biology - nutley public · pdf file · 2016-02-17– sexual reproduction...
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BIOLOGY
MIDTERM EXAM REVIEW
The Science of Life
Biology is the science of LIFE.
Life: • Organisms are made from and develop from cells! – Unicellular
– Multicellular • Cells of multicellular organisms undergo
differentiation.
The Science of Life
Cell differentiation is a process in which a generic cell develops into a specific type of cell in response to specific triggers from
the body or the cell itself.
The Science of Life
Biology is the science of LIFE.
Life: • All living things maintain stable internal conditions know as homeostasis!
• All organisms reproduce – they pass down their genetic information to offspring through DNA. – Sexual reproduction
– Asexual reproduction
The Science of Life
Asexual reproduction 1. Binary Fission (prokaryotes)
2. Mitosis (eukaryotes)
• Results in identical cells, or
clones of the parents!!
Sexual reproduction 1. Meiosis (eukaryotes)
– Results in gametes - sex cells (sperm and egg)
– Cuts chromosomes in half
– Adds genetic variety!!
The Science of Life
Biology is the science of LIFE.
Life: • Populations of organisms evolve or change over time.
• All organisms interact with their living and non-living environment.
• Ecology – branch of biology that studies these interactions.
The Science of Life
Biology is the science of LIFE.
Life: • All living things must obtain energy.
• Heterotrophs
• Autotrophs
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
The Science of Life
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: How Scientists solve a problem or answer
a question…
The Science of Life
The Science of Life
Measurement
Chemistry
• Everything in the universe is made of matter.
• Everything in the universe has mass.
Chemistry
Elements are pure substances that can not be broken down into simpler kinds
of matter
Chemistry
An Atom is the simplest particle of an element.
Chemistry
Atoms are held together by bonds Covalent Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Chemistry
Energy & Matter
States of Matter:
Chemistry
Chemical Reactions:
Energy is released
Energy is absorbed
Chemistry
Solutions:
Chemistry
Acids and Bases
Acid: 0 - 6.5 Base: 7.5 - 14
Neutral – 7.0
Chemistry
Properties of Water
Capillarity
BIOCHEMISTRY
The Building Blocks of Life:
Four types of macromolecules
(large, carbon-based organic molecules)
are found in living organisms.
The Element of Life
BIOCHEMISTRY
The Building Blocks of Life:
The Molecules of Life:
Most are polymers—chains of smaller molecules (monomers) that form through
dehydration synthesis.
(the loss or removal of a water molecule).
BIOCHEMISTRY Carbohydrates:
• Energy-storing molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio.
• Monosaccharides, such as glucose (C6H12O6), are single-sugar subunits (monomers) often found as rings.
• Disaccharides have two monosaccharide subunits
• Polysaccharides, such as starch (plant storage), glycogen (animal storage), and cellulose (plant fiber), are long chains of sugars.
BIOCHEMISTRY
Lipids: Hydrocarbon-based molecules that are
hydrophobic -
(insoluble in water or water ‘hating’).
There are three main families of lipids:
Fats, Oils & Waxes, Steroids and Phospholipids
BIOCHEMISTRY
FATS & OILS: • Large, HIGH energy-storing molecules, each built from two components: – One molecule of glycerol, a three-carbon alcohol.
– Three fatty acids, long hydrocarbon chains that attach to the glycerol backbone.
• (Hence, fats are also called triglycerides.)
BIOCHEMISTRY
Steroids: Four fused-hydrocarbon rings, such as cholesterol.
Phospholipids: Glycerol with two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached (found in cell membranes).
BIOCHEMISTRY
PROTIENS
Long polymer chains called polypeptides built from single amino acids linked together by
peptide bonds.
BIOCHEMISTRY
PROTIENS
Every amino acid contains a central carbon with an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), hydrogen (H), and one of 20 side groups (R) that
makes each amino acid different.
BIOCHEMISTRY
ENZYMES: Enzymes are proteins
capable of speeding
chemical reactions without being consumed (used).
Enzymes lower the amount of energy needed to start a reaction.
The substrate binds to the enzyme’s active site in an induced fit, in which the enzyme changes its shape to wrap itself around the substrate.
BIOCHEMISTRY
ENZYMES:
Enzymes have a variety of functions in the body, including:
• digesting food • Transmitting nerve impulses
• making our muscles work.
BIOCHEMISTRY
NUCLEIC ACIDS:
Polymers of nucleotides that encode genetic information.
There are two forms:
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
BIOCHEMISTRY NUCLEIC ACIDS:
Individual nucleotides are linked by phosphate bonds and contain
three basic parts:
*Phosphate group, *5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) and a nitrogenous base.
BIOCHEMISTRY NUCLEIC ACIDS:
The double helix (double strand) is formed from weak hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases (adenine and thymine; guanine and cytosine) on
opposite strands of a the DNA molecule.
BIOCHEMISTRY NUCLEIC ACIDS:
Complementary Base Pairing: In DNA, nitrogenous base Adenine always pairs with Thymine; Cytosine always pairs with Guanine
BIOCHEMISTRY
Structure & Function of the Cell
THE CELL THEORY
1. Every living organism is made up of cells
2. Cells are the lowest level of structure capable of performing all the activities of life.
3. All cells arise from
preexisting cells.
Structure & Function of the Cell
• Not all cells are alike
• Cells are limited in size by the ration between their surface area and volume
• A cells
shape
determines
its function
TYPES OF CELLS Prokaryotic Cells – simple cell, no membrane bound nucleus (only nucleoid region with DNA) or no membrane bound organelles (i.e no mitochondria, golgi body, etc. but have ribosomes)
Eukaryotic Cells – more complex cell, membrane bound nucleus (DNA containing) and organelles.
