Introduction to Introduction to Environmental Biology, Environmental Biology,

Scientific Methodology and Scientific Methodology and Environmental ProblemsEnvironmental Problems

Dredging the HudsonDredging the Hudson

General Electric (GE)General Electric (GE) PCB’s are shown to PCB’s are shown to

cause cancercause cancer 1976:Use of PCB’s is 1976:Use of PCB’s is

bannedbanned 1977: GE stops 1977: GE stops

dumpingdumping 1976:$40 million fishing 1976:$40 million fishing

industry is shut downindustry is shut down

PCB’s released from sedimentsPCB’s released from sediments Still warnings on fish consumptionStill warnings on fish consumption Environmentalist support dredging (removal of Environmentalist support dredging (removal of

sediments)sediments) EXPENSIVE!EXPENSIVE!

GE wants a natural solutionGE wants a natural solution BREAKDOWN WILL TAKE CENTURIESBREAKDOWN WILL TAKE CENTURIES

Who is right?Who is right?

Current status…..Current status…..

How can science help us understand these How can science help us understand these problems?problems?

What do we need to know to make reasoned What do we need to know to make reasoned and responsible judgments?and responsible judgments?

Why study environmental Why study environmental science?science?

What makes Earth unique?What makes Earth unique?

Temperatures Temperatures Oxygen/clean airOxygen/clean air Fresh waterFresh water Fertile soilFertile soil Diversity of LIFEDiversity of LIFE

Central Questions Central Questions

What is our proper place in nature?What is our proper place in nature? What should we do an what can we do to What should we do an what can we do to

protect the Earth?protect the Earth?

Environmental ScienceEnvironmental Science

We inhabit 2 worldsWe inhabit 2 worlds Natural worldNatural world

Plants, animals, soil, air, waterPlants, animals, soil, air, water

““Built” worldBuilt” world Social institutions, technology, politicsSocial institutions, technology, politics

Circumstances and conditions that surround an Circumstances and conditions that surround an organism/group of organismsorganism/group of organisms

Social and cultural conditions that affect an Social and cultural conditions that affect an individual or community.individual or community.

EnvironmentEnvironment

Environmental ScienceEnvironmental Science

Systematic study of our environment and our Systematic study of our environment and our place in itplace in it

Related fields: Related fields: BiologyBiology ChemistryChemistry GeographyGeography AgricultureAgriculture OthersOthers

SociologySociology PoliticsPolitics HumanitiesHumanities

Figure 1.4Figure 1.4

What is science?What is science?

Process for producing knowledgeProcess for producing knowledge Precise observationPrecise observation Formulating theories Formulating theories

Scientific Assumptions KnowableScientific Assumptions Knowable Patterns are uniformPatterns are uniform Choose the simple explanationChoose the simple explanation Ever changingEver changing No absolute proofNo absolute proof Becomes more accurateBecomes more accurate Practical solutionsPractical solutions

(Table 1.1)(Table 1.1)

Scientific MethodologyScientific Methodology

Before scientist accept the accuracy of their Before scientist accept the accuracy of their results they demand results they demand ReproducibilityReproducibility: consistently getting the same : consistently getting the same

resultsresults

Natural systems are hard to studyNatural systems are hard to study Controlled studiesControlled studies: factors are controlled: factors are controlled

Everything is identical except the factor being studiedEverything is identical except the factor being studied

Blind Experiments: those collecting the data Blind Experiments: those collecting the data do not know what to expectdo not know what to expect

Double-blind Experiments: neither the subject Double-blind Experiments: neither the subject and the experimenter know what to expectand the experimenter know what to expect

Deductive vs. InductiveDeductive vs. Inductive

HypothesisHypothesis

Conditional explanation that can be tested by Conditional explanation that can be tested by further observationfurther observation

Example:Example: ““The batteries are dead”The batteries are dead”

Try new batteriesTry new batteries

““The bulb is burned out”The bulb is burned out” Eventually isolate the problem and solve itEventually isolate the problem and solve it

Scientific MethodScientific Method

Make observationsMake observations Formulate hypothesisFormulate hypothesis Test hypothesisTest hypothesis Collect dataCollect data Interpret dataInterpret data Draw conclusions (can lead to making new Draw conclusions (can lead to making new

observations)observations)

Scientific Theories (Scientists View)Scientific Theories (Scientists View)

Large amount of supportLarge amount of support Experts reach a general consensusExperts reach a general consensus

Scientific TheoryScientific Theory(General Public View)(General Public View)

SpeculativeSpeculative Unsupported by factsUnsupported by facts

Natural experimentsNatural experiments

Not everything is simple and direct as the Not everything is simple and direct as the flashlightflashlight EvolutionEvolution Mountain formationMountain formation

Historic evidenceHistoric evidence Looking at what has already happenedLooking at what has already happened What could you look for?What could you look for?

