biodiversity and its value

8/2/2019 Biodiversity and Its Value

1/16

Biodiversity and its value

Biodiversity Series, Paper No. 1

This paper was prepared by the Biodiversity Unit within the Commonwealth Department of theEnvironment, Sport and Territories (DEST). Input from members of the Biological Diversity AdvisoryCommittee, and agencies and relevant areas of the Environment, Sport and Territories Portfolio isacknowledged.

CONTENTS

l Acknowledgements

l Introduction

l 1 What is biological diversity ? 1.1 Genetic diversity

1.2 Species diversity

1.3 Ecosystem diversity

l 2 Why is biological diversity important ? 2.1 The value of biological diversity's components

2.2 The value of diversity

l Glossary and abbreviations

l References

ISBN 0 642 19904 3

Published by the Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories(copyright) Commonwealth of Australia, 1993

Information presented in this document may be copied for personal use or published for educationalpurposes, provided that any extracts are fully acknowledged.

Biodiversity UnitDepartment of the Environment, Sport and Territories,GPO Box 787, Canberra ACT 2601

General enquiries, telephone (008) 803 772

This paper explains biological diversity and the three levels at which it is usually considered:genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. It also briefly discusses why biological diversity isimportant, especially the value of its components and diversity itself.

Skip Navigation WHAT'S NEW | CONTACTS | COMMENTS | PUBLICATIONS | SITE INDEX | SEARCH

BIODIVERSITY

PublicationsGo back to: EA Home > Biodiversity > Publications

Pgina 1 de 16Biodiversity and Its Value: Biodiversity Series, Paper No. 1

15/06/2003http://www.ea.gov.au/biodiversity/publications/series/paper1/index.html


2/16

INTRODUCTION

Welcome to this new series of occasional papers on Australia's biodiversity. The series intends, for thefirst time, to collate and make available information relating to all aspects of the conservation ofAustralia's biodiversity - why it is globally significant, the conservation status of its components,threatening processes, current levels of knowledge, and the adequacy of conservation measures. In

addition the series will also include results from selected projects undertaken on behalf of theBuiodiversity Unit.

The emergence of this series is very timely in that it coincides with growing national and globalawareness of the need to conserve biodiversity, and increasing action to achieve this. The Conventionon Biological Diversity which came into force on 29 December 1993 provides the global mechanism toensure the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for the present and future generations.Within Australia, the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity, currentlybeing finalised by governments, is the key measure for implementing our obligations under theConvention. The

Strategy recognises that, as a megadiverse country, Australia's biodiversity is globally significant and

that its conservation will bring benefits to all.

This paper outlines what biodiversity is, and the three levels at which it is uaually defined: genetic,species and ecosystem. Most importantly, this paper explains why biodiversity is important. The rangeof invaluable ecosystem services provided by biodiversity are described, as are the values of biologicalresources such as timber and food and the range of social and cultural values of biodiversity. Toconclude, the paper describes the value of biodiversity itself.

The series is particularly important because it takes a coordinated and integrated approach to providinginformation on biodiversity. In doing so, not only is a major information gap filled, but it is clearlydemonstrated that biodiversity conservation is a cornerstone of an ecologically sustainable future forAustralia. The appers in this series will be valued by all interested in or concerned about our unique and

valuable biodiversity.

1. WHAT IS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY?

Biological diversity or biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms: the different plants, animals andmicroorganisms, the genes they contain, and the ecosystems they form. This living wealth is theproduct of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary history. In places as ancient as Australia, thishistory can still be seen today in 'living fossils' whose origins date back hundreds of millions of years.Living structures called stromatolites which can be seen in Shark Bay, Western Australia, represent oneof the longest continual biological lineages known, some 1900 million years.(1) The process ofevolution means that the pool of living diversity is dynamic: it increases when new genetic variation is

produced, a new species is created or a novel ecosystem formed; it decreases when the geneticvariation within a species decreases, a species becomes extinct or an ecosystem complex is lost. Theconcept emphasises the interrelated nature of the living world and its processes.

Biological diversity is usually considered at three different levels: genetic diversity, species diversity andecosystem diversity.

l Genetic diversity refers to the variety of genetic information contained in all of the individualplants, animals and microorganisms. Genetic diversity occurs within and between populations ofspecies as well as between species.