Animal Cell & Plant Cell (Eukaryotic)
Bacteria Cell (Prokaryotic)
TYPES OF CELLS
CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane:
Serves as an external barrier and encloses organelles.
The basic unit of the cell membrane is the
phospholipid bi-layer molecule
Cell membranes are semipermeable, allowing passage of gases (O2 & CO2), lipids, and small
polar molecules but not charged molecules (ions and proteins) or large polar molecules without
the use of ENERGY (ATP).
CELL MEMBRANE
Membrane proteins embedded in the bilayer help
transport molecules unable to cross the membrane independently
TYPES OF CELLS
Cells of Eukaryotes:
Eukaryotes include multicellular plants and animals, fungi and some unicellular protists.
Their cells contain membrane-bound organelles, each of which performs specific functions.
TYPES OF CELLS
Nucleus: Membrane-bound storage site of genetic information that determines heredity and directs the activities of a cell.
Mitochondria: Membrane bound Power plant of the cell and the location of aerobic respiration.
TYPES OF CELLS
Smooth/rough endoplasmic reticulum (SER/RER): Network of membranes where lipids and proteins are synthesized.
Rough ER is covered with ribosomes.
Golgi apparatus: Organelle that packages and exports proteins and lipids produced in the ER.
TYPES OF CELLS
Vesicles: Sacs in which substances are transported or stored.
Lysosomes: Vesicles of digestive enzymes that degrade old cellular components.
TYPES OF CELLS
Plant cells contain several additional components:
Chloroplasts: Sites of photosynthesis. Contain chlorophyll (a green pigment)
and have a double membrane.
Vacuole: Vesicle used to store water, proteins, and wastes.
Cell wall: Rigid cellulose layer around the cell membrane.
ORGANELLES
TYPES OF CELLS
Cells of Prokaryotes:
Prokaryotes include the simplest unicellular organisms and were the earliest cells to evolve
(bacteria).
**Major differences from eukaryotes**
– Genetic material (DNA) floats in the cytoplasm in a concentrated but unbounded region called the nucleoid.
– There are no membrane-bound organelles.
TYPES OF CELLS
CELL REPRODUCTION
DNA is the cell’s genetic material; chromosomes are the carriers of this genetic information.
In prokaryotes, the chromosome is a single circle of DNA.
In eukaryotes, each chromosome is a complex of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus.
CELL REPRODUCTION
Prokaryotic cells reproduce via binary fission (asexual). In this process, DNA is replicated, and the cell splits in two roughly equal parts, each with a copy of the cell’s DNA.
Eukaryotic cells reproduce sexually via the creation of two identical diploid cells from one diploid cell. Diploid (2N) refers to the total number of chromosomes in autosomal cells.
HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT
Diffusion & Passive Transport
(Require No Energy):
Molecules move freely across a membrane to balance a
concentration gradient, from areas of high to low
concentration.
Diffusion of water is called osmosis.
HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane. Like
other molecules, water will move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration (depends on the environment surrounding cell).
•Hypertonic - Solution that has a higher concentration of solute and a lower concentration of water than the cell.
•Hypotonic - Solution that has a lower concentration of solute and a higher concentration of water than the cell.
Water Water
Water
HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT
Diffusion & Passive Transport
(Require No Energy):
Facilitated diffusion:
Molecules cross an impermeable or semipermeable
membrane down their concentration gradient but
must do so via
special channels.
HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT
Active transport (Require Energy) Transport of molecules from areas of low to high
concentrations across a membrane using an
Energy-dependent transport protein.
• Endocytosis: Enveloping of an exterior substance within a membranous vesicle for admission to the cell interior. – Pinocytosis: Endocytosis of dissolved liquid molecules.
– Phagocytosis: Endocytosis of undissolved solid matter.
• Exocytosis: Extrusion of material from a cell by discharge from vesicles at the cell surface.
ATP
HOMESTASIS & TRANSPORT
.
CLASSIFICATION
To study so many life-forms, biologists have organized them into numerous groups based
on their similar characteristics.
Classifying and naming organisms is key to distinguishing, describing and understanding
the relationships between living and non-living (extinct) organisms.
The branch of biology that deals with classification of life-forms is known as
taxonomy.
CLASSIFICATION
In response to the need for better organization, an 18th century Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnaeus offered a solution to the confusion of
classifying and naming organisms.
Linnaeus’s classified animals based on their similarities in morphology (form & structure), rather
than by location.
(i.e. bats have wings but are not birds)
CLASSIFICATION
Carolus Linnaeus’s Classification System:
There are two important features of this system:
1. The system classifies species into hierarchical levels, in which level is nested within larger levels (taxa).
2. Each species has a two-part name.
CLASSIFICATION
Part 1 - Seven Levels (taxa) of Classification
Keep Plates Clean Or Family Gets Sick!
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
Part 2 - Binominal Nomenclature The two-part name Linnaeus gave each organism is a Latin, scientific name.
Genus, species = Panthera leo
CLASSIFICATION
Biologists have developed a precise method to help them classify and identify unknown
organisms.
The classification tool called a dichotomous key, uses a logical approach to classify an
organism.
CLASSIFICATION
The Six Kingdom System:
CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
The New Three Domain System
THE CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT
Most experiments in Biology are controlled experiments - Used to gather data under controlled conditions.
– performed to test your hypothesis(an educated guess) (prove or disprove it)
– Based on a comparison of a control group with an experimental group.
THE CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT
All factors in the control group and the experimental group are identical except for one: • independent variable - what is being tested
During the experiment, observations and measurements are taken from both groups, looking specifically at another factor or variable:
• dependent variable - dependent because it is driven by/or results from the independent variable.