biology outline chapter 12: 10th edition molecular biology ...€¦ · 19 replication of dna!dna...

Sylvia S. Mader

Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or displayPowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor

BIOLOGY10th Edition

Molecular Biology of the Gene

Chapter 12: pp. 211 - 232

1

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

b.

3.4 nm

2 nm

0.34 nm

GC

A

T

TA

P

P

P

P

CG

G

CComplementary

base pairing

Sugar hydrogen bonds

sugar-phosphatebackbone

2

Outline! Genetic Material

! Transformation

! DNA Structure! Watson and Crick

! DNA Replication! Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic

! Replication Errors

! Transcription

! Translation

! Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosome

3

Genetic Material

!Frederick Griffith investigated virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae !Concluded that virulence passed from the dead

strain to the living strain!Transformation

!Further research by Avery et al.!Discovered that DNA is the transforming substance!DNA from dead cells was being incorporated into

genome of living cells

4

Griffith’s Transformation Experiment

!Mice were injected with two strains of pneumococcus: an encapsulated (S) strain and a non-encapsulated (R) strain.!The S strain is virulent (the mice died); it has a

mucous capsule and forms “shiny” colonies.!The R strain is not virulent (the mice lived); it has

no capsule and forms “dull” colonies.

5

Griffith’s Transformation Experiment


capsule

Injected live S strain hascapsule and causes mice

to die.

a. b.

Injected live R strain hasno capsule

and mice do not die.

c.

Injected heat-killed S strain

does not causemice to die.

d.

Injected heat-killed S strain plus liveR strain causes

mice to die.Live S strain iswithdrawn from

dead mice.

Animation

6

7

Transformation of Organisms Today

!Result the so-called genetically modified organisms (GMOs) ! Invaluable tool in modern biotechnology today!Commercial products that are currently much used !Green fluorescent protein (GFP) used as a marker

! A jellyfish gene codes for GFP! The jellyfish gene is isolated and then transferred to a bacterium,

or the embryo of a plant, pig, or mouse. ! When this gene is transferred to another organism, the organism

glows in the dark

8

Transformation of Organisms

A normal canola plant (left) and a transgenic canolaplant expressing GFP (right) under a fluorescent light.


(Bacteria): © Martin Shields/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (Jellyfish): © R. Jackman/OSF/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; (Pigs): Courtesy Norrie Russell, The Roslin Institute; (Mouse): © Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (Plant): © Dr. Neal Stewart

9

Structure of DNA

!DNA contains:!Two Nucleotides with purine bases

!Adenine (A)!Guanine (G)

!Two Nucleotides with pyrimidine bases!Thymine (T)!Cytosine (C)

11

Chargaff’s Rules

!The amounts of A, T, G, and C in DNA:! Identical in identical twins!Varies between individuals of a species!Varies more from species to species

! In each species, there are equal amounts of:!A & T!G & C

!All this suggests DNA uses complementary base pairing to store genetic info

!Human chromosome estimated to contain, on average, 140 million base pairs

!Number of possible nucleotide sequences, 4,140,000,000

12

Nucleotide Composition of DNACopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

O

N

N

CH

CH

C

C

NH 2

cytosine(C)

3 C C2

C1

OHO P O

O

H

HHHH

OH

CH 3

O

HN

N

C

CH

C

C

OHO P OO

H

HHHH

OHHN

N

N

CCH

O

C

CC

NH2N

C2

C2

C1

C1

OHO P O

O

guanine(G)

phosphate

H

HHHH

OH

N

N

N

HCCH

NH 2

C

CC

N

4

3 C2

C1

5 OO

O

O

O

O

H

HHHH

OH

c. Chargaff’s data

DNA Composition in Various Species (%)

Species

Homo sapiens (human)Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)Zea mays (corn)Neurospora crassa (fungus)Escherichia coli (bacterium)Bacillus subtilis (bacterium)

31.027.325.623.024.628.4

31.527.625.323.324.329.0

19.122.524.527.125.521.0

18.422.524.626.625.621.6

A T G C

a. Purine nucleotides b. Pyrimidine nucleotides

nitrogen-containingbase

sugar = deoxyribose

thymine(T)

adenine(A)