3/16

l Species diversity refers to the variety of living species.

l Ecosystem diversity relates to the variety of habitats, biotic communities, and ecologicalprocesses, as well as the tremendous diversity present within ecosystems in terms of habitatdifferences and the variety of ecological processes.

1.1 GENETIC DIVERSITY

Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species. This covers genetic variation betweendistinct populations of the same species, such as the four varieties of white-cheeked rosella,Platycercus eximius. It also covers genetic variation within a population, which tends to be relativelyhigh in widespread eucalypts such as Eucalyptus cloeziana, E. delegatensis, and E. saligna.(2) Geneticdiversity can be measured using a variety of DNA-based and other techniques.(3)

New genetic variation is produced in populations of organisms that can reproduce sexually byrecombination and in individuals by gene and chromosome mutations. The pool of genetic variationpresent in an interbreeding population is shaped by selection. Selection leads to certain geneticattributes being preferred and results in changes to the frequency of genes within this pool.

The large differences in the amount and distribution of genetic variation can be attributed in part to theenormous variety and complexity of habitats, and the different ways organisms obtain their living.

One estimate is that there are 10,000,000,000 different genes distributed across the world's biota,though they do not all make an identical contribution to overall genetic diversity. (4) In particular, thosegenes which control fundamental biochemical processes are strongly conserved across differentspecies groups (or taxa) and generally show little variation. Other more specialised genes display agreater degree of variation.

Figure 1: Genetic variation within the White-cheeked Rosella. Genetic variation within a species can express itself in many ways. The White-cheeked Rosella, for example, is made up of four varieties, each with its own distinct colour combination and markings. The diagram showswhere these varieties are found.




4/16

1.2 SPECIES DIVERSITY

Species diversity refers to the variety of species. Aspects of species diversity can be measured in anumber of ways. Most of these ways can be classified into three groups of measurement:speciesrichness, species abundance and taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity.(5)

Measures of species richness count the number of species in a defined area. Measures of species

abundance sample the relative numbers among species. A typical sample may contain several verycommon species, a few less common species and numerous rare species. Measures of speciesdiversity that simplify information on species richness and relative abundance into a single index are inextensive use. (5), (6). Another approach is to measure taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity, whichconsiders the genetic relationships between different groups of species. These measures are based onanalysis which results in a hierarchical classification usually represented by a 'tree' that depicts thebranching pattern which is thought to best represent the phylogenetic evolution of the taxa concerned.

Different measures of taxonomic diversity emphasise various taxic characteristics and relationships.(7),(8) The species level is generally regarded to be the most appropriate to consider the diversity betweenorganisms. This is because species are the primary focus of evolutionary mechanisms and thereforeare relatively well defined. At the global level, an estimated 1.7 million species have been described to

date; current estimates for the total number of species in existance vary from five million to nearly 100million.(9) In Australia, with an estimated total number of native species (excluding bacteria andviruses) of 475 000, about half are known, but only a quarter formally described. (10) Estimations of thenumber of species can be expected to improve with study into a number of poorly assessed groups:namely microorganisms, fungi, nematodes, mites and insects.

On a broad scale species diversity is not evenly distributed across the globe. The single most obviouspattern in the global distribution of species is that overall species richness is concentrated in equatorialregions and tends to decrease as one moves from equatorial to polar regions. In general, there aremore species per unit area in the tropics than in temperate regions and far more species in temperateregions than there are in polar regions. In addition, diversity in land ecosystems generally decreaseswith increasing altitude. Other factors which are generally believed to influence diversity on land are

rainfall patterns and nutrient levels. In marine ecosystems, species richness tends to be concentratedon continental shelves, though deep sea communities are also significant.

1.3 ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY

Ecosystem diversity encompasses the broad differences between ecosystem types, and the diversity ofhabitats and ecological processes occurring within each ecosystem type. It is harder to defineecosystem diversity than species or genetic diversity because the 'boundaries' of communities(associations of species) and ecosystems are more fluid. Since the ecosystem concept is dynamic andthus variable, it can be applied at different scales, though for management purposes it is generally usedto group broadly similar assemblages of communities, such as temperate rainforests or coral reefs. Akey element in the consideration of ecosystems is that in the natural state, ecological processes such

as energy flows and water cycles are conserved.

The classification of the Earth's immense variety of ecosystems into a manageable system is a majorscientific challenge, and is important for management and conservation of the biosphere. At the globallevel, most classification systems have attempted to steer a middle course between the complexities ofcommunity ecology and the oversimplified terms of a general habitat classification.