ModelsModels

Substitute organismSubstitute organism Lab rats substituted for humanLab rats substituted for human

Physical mock-upPhysical mock-up Scale model of a mountainScale model of a mountain ““living streams”living streams”

Set of mathematical equationsSet of mathematical equations Simultaneous variablesSimultaneous variables Example: temperature, day length, elevationExample: temperature, day length, elevation

Drawbacks of ModelsDrawbacks of Models

Represent researchers’ assumptions on how a Represent researchers’ assumptions on how a system workssystem works

However: suggestions of how things may work However: suggestions of how things may work and understand relationships in a systemand understand relationships in a system

StatisticsStatistics

What numbers What numbers dodo and and do notdo not mean mean Example of forest fires in USExample of forest fires in US 6.7 million acres in 20026.7 million acres in 2002

Little or a lot?Little or a lot? A big change?A big change? Normal range?Normal range? Severity of the burned areasSeverity of the burned areas

ProbabilityProbability

How likely something isHow likely something is Also called risk and chanceAlso called risk and chance

Does not tell what will happen, just what might Does not tell what will happen, just what might happenhappen

Rarely 100% sure, but scientists consider a 95% Rarely 100% sure, but scientists consider a 95% probability (confidence level)probability (confidence level) We are 95% sure that the average area burned falls We are 95% sure that the average area burned falls

within the 100 year average.within the 100 year average.

Sample SizeSample Size

How many individuals would you need to have a How many individuals would you need to have a reliable estimate of the population?reliable estimate of the population?

Is it better to sample multiple small areas over a Is it better to sample multiple small areas over a large area or one large area?large area or one large area?

ReplicationReplication How many times do you How many times do you

need to replicate your need to replicate your study to be sure you are study to be sure you are getting reliable results?getting reliable results?

Experimental ControlExperimental Control

Looks for Looks for natural variation natural variation in your resultsin your results

Paradigms ShiftsParadigms Shifts

Overtime, scientists accept that the old explanation no Overtime, scientists accept that the old explanation no longer explains new observations very welllonger explains new observations very well

Can cause a lot of debates because a new model may Can cause a lot of debates because a new model may undermine whole careers based on one sort of research.undermine whole careers based on one sort of research.

Example: Example: Old: Noah’s flood changing fish distributionsOld: Noah’s flood changing fish distributions New: Mountain formation separating/glaciers changing fish New: Mountain formation separating/glaciers changing fish

distributionsdistributions

History of EnvironmentalismHistory of Environmentalism

Four distinctive stagesFour distinctive stages Pragmatic resource conservationPragmatic resource conservation Moral and aesthetic nature preservationMoral and aesthetic nature preservation Growing concern about health and ecological Growing concern about health and ecological

damage caused by pollutiondamage caused by pollution Global environmental citizenshipGlobal environmental citizenship

Concerns on human misuse Concerns on human misuse Plato: Greece, 4Plato: Greece, 4thth century B.C. century B.C.

Greece once was blessed with fertile soil and abundant forestGreece once was blessed with fertile soil and abundant forest ““skeleton of a body wasted by disease”skeleton of a body wasted by disease”

Tolba, former director of U.N.Tolba, former director of U.N. ““the problems that overwhelm us today are precisely those we the problems that overwhelm us today are precisely those we

failed to solve decades ago”failed to solve decades ago”

Pragmatic Resource ConservationPragmatic Resource Conservation

Roosevelt’s and Pinchot’s Policies Roosevelt’s and Pinchot’s Policies were utilitarian conservationwere utilitarian conservation

Forests should be saved because Forests should be saved because they provide homes and jobs for they provide homes and jobs for people people THEY WERE FORGETTING THEY WERE FORGETTING

ABOUT BEAUTY AND ABOUT BEAUTY AND WILDLIFE!WILDLIFE!

National forest preserves were established in National forest preserves were established in 1873 to protect dwindling timber supplies1873 to protect dwindling timber supplies

Moral and Aesthetic Nature Moral and Aesthetic Nature PreservationPreservation

John Muir opposed John Muir opposed utilitarian policiesutilitarian policies

Argued nature deserves to Argued nature deserves to exist for it’s own sakeexist for it’s own sake

Biocentric preservation: Biocentric preservation: emphasizes fundamental emphasizes fundamental rights of other organismsrights of other organisms

The National Park Service (Yosemite) which The National Park Service (Yosemite) which were for preservation of nature in it’s purest were for preservation of nature in it’s purest statestate Often at odds with the Forest ServiceOften at odds with the Forest Service

Current Environmental Current Environmental ConditionsConditions

In 2000 175 scientists assessed In 2000 175 scientists assessed global healthglobal health Widespread declineWidespread decline Reduced ability to produce Reduced ability to produce

good/services we depend ongood/services we depend on ExamplesExamples

½ the world’s wetlands have been lost½ the world’s wetlands have been lost ¾ the world’s marine fish stock is over ¾ the world’s marine fish stock is over

fishedfished ⅔⅔ of the world’s farmlands have soil of the world’s farmlands have soil

degradationdegradation

Why is the environment Why is the environment suffering?suffering?