HO P O CH 2

5CH 2

5CH 2

5CH 2

C

4 C

4 C

4 C

C

3 C

3 C

15

Watson and Crick Model

!Watson and Crick, 1953

!Constructed a model of DNA

!Double-helix model is similar to a twisted ladder

!Sugar-phosphate backbones make up the sides

!Hydrogen-bonded bases make up the rungs

!Received a Nobel Prize in 1962

16

Watson/Crick Model of DNACopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

a: © Kenneth Eward/Photo Researchers, Inc.; d: © A. Barrington Brown/Photo Researchers, Inc.

P

P

P

P

c.

b.

complementarybase


3.4 nm

2 nm

0.34 nm

P

P

SS

4

5 end 3 end

11

23

2 35

4

5

CG

G

C

C

G

T

T

A

A

C

G

a.

d.d.

5 end

sugar

hydrogen bonds

17

X-Ray Diffraction of DNA

!Rosalind Franklin studied the structure of DNA using X-rays.

!She found that if a concentrated, viscous solution of DNA is made, it can be separated into fibers.

!Under the right conditions, the fibers can produce X-ray diffraction pattern!She produced X-ray diffraction photographs.!This provided evidence that DNA had the following

features:! DNA is a helix.! Some portion of the helix is repeated.

18

X-Ray Diffraction of DNA


© Photo Researchers, Inc.; c: © Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.

X-ray beam

b.c.

Rosalind Franklin

diffraction pattern

CrystallineDNA

diffractedX-rays

a.

Dark Lady of DNA

16

19

Replication of DNA

!DNA replication is the process of copying a DNA molecule.

!Replication is semiconservative, with each strand of the original double helix (parental molecule) serving as a template (mold or model) for a new strand in a daughter molecule.

Animation

18

23

Replication: Eukaryotic

!DNA replication begins at numerous points along linear chromosome

!DNA unwinds and unzips into two strands

!Each old strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand

!Complementary base-pairing forms new strand on each old strand!Requires enzyme DNA polymerase

26

Replication: Eukaryotic

!Replication bubbles spread bi-directionally until they meet

!The complementary nucleotides join to form new strands. Each daughter DNA molecule contains an old strand and a new strand.

!Replication is semiconservative:!One original strand is conserved in each daughter

molecule i.e. each daughter double helix has one parental strand and one new strand.

Animation

21 28

Semiconservative Replication of DNACopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

region of parentalDNA double helix

GG

GT

AAC

C

3'5'

AT

C G

A TA

GGC

C G

A

region ofreplication:new nucleotidesare pairingwith those ofparental strands

region ofcompletedreplication

daughter DNA double helix

oldstrand

newstrand

daughter DNA double helix

oldstrand

newstrand

C CA

AT

T

GG

TA

TA

CG

AT

AT

A

C GATA

TA

TA

CG

CG

A

G

T

A

C

G

C

G

A

Animation

23 31

Science Focus: Aspects of DNA Replication

GC

AT

T

GC

G C

AP

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P is attached hereOH

CH2

C

C C

CH H

H

H H

OH

OHO

base is attached here

5! end

3! end 5! endtemplate strand

Direction of replicationnew strand

Deoxyribose molecule

RNA primer

3!

3!

5!

3!

5!

5!parental DN A helix

helicase at replication fork

leading new strand

template strand

template strand

lagging strand

DNA polymerase

DNA polymeraseDNA ligase

Okazaki fragment

Replication fork introduces complications

5

7

6

4

3

2

1

DNA polymeraseattaches a newnucleotide to the 3carbon of theprevious nucleotide.


5!

4!

3! 2!

1!

3! end

3!