Generally these systems use a combination of a habitat type definition with a climatic descriptor; forexample, tropical moist forest, or temperate grassland. Some systems also incorporate globalbiogeography to account for differences in biota between regions of the world which may have very




5/16

similar climate and physical characteristics.

Australia and its territories encompass an enormous range of terrestrial and aquatic environments, frompolar ice-caps to arid grasslands and tropical rainforests, from coral reefs to the deep sea. Each ofthese comprises a great variety of habitats and interactions between and within biotic and abiotic

components. For example, the spinifex grasslands of the arid zone encompass both treed and treeless

communities. Within each spinifex tussock itself there are a range of microhabitats. Different speciesinvolved in a range of ecological processes such as seed dispersal (for example, by ant species) andnutrient recycling occur within each microhabitat.

The measurement of ecosystem diversity is still in its infancy. Nevertheless, ecosystem diversity is anessential element of total biodiversity and accordingly should be reflected in any biodiversityassessment.

2. WHY IS BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IMPORTANT?

Today, as ever, human beings are dependent for their sustenance, health, well-being and enjoyment oflife on fundamental biological systems and processes. Humanity derives all of its food and manymedicines and industrial products from the wild and domesticated components of biological diversity.Biotic resources also serve recreation and tourism, and underpin the ecosystems which provide us withmany services.

While the benefits of such resources are considerable, the value of biological diversity is not restrictedto these. The enormous diversity of life in itself is of crucial value, probably giving greater resilience toecosystems and organisms. Biodiversity also has important social and cultural values.

2.1 THE VALUE OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY'S COMPONENTS

Generally, benefits arising from the conservation of components of biological diversity can beconsidered in three groups: ecosystem services, biological resources and social benefits. Someexamples of these benefits follow.

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Protection of water resources

Natural vegetation cover in water catchments helps to maintain hydrological cycles, regulating andstabilising water runoff, and acting as a buffer against extreme events such as flood and drought.Vegetation removal results in siltation of catchment waterways, loss of water yield and quality, anddegradation of aquatic habitat, among other things. Vegetation also helps to regulate underground

water tables, preventing dryland salinity which affects vast areas of Australia's agricultural lands, atgreat cost to the community. Wetlands and forests act as water purifying systems, while mangrovestrap silt, reducing impacts on marine ecosystems.

These services translate into substantial financial benefits. A Victorian Government sponsored study,for example, calculated the financial benefit of water supplied to Melbourne from forested catchments at$250 million per year. This amount is based on a study which valued water collected in the ThomsonReservoir and supplied to Melbourne at $530 per megalitre, and the fact that the bulk of water suppliedto Melbourne is harvested from 80 000 ha of catchment forested with ash-type eucalypts. Annual wateryields from these forests vary from six to twelve megalitres per hectare, depending on whether the




6/16

forest is 30 year old regrowth or oldgrowth more than 200 years old. Presently most of the ash-typeeucalypt forest in the catchments is 54 years old. Over the next 50 to 100 years, as the regrowth forestsage, the value of water produced each year will increase by $150 million due to natural streamflowincreases.(14)

Soils formation and protection

Biological diversity helps in the formation and maintenance of soil structure and the retention ofmoisture and nutrient levels. The loss of biological diversity through clearing of vegetation hascontributed to the salinisation of soils, leaching of nutrients, laterisation of minerals and acceleratederosion of topsoil, reducing the land's productivity. Trees, on the other hand, lower the water table andremove deposited salt from the upper soil horizons.

Soil protection by maintenance of biological diversity can preserve the productive capacity of the soil,prevent landslides, safeguard coastlines and riverbanks, and prevent the degradation of coral reefs andriverine and coastal fisheries by siltation.

Trees and other vegetation also assist in soil formation. A significant contribution is the introduction oforganic matter through litter formation and the decay and regeneration of tiny fibrous roots, both of

which facilitate microbial activity. Another contribution is through the effects of root systems whichbreak up soil and rock leading to, amongst other things, penetration of water. Root systems also bringmineral nutrients to the surface through root uptake. Organic matter formed by the decay of tiny fibrousroots can also bind with minerals, such as iron and aluminium, which can reduce the potentialdeleterious effects of these minerals on other vegetation.(15)

Nutrient storage and cycling

Ecosystems perform the vital function of recycling nurients. These nutrients include the elements of theatmosphere as well as those found in the soil, which are necessary for the maintenance of life.Biological diversity is essential in this process. Plants are able to take up nutrients from the soil as wellas from the air, and these nutrients can then form the basis of food chains, to be used by a wide range

of other life forms. The soil's nutrient status, in turn, is replenished by dead or waste matter which istransformed by microorganisms; this may then feed other species such as earthworms which also mixand aerate the soil and make nutrients more readily available.

