival • For Example,
– Beaks that make it easier to eat insects
– Bright flowers to attract pollinators
– Vascular tissue in plants to adapt to life on land
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Evidence for Evolution • Fossil Record • Biochemical Similarities • Shared anatomical
structures
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Speciation
• Evolution of a new species
• must be isolation between populations
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Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance
• Populations will eventually become resistant to pesticides and antibiotics with overuse
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Coevolution • Two organisms evolve in response to
each other
Ex. Flowering plants and their pollinators
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Binomial Nomenclature • Two word naming system • Scientific name • Uses Genus and Species names • Ex. Dogs: Canis familiaris
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Dichotomous Keys • Used to identify organisms • Paired set of questions with two choices
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Levels of Organization
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Phylogenic tree
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Protists • Unicellular Eukaryotes • Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic • Reproduce mostly asexually
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Fungi • Multicellular
eukaryotes (yeast are unicellular fungi)
• Heterotrophs • Reproduce
asexually and sexually
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Plants
• Multicelluar eukaryotes • Autotrophs • Reproduce sexually and
asexually
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Animals • Multicellular
eukaryotes • Heterotrophs • Reproduce
sexually and asexually
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Non Vascular Plants • Also called
Bryophytes • No true roots or
vascular tissue causing them to be small in size
• Must live in moist environments
• Reproduce with spores
Ex. Mosses, liverworts
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Gymnosperms • Non-flowering vascular
plants • Reproduce with cones that contain
seeds • Ex. Conifers (pine
trees)
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Angiosperms • Flowering vascular
plants • Flower is main
reproductive organ • Seeds are enclosed
within a fruit • Ex. Deciduous
plants
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Insects • Transport through open
circulatory system • Exchange gases through
spiracles and tracheal tubes
• Most reproduce sexually with internal fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Annelids (segmented worms)
• Transport through closed circulatory system
• Exchange gases through moist skin • Reproduce asexually and sexually with
internal fertilization
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Amphibians • Transport through a closed
circulatory system involving a three chambered heart
• Gas exchange in young with gills, adults lungs and moist skin
• Reproduce sexually with external fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Mammals • Transport though closed circulatory
system involving a four chambered heart • Gas exchange through lungs • Reproduce sexually with internal
fertilization • Young develop in a uterus and exchange
nutrients and oxygen through the placenta (placental mammals)
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Viruses • Not considered living things • Pathogens that can mutate to resist
vaccines • Ex. HIV, Influenza, Smallpox
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Genetic Disorders and the Environment
• Many diseases have both genetic and environmental factors
• Ex. Cancer, diabetes, PKU
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Immune Response B-cells
• Fight antigens in body fluids
• B-cells make antibodies
• Make memory cells after exposure to antigen
T-cells
• Fight pathogens inside living cells
• May help B-cells to make antibodies
• Make memory cells after exposure to pathogen
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Immunity
Passive Immunity • Antibodies are
introduced into the body
• Short term • Such as mother
transfers antibodies to infant through breast feeding
Active Immunity • Antibodies are acquired
when an immune response is activated in the body
• Long term • Ex. Vaccines are weak/
dead antigens that are introduced to the body
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Parasites • Lives on or within a
host • Benefits while
causing harm to the host
• Ex. Plasmodium causes malaria (genetic influence- carriers of sickle cell are resistant to malaria)
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Toxins
• Chemical that causes harm to the body
• Can be man-made or produced by microorganisms
• Ex. Mercury and Lead
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Ecosystems • Collection of
abiotic (nonlivng) and biotic (living) factors in an area
• Together they influence growth, survival, and productivity of an organism
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Symbiotic Relationships • Relationship
between two organisms in which one benefits
• Types: – Mutualism (+,+) – Parasitism (+,-) – Commensalism (+, o)
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Predation • Predator eats prey • Evolve in response to
one another
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Carrying Capacity • Maximum number of
individuals that an ecosystem can support
• Limiting factors: – Food availability – Competition – Disease – Predation – Natural Disasters
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Carbon Cycle
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Trophic Levels • Steps in a food
chain/web • Energy passes from
one organism to another
• About 10% of the energy at one level passes to the next
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Human Population • Growth= birth rate-death rate
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Human Impacts Positive
• Reforestation • Cover Cropping • Recycling • Sustainable practice
Negative • Acid Rain • Deforestation • Habitat Destruction • Invasive Species • Ozone depletion from
the release of CFCs
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Global Warming
• Increase in the average temperature of the earth
• Caused by the release of too much CO2 into the atmosphere which amplifies the greenhouse effect
• Burning of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions
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Bioaccumulation • An increase in
environmental toxins at higher tropic levels
• Ex. DDT and birds of prey
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Innate Behavior • Behaviors an animal is
born with • Includes suckling,
migration, hibernation • Ex. weaving of spider
webs
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Learned Behavior • Behavior an animal
acquires during its lifetime
• Includes – Habituation – Conditioning – Trial and error
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Social Behavior • Communication
between individuals of the same species
• Can be courtship, territorial or chemical (pheromones)