32

Replication: Prokaryotic

!Prokaryotic Replication

!Bacteria have a single circular loop

!Replication moves around the circular DNA molecule in both directions

!Produces two identical circles

!Cell divides between circles, as fast as every 20 minutes

33

Replication: Prokaryotic vs. EukaryoticCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

origin

replication isoccurring in

two directions

replication iscomplete

replication fork replication bubblea. Replication in prokaryotes

parental strand

daughter strand

new DNAduplexes

b. Replication in eukaryotes

34

Replication Errors

!Genetic variations are the raw material for evolutionary change

!Mutation:!A permanent (but unplanned) change in base-pair

sequence!Some due to errors in DNA replication

!Others are due to to DNA damage

!DNA repair enzymes are usually available to reverse most errors

Animation

28

35

Function of Genes

!Genes Specify Enzymes!Beadle and Tatum:

!Experiments on fungus Neurospora crassa!Proposed that each gene specifies the synthesis of one enzyme

!One-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis!Genes Specify a Polypeptide

!A gene is a segment of DNA that specifies the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide

!Suggests that genetic mutations cause changes in the primary structure of a protein

36

Protein Synthesis: From DNA to RNA to Protein!The mechanism of gene expression

!DNA in genes specify information, but information is not structure and function

!Genetic info is expressed into structure & function through protein synthesis

!The expression of genetic info into structure & function:!DNA in gene controls the sequence of nucleotides

in an RNA molecule!RNA controls the primary structure of a protein

38

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology


nontemplate strand

3'5'

A G G G A C C C C

T C G C T G G G G

5'3'

template strandtranscriptionin nucleus

3'5'

mRN

DNA

A G G G A C C C C

codon 1 codon 2 codon 3

polypeptide

translationat ribosome

N N NC C C C C C

R1 R2 R3

Serine Aspartate Proline

O O O

39

Types of RNA

!RNA is a polymer of RNA nucleotides!RNA Nucleotides are of four types: Uracil,

Adenine, Cytosine, and Guanine!Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T) of DNA!Types of RNA

!Messenger (mRNA) - Takes genetic message from DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm

!Ribosomal (rRNA) - Makes up ribosomes which read the message in mRNA

!Transfer (tRNA) - Transfers appropriate amino acid to ribosome when “instructed”

40

Structure of RNA

G

U

A

C

S

S

S

S

P

P

P

P

ribose

G

U base isuracil insteadof thymine

A

C

one nucleotide


41

RNA vs. DNA structure

42

The Genetic Code

!Properties of the genetic code:!Universal

! With few exceptions, all organisms use the code the same way! Encode the same 20 amino acids with the same 64 triplets

!Degenerate (redundant)! There are 64 codons available for 20 amino acids! Most amino acids encoded by two or more codons

!Unambiguous (codons are exclusive)! None of the codons code for two or more amino acids! Each codon specifies only one of the 20 amino acids

!Contains start and stop signals! Punctuation codons! Like the capital letter we use to signify the beginning of a sentence,

and the period to signify the end

43

The Genetic Code

!The unit of a code consists of codons, each of which is a unique arrangement of symbols

!Each of the 20 amino acids found in proteins is uniquely specified by one or more codons ! The symbols used by the genetic code are the mRNA bases

! Function as “letters” of the genetic alphabet! Genetic alphabet has only four “letters” (U, A, C, G)

! Codons in the genetic code are all three bases (symbols) long! Function as “words” of genetic information! Permutations:

! There are 64 possible arrangements of four symbols taken three at a time

! Often referred to as triplets! Genetic language only has 64 “words”

44

Messenger RNA CodonsCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Second Base ThirdBase