Pollution breakdown and absorption

Ecosystems and ecological processes play an important role in the breakdown and absorption of manypollutants created by humans and their activities. These include wastes such as sewage, garbage andoil spills. Components of ecosystems from bacteria to higher life forms are involved in these breakdownand assimilative processes. Excessive quantities of any pollutant, however, can be detrimental to theintegrity of ecosystems and their biota.

Some ecosystems, especially wetlands, have qualities that are particularly well suited to breaking downand absorbing pollutants. Natural and artificial wetlands are being used to filter effluents to removenutrients, heavy metals and suspended solids, reduce the biochemical oxygen demand and destroypotentially harmful microorganisms.

Click here for article "Microorganisms - providing an essential service"

Contribution to climate stability




7/16

Vegetation influences climate at the macro and micro levels. Growing evidence suggests thatundisturbed forest helps to maintain the rainfall in its immediate vicinity by recycling water vapour at asteady rate back into the atmosphere and through the canopy's effect in promoting atmosphericturbulence. At smaller scales, vegetation has a moderating influence on local climates and may createquite specific micro-climates. Some organisms are dependent on such micro-climates for theirexistence.

Maintenance of ecosystems

Ecosystem relationships resemble a web of connections from one living thing to many other living andnon-living things. They not only allow survival, but also maintain a balance between living things andthe resources (such as food and shelter) they need to survive. Vegetation is integral to the maintenanceof water and humidity levels and is essential for the maintenence of the oxygen/carbon dioxide balanceof the atmosphere. Due to the complex nature of ecosystem relationships, the removal or disturbanceof one part of the ecosystem could affect the functioning of many other components of the ecosystem.Our knowledge of these relationships is incomplete, and the results of disturbance are thus to someextent unpredictable.

Maintaining natural habitats helps ecosystem functions over a wider area. Natural habitats afford

sanctuary to breeding populations of birds and other predators which help control insect pests inagricultural areas, thus reducing the need for, and cost of artifical control measures. Birds and nectorloving insects roost and breed in natural habitats may range some distance and pollinate crops andnative flora in surrounding areas.

Recovery from unpredictable events

Maintaining healthy ecosystems improves the chances of recovery of plant and animal populations fromunpredictable natural catastophic events such as fire, flood and cyclones and from disasters caused byhumans. Inadequately conserved and isolated populations, and ecosystems which are degraded, areless likely to recover or to recover as quickly, to their former state. Populations of biota may end up withsmall, possibly non-viable, genetic bases, which can lead to extinctions.

BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Food

Human existence (and that of most other organisms) is heavily dependent on what biologists callprimary producers, mainly plants. Five thousand plant species have been used as food by humans, butless than twenty now feed the majority of the world's population and just three or four carbohydratecrops are staples for a vast majority. One of the important benefits of conservation of biodiversity is thewild plant gene pool which is available to augment the narrow genetic base of these established foodcrops, providing disease resistance, improved productivity and different environmental tolerances.(24),(25)

Australia's native species are contributing to the global food capacity. Australia has important nativefish and crustacean harvesting industries and is the reservoir of genetic diversity for the macadamiaand quandong. Such reservoirs increase the opportunities for enhancing agricultural productivity.Australia, for example, has 15 of the world's 16 species of wild soybean. These may prove to beextremely valuable genetic stock in the future because, unlike current commercial varieties, many ofthese wild plants have genes that help them resist leaf rust diseases.

There is also great food potential in native Australian plants. The nutritional value of 'bush' foods isquite high, some having greater amounts of protein, fats, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins than




8/16

cultivated plant foods. For example, acacia seeds, some 50 types of which were used by Aboriginalpeople for food, are superior to rice and wheat in energy, protein and fats. The potential of Australianacacias to augment diets in Africa is currently being investigated 26, and Australian native species ofVignaare being explored to add useful characteristics to the domesticated mung bean, and for theirpotential as food in their own right(27). The seeds of pigweed (Portulaca oleracea), which werecommonly eaten by Aboriginal peoples, contain 20 per cent protein, 16 per cent fat, and high levels ofiron. A native fig, Ficus platypoda, has very high levels of calcium (4000mg/100g), as well as higherprotein and fat content than expected for fruits, while the wild Arnhem Land plum has spectacularamounts of Vitamin C - more than 50 times the level found in exotic citrus fruit.( 28), (29) New chemicalstructures are being discovered all the time, and the conservation of biological diversity is essential forthe continuation of this research.