Over 6 billion people on EarthOver 6 billion people on Earth Adding over 85 million per yearAdding over 85 million per year

Some predict numbers will Some predict numbers will stabilize over the next 50 yearsstabilize over the next 50 years

Others say we are beyond the Others say we are beyond the carrying capacity of Earth’s carrying capacity of Earth’s resourcesresources

Food shortages and faminesFood shortages and famines May continue to increase in severity if:May continue to increase in severity if:

Keep increasing human populationsKeep increasing human populations Depleting soil nutrientsDepleting soil nutrients Increasing soil erosionIncreasing soil erosion

Fossil FuelsFossil Fuels

Supplies are finite (only so much)Supplies are finite (only so much) Problems limiting how we use remaining fossil fuels:Problems limiting how we use remaining fossil fuels:

Air and water pollutionAir and water pollution Mining damageMining damage Shipping accidentsShipping accidents Political insecurityPolitical insecurity

Fossil fuels Fossil fuels release carbon dioxide and other release carbon dioxide and other heat-absorbing gases heat-absorbing gases cause global warming, cause global warming, sea-level rises, catastrophic climate changessea-level rises, catastrophic climate changes

ArticArtic Growing seasons are 3 weeks longerGrowing seasons are 3 weeks longer Annual temperatures risenAnnual temperatures risen

Human health factorsHuman health factors Burning releases toxic compoundsBurning releases toxic compounds At least 100 million Americans breathe air At least 100 million Americans breathe air

pollutants that cause high cancer risks!pollutants that cause high cancer risks!

Destruction of the Rainforests, Coral Destruction of the Rainforests, Coral Reefs and WetlandsReefs and Wetlands

Reduces biological variety of Reduces biological variety of plants and animalsplants and animals

Limit future optionsLimit future options Rare and endangered speciesRare and endangered species Undiscovered speciesUndiscovered species

Industrial CountriesIndustrial Countries

Toxic airToxic air Water pollutantsWater pollutants Solid and hazardous Solid and hazardous

wasteswastes

Is there hope?Is there hope? Progress in air and water Progress in air and water

pollutionpollution Some populations have Some populations have

stabilized stabilized Life threatening infectious Life threatening infectious

diseases have fell diseases have fell More efficient technologyMore efficient technology Still we can do more to protect Still we can do more to protect

and restore our environment!and restore our environment!Rocky Flats Nuclear Weapons Plant, located just north of Denver, Co

Have’s and Have-not’sHave’s and Have-not’s 1/5 of the World’s 1/5 of the World’s

population is in acute povertypopulation is in acute poverty Income of less than $1 per dayIncome of less than $1 per day 70% of these are women and 70% of these are women and

childrenchildren Poor diets, housing, sanitation, Poor diets, housing, sanitation,

clean water, education, medical clean water, education, medical care and other essentialscare and other essentials

Poverty – Environmental Poverty – Environmental ProtectionProtection

LinkedLinked To meet their short term survival needs at the To meet their short term survival needs at the

cost of environmental degradationcost of environmental degradation Farm virgin forestsFarm virgin forests Cultivate steep erosion prone soilsCultivate steep erosion prone soils Crowding in major cities with no waste disposal, foul Crowding in major cities with no waste disposal, foul

water supplies, and contaminate the airwater supplies, and contaminate the air

Survival may only be possible by Survival may only be possible by over harvesting resourcesover harvesting resources

The cost?The cost? Diminish their own optionsDiminish their own options Diminish options of future Diminish options of future

generationsgenerations

The RichThe Rich 1/5 of the world’s 1/5 of the world’s

population lives in the 20 population lives in the 20 richest countriesrichest countries Annual income above Annual income above

$25,000$25,000 North America, Western North America, Western

Europe, Japan, Singapore, Europe, Japan, Singapore, Australia….Australia….

The PoorThe Poor

4/5 of the World’s population lives in middle- 4/5 of the World’s population lives in middle- or low-income countriesor low-income countries Annual income is below $620 per yearAnnual income is below $620 per year China, India, sub-Saharan Africa…..China, India, sub-Saharan Africa…..

Food for thoughtFood for thought

““The richest 200 people in the world have a The richest 200 people in the world have a combined wealth of $1 trillion. This is more combined wealth of $1 trillion. This is more than the total owned by the 3 billion people who than the total owned by the 3 billion people who make up the poorest half of the worlds make up the poorest half of the worlds population”population”

Fair Share of Resources?Fair Share of Resources? Richer countries enjoy lifestyles which Richer countries enjoy lifestyles which

consume large portion of the worlds natural consume large portion of the worlds natural resourcesresources

They produce a high proportion of pollutants They produce a high proportion of pollutants and wasteand waste

US (less than 5% of the World’s population) US (less than 5% of the World’s population) consumes ¼ of most commercially traded consumes ¼ of most commercially traded

commoditiescommodities produces ¼ - ½ the most industrial wasteproduces ¼ - ½ the most industrial waste

If everyone tried to consume at our rate, it If everyone tried to consume at our rate, it would be disastrous!would be disastrous!

Find ways to curb desiresFind ways to curb desires Less destructive productionsLess destructive productions

Can human life be sustained on Earth??Can human life be sustained on Earth??

SustainabilitySustainability

Ecological stability and human progress that can Ecological stability and human progress that can last over the long termlast over the long term

Sustainable development- meeting the needs of Sustainable development- meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needsfuture generations to meet their own needs