FirstBase

U C GA

U

C

A

G

UUUphenylalanine

UCUserine

UAUtyrosine

UGUcysteine

UUCphenylalanine

UCCserine

UACtyrosine

UGUcysteine

UCAserine

UUAleucine

UCGserine

UUGleucine

UGGtryptophan

UGAstop

UAAstop

UAGstop

U

C

A

G

CUUleucine

CUCleucine

CUAleucine

CUGleucine

CCUproline

CCCproline

CCAproline

CCGproline

CAChistidine

CAAglutamine

CAGglutamine

CAUhistidine

CGAarginine

CGGarginine

CGUarginine

CGCarginine

U

C

A

G

AUG (start)methionine

AUUisoleucine

AUCisoleucine

AUAisoleucine

ACUthreonine

ACCthreonine

ACAthreonine

ACGthreonine

AAUasparagine

AACasparagine

AAAlysine

AAGlysine

AGUserine

AGCserine

AGAarginine

AGGarginine

U

C

A

G

GUUvaline

GUCvaline

GUAvaline

GUGvaline

GCUalanine

GCCalanine

GCAalanine

GCGalanine

GAUaspartate

GACaspartate

GAAglutamate

GAGglutamate

GGUglycine

GGCglycine

GGAglycine

GGGglycine

U

C

A

G

45

Steps in Gene Expression: Transcription

!Transcription!Gene unzips and exposes unpaired bases!Serves as template for mRNA formation!Loose RNA nucleotides bind to exposed DNA

bases using the C=G & A=U rule!When entire gene is transcribed into mRNA, result

is a pre-mRNA transcript of the gene!The base sequence in the pre-mRNA is

complementary to the base sequence in DNA

47

Transcription of mRNA! A single chromosomes consists of one very long molecule encoding

hundreds or thousands of genes! The genetic information in a gene describes the amino acid sequence of

a protein! The information is in the base sequence of one side (the “sense” strand) of the

DNA molecule! The gene is the functional equivalent of a “sentence”

! The segment of DNA corresponding to a gene is unzipped to expose the bases of the sense strand! The genetic information in the gene is transcribed (rewritten) into an mRNA

molecule! The exposed bases in the DNA determine the sequence in which the RNA bases

will be connected together! RNA polymerase connects the loose RNA nucleotides together

! The completed transcript contains the information from the gene, but in a mirror image, or complementary form

49

TranscriptionCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

nontemplatestrand

templatestrand

5'

C

C G

T A

A T

G

C

A

A

C

G

T

C

T

C

U

G

G

A

C

C

A

C

A

T

G

G

C

RNApolymerase

DNAtemplatestrand

mRNAtranscript

C

G

C

A T

C G

T A

to RNA processing

3'

3'

5'

Animation

41 52

RNA Polymerase

© Oscar L. Miller/Photo Researchers, Inc.


a. 200m

b.

spliceosome

DNA

RNApolymerase

RNAtranscripts

53

Processing Messenger RNA

!Pre-mRNA, is modified before leaving the eukaryotic nucleus. !Modifications to ends of primary transcript:

!Cap of modified guanine on 5! end! The cap is a modified guanine (G) nucleotide! Helps a ribosome where to attach when translation begins

!Poly-A tail of 150+ adenines on 3! end!Facilitates the transport of mRNA out of the nucleus!Inhibits degradation of mRNA by hydrolytic enzymes.

54

Processing Messenger RNA!Pre-mRNA, is composed of exons and introns.

!The exons will be expressed, !The introns, occur in between the exons.

! Allows a cell to pick and choose which exons will go into a particular mRNA

!RNA splicing:! Primary transcript consists of:

! Some segments that will not be expressed (introns)! Segments that will be expressed (exons)

! Performed by spliceosome complexes in nucleoplasm! Introns are excised! Remaining exons are spliced back together

!Result is mature mRNA transcript

55

RNA Splicing

!In prokaryotes, introns are removed by “self-splicing”—that is, the intron itself has the capability of enzymatically splicing itself out of a pre-mRNA

57

Messenger RNA ProcessingCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

exon

intron intron

exon exonDNA

transcription

exon

intron intron

exon exon

5' 3'pre-mRNA

exon exon exon

intron introncap poly-A tail5' 3'

exon exon exon

spliceosome

cap poly-A tail

pre-mRNAsplicing

intron RNA

5' 3'

cap poly-A tail

mRNA

nuclear porein nuclear envelope

nucleus

cytoplasm

5' 3'

59

Functions of Introns

!As organismal complexity increases;!Number of protein-coding genes does not keep pace!But the proportion of the genome that is introns increases!Humans:

! Genome has only about 25,000 coding genes! Up to 95% of this DNA genes is introns

!Possible functions of introns:!More bang for buck

! Exons might combine in various combinations! Would allow different mRNAs to result from one segment of DNA