The short and long-term values of these genetic resources are enormous and most improvements inagriculture and silviculture depend on their preservation. Moreover, the gene pool value of naturalhabitats will increase as remaining natural habitats become more scarce. These areas are therefore ofgreat value as in situgene banks, and need to be effectively managed.

Medicinal resources

People have long used biological resources for medicinal purposes. Australian Aboriginal societiesmade use of many native plants as medicines; at least 70 were used by central Australian Aboriginalpeople alone.(14) 30 Examples cover many genera, and include acacias and eremophilas,(30) as wellas individual species such as Isotoma petraeaand the parrot plant (Crotolaria cunninghamii).(31) A fewAboriginal medicines have been widely used in western medicine, such as the ubiquitous eucalyptus oilfor relief of respiratory tract infections, but many more are now being investigated. A prime example isprovided by current research into the bark of a tree found in the Kimberleys, which is known toAboriginal people as a powerful painkiller.(32)

A number of Australian species are the basis of medicinal products. Hyoscine (or scopolamine), used totreat motion sickness, stomach disorders and the effects of cancer therapy, is a product of two speciesof corkwood (Duboisia). One of these, D. leichhardtii, is restricted to Queensland, and the hybridbetween the two species produces more hyoscine than any other plant.(33). The vine Tylophorais the

source of the drug tylocrebrine,(34) which has been effective in treating lymphoid leukemia, while thekangaroo apples Solanum aviculareand S. laciniatum, found in Australia and New Zealand andcultivated overseas, provide salasodine, which is easily converted to steroids.(33)

Wild plant, animal and microorganism resources are also of great importance in the search for newmedically active compounds, and the potential of other Australian biota to contribute to modernmedicine has scarcely begun to be realised. Many of the drugs presently used are derived from plants;many medicines, in particular antibiotics, are derived from microorganisms, and new chemicalstructures are being discovered all the time. The native pepper (Piper novae-hollandiae) and theblackbean (Castanospermum australe) both offer potential in the treatment of cancer.(33) Current workat Macquarie University is exploring the antibiotic potential of secretions from glands of bulldog ants(Myrmecia). The substances have strong antibiotic properties, and kill a wide range of selected bacteria

and fungi. Their potential, particularly as industrial biocides, is enormous.(35)

Studies of various chemicals produced by animals have led to discoveries of medicinally usefulsubstances. A substance called Prostaglandin E2, which could be of importance in the treatment ofgastric ulcers, was originally discovered in the two species of gastric brooding frogs (Rheobatrachus)found only in the rainforests of Queensland. Unfortunately, both species have not been sighted forsome time, and it is conceivable that one at least (R. silus) is now extinct.(36)

Wood products




9/16

Wood is a basic commodity used worldwide, and is still largely harvested from the wild. It is a primarysource of fuel, is used in construction, and forms the basis for paper production.

Australian native plants have been of continued importance in the construction of buildings andfurniture, and more recently for paper production. The timber industries form a significant part of ourmodern economy. The unique nature of Australian species has been well recognised: huon pine(Lagarostrobus franklinii) does not decay; gidgee (Acacia cambagei) and mulga (Acacia aneura sens.

lat.) are very hard woods currently being investigated for musical instruments; and the lignotubers ofsome eucalypts and banksias are favoured for highly decorative furniture. Many Australian species,notably eucalypts, are grown overseas for timber products.

Ornamental plants

Native Australian species are increasingly being used for ornamental and horticultural purposes, withnew hybrids and strains being developed and marketed. One well known example is the Grevillea"Robyn Gordon". The cut flower trade of Western Australia is also of great importance, with manyspecies harvested, and some being cultivated for this purpose.

Breeding stocks, population reservoirs

Natural areas provide support systems for commercially valuable environmental benefits andresources.