! Introns might regulate gene expression!Exciting new picture of the genome is emerging

Animation

48

60

Steps in Gene Expression: Translation

! tRNA molecules have two binding sites! One associates with the mRNA transcript! The other associates with a specific amino acid! Each of the 20 amino acids in proteins associates with one or more of

64 species of tRNA

! Translation! An mRNA transcript migrates to rough endoplasmic reticulum! Associates with the rRNA of a ribosome! The ribosome “reads” the information in the transcript! Ribosome directs various species of tRNA to bring in their specific

amino acid “fares”! tRNA specified is determined by the code being translated in the

mRNA transcript

61

tRNA

!tRNA molecules come in 64 different kinds!All very similar except that

!One end bears a specific triplet (of the 64 possible) called the anticodon

!Other end binds with a specific amino acid type! tRNA synthetases attach correct amino acid to the

correct tRNA molecule!All tRNA molecules with a specific anticodon will

always bind with the same amino acid

63

Structure of tRNACopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

aminoacid

leucine

3

5

Hydrogenbonding

anticodon

mRNA

5'

codon

3'

b.

anticodon end

amino acid end

64

Ribosomes

!Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):!Produced from a DNA template in the nucleolus!Combined with proteins into large and small ribosomal

subunits

!A completed ribosome has three binding sites to facilitate pairing between tRNA and mRNA!The E (for exit) site!The P (for peptide) site, and!The A (for amino acid) site

65

Ribosomal Structure and Function


Courtesy Alexander Rich

large subunit

small subunit

a. Structure of a ribosome

tRNA bindingsites

outgoingtRNA

35

mRNA

b. Binding sites of ribosome

polypeptideincomingtRNA

incomingtRNA

c. Function of ribosomes d. Polyribosome

66

Steps in Translation: Initiation

!Components necessary for initiation are:!Small ribosomal subunit!mRNA transcript! Initiator tRNA, and!Large ribosomal subunit! Initiation factors (special proteins that bring the above

together)! Initiator tRNA:

!Always has the UAC anticodon!Always carries the amino acid methionine!Capable of binding to the P site

67


!Small ribosomal subunit attaches to mRNA transcript

!Beginning of transcript always has the START codon (AUG)

!Initiator tRNA (UAC) attaches to P site

!Large ribosomal subunit joins the small subunit

69



A small ribosomal subunitbinds to mRNA; an initiatortRNA pairs with the mRNAstart codon AUG. The large ribosomal subunit

completes the ribosome.Initiator tRNA occupies theP site. The A site is readyfor the next tRNA.

Initiation

Met

amino acid methionine

initiator tRNA

U A CA U G

mRNA

small ribosomal subunit

3'

5'

P site A siteE site

Met

large ribosomal subunitU A CA U G

start codon5' 3'

70

Steps in Translation: Elongation

!“Elongation” refers to the growth in length of the polypeptide

!RNA molecules bring their amino acid fares to the ribosome!Ribosome reads a codon in the mRNA

!Allows only one type of tRNA to bring its amino acid!Must have the anticodon complementary to the mRNA codon being read

!Joins the ribosome at it’s A site!Methionine of initiator is connected to amino acid

of 2nd tRNA by peptide bond

71

Steps in Translation: Elongation

!Second tRNA moves to P site (translocation)

!Spent initiator moves to E site and exits

!Ribosome reads the next codon in the mRNA!Allows only one type of tRNA to bring its amino acid

! Must have the anticodon complementary to the mRNA codon being read

! Joins the ribosome at it’s A site

!Dipeptide on 2nd amino acid is connected to amino acid of 3nd tRNA by peptide bond

73

Steps in Translation: ElongationCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

A tRNA–amino acidapproaches theribosome and bindsat the A site.

Two tRNAs can be at aribosome at one time;the anticodons arepaired to the codons.

Peptide bond formationattaches the peptidechain to the newlyarrived amino acid.

The ribosome moves forward; the“empty” tRNA exits from the E site;the next amino acid–tRNA complexis approaching the ribosome.

1 2 3 4

Elongation

peptidebond

Met

Ala

Trp

Ser

Val

UA

C AUG G A C

33

C G

anticodon

tRNA

asp

U

Met

AlaTrp

Ser

Val

UA

C AUG G A C

C U G

Asp

6

UA

C AUG G A C

C U G

Met

Val

Asp

Ala

Trp

Ser

peptidebond

6 3

UC A

G A CC U G

AUG

U G G

A C C

Met

Val

Asp

Ala

Trp

Ser Thr

6 3

74

Steps in Translation: Termination

!Previous tRNA moves to P site!Spent tRNA moves to E site and exits!Ribosome reads the STOP codon at the end of the

mRNA!UAA, UAG, or UGA!Does not code for an amino acid

!Polypeptide is released from last tRNA by release factor

!Ribosome releases mRNA and dissociates into subunits

!mRNA read by another ribosome

76

Steps in Translation: TerminationCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Termination

The release factor hydrolyzes the bondbetween the last tRNA at the P site andthe polypeptide, releasing them. Theribosomal subunits dissociate.

3

5

AG AU G A

The ribosome comes to a stopcodon on the mRNA. A releasefactor binds to the site.

UA

UA U G A

stop codon5' 3'

Asp

Ala

TrpVal

Glu

release factor

Ala

Trp

Val

Asp

Glu

UC U

Animation

62

78

Summary of Gene Expression (Eukaryotes)


TRANSCRIPTION1. DNA in nucleus serves as a template for mRNA.

2. mRNA is processed before leaving the nucleus.

mRNA

pre-mRNA

DNA

introns

3. mRNA moves into cytoplasm and becomes associated with ribosomes.

TRANSLATION

mRNAlarge and smallribosomal subunits

5

3'

nuclear pore4. tRNAs with anticodons carry amino acids to mRNA.

5

peptide

codon

ribosome

3UA

AU

CG

5 C CGG

GCG

CG

C

CCC

GUA

UA

UA

UUA A

6. During elongation, polypeptide synthesis takes place one amino acid at a time.

7. Ribosome attaches to rough ER. Polypeptide enters lumen, where it folds and is modified.

8. During termination, a ribosome reaches a stop codon; mRNA and ribosomal subunits disband.

5. During initiation, anticodon-codon complementary base pairing begins as the ribosomal subunits come together at a start codon.

aminoacids

anticodon

tRNA

CU A

3'

Animation

64

80

Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosome

!Contains a single linear DNA molecule, but is composed of more than 50% protein.

!Some of these proteins are concerned with DNA and RNA synthesis,

!Histones, play primarily a structural role! Five primary types of histone molecules! Responsible for packaging the DNA

!DNA double helix is wound at intervals around a core of eight histone molecules (called nucleosome)

!Nucleosomes are joined by “linker” DNA.

81

Structure of Eukaryotic ChromosomeCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

a. Nucleosomes (“beads on a string”)

b. 30-nm fiber

c. Radial loop domains

d. Heterochromatin

e. Metaphase chromosome

1. Wrapping of DNA around histone proteins.

4. Tight compaction of radial loops to form heterochromatin.

3. Loose coiling into radial loops.

2. Formation of a three-dimensional zigzag structure via histone H1 and other DNA-binding proteins.

5. Metaphase chromosome forms with the help of a protein scaffold.

2 nm

1 nm

300 nm

1,400 nm

700 nm

30 nm

DNAdouble helix

histones

histone H1

nucleosome

euchromatin

83

Review! Genetic Material

! Transformation

! DNA Structure! Watson and Crick

! DNA Replication! Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic

! Replication Errors

! Transcription

! Translation

! Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosome

Sylvia S. Mader

Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or displayPowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor

BIOLOGY10th Edition

Molecular Biology of the Gene

Chapter 12: pp. 211 - 232

1


b.

3.4 nm

2 nm

0.34 nm

GC

A

T

TA

P

P

P

P

CG

G

CComplementary

base pairing

Sugar hydrogen bonds


biology outline chapter 12: 10th edition molecular biology ...€¦ · 19 replication of dna!dna...

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