Some habitats protect crucial life stages or elements of wildlife populations that are widely andprofitably harvested outside these habitats, such as spawning areas in mangroves and wetlands. Forexample, when mangrove areas are cleared for resort and urban development, populations ofcommercial fish species which rely on mangroves for breeding habitats also diminish. Some of thesecrucial habitats have been declared protected areas, as their importance for maintaining stocks of fish,crustaceans such as prawns and mud-crabs, and other aquatic fauna has been recognised.(37), (38)

Other habitats act as genetic reservoirs from which seed and other material can be assessed for

enhancement of harvested species. The leaf oil content of several Western Australian eucalyptusmallee species, for example, is being assessed from across their natural distributions to identify highyield populations for potential propagation.

Future resources

About 50 per cent of species in Australia are known but only a quarter formally described ( 10). Asknowledge improves, new bioresources to increase human welfare will be discovered and developed.There is a clear relationship between the conservation of biological diversity and the discovery of newbiological resources. The relatively few developed plant species currently cultivated have had a largeamount of research and selective breeding applied to them. Many presently under-utilised food cropshave the potential to become important in the future. The documentation of indigenous peoples' use of

plants is often the source for ideas on developing plant species for wider use and/or economic benefitand there are a large number of as yet undiscovered plant species which could prove useful. (39)

Potential products which may be derived from biological resources include sunscreens from corals, lightand high tensile fibres from spider silk, and instant adhesives from velvet worms or barnacles. (40)Microorganisms are important in the production of extensive ranges of agrochemicals, protein foranimal feed, enzymes and biopolymers.

There is also potential for further development of biotic resources for natural pesticides, similar to theinsecticidal microorganism Bacillus thuringiensis, and other useful products such as fats, and oils. (24)




10/16

The conservation of diversity is also essential for finding effective biological control organisms and forbreeding disease resistant species. Genetic engineering of microorganisms promises further advancesin the production of new compounds and processes. (25)

SOCIAL BENEFITS

Research, education and monitoring

There is still much to learn on how to get better use from biological resources, how to maintain thegenetic base of harvested biological resources, and how to rehabilitate degraded ecosystems. Naturalareas provide excellent living laboratories for such studies, for comparison with other areas underdifferent systems of use, and for valuable research into ecology and evolution. Unaltered habitats areoften essential for certain research approaches, providing controls against which the changes broughtabout by different management regimes may be measured and assessed.

Recreation

Biological diversity is an intrinsic part of many areas valued in Australia for tourism and recreationalpurposes. The aesthetic qualities of such areas are often strikingly different, in large part due to therange of biological diversity to be found on this continent. People value such areas for a variety ofrecreational pursuits: film, photographs or literature based on or using wildlife, natural habitats andnatural features; birdwatching; and ecological field study and other scientific pursuits. (41) TheAustralian environment is a major factor in attracting tourists. Studies have shown that over 85 per centof Japanese visitors and 70 per cent of European and American travellers identified such factors asbeautiful scenery and wildlife as key elements of their travel decisions. (42) In addition, it has beenconservatively estimated that at least 10 million people visited natural environments in Australia in1987/88; five million visited parks and reserves, four million visited the four major zoological gardensand one million visited botanical gardens. (43)

Cultural values

The cultural value of biological diversity conservation for present and future generations is an importantreason for conserving it today. Human cultures coevolve with their environment, and the conservationof biological diversity can be important for cultural identity throughout Australia. The naturalenvironment provides for many of the inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual and educational needs of people,of all cultures, now and in the future. Australian society places great cultural value on the 'bush' whilecertain species, such as the kangaroo, koala and the emu, have become national icons.

The aesthetic values of our natural ecosystems and landscapes contribute to the emotional andspiritual well-being of a highly urbanised population. The conservation of biological diversity also hasethical benefits. The presence of a wide range of living organisms reminds people that they are but oneinterdependent part of Earth.

Aboriginal relationships to the land and sea, and its animals and plants are complex. To these peoplethe land and sea has a deep spiritual, economic, social, protective and recreational significance. Byhunting and gathering, tribal Aboriginal people are not only supplementing their diet with food very highin nutritional value; they are also confirming their self-sufficiency and, more importantly, educating theirchildren in relationships to the land and to other aspects of their culture. (44) Biological diversityconservation can contribute to the conservation of Aboriginal cultural identity.

Benefits of timely action




11/16

Another benefit of conservation is the avoidance of the rising costs of inaction. Already Australia issuffering losses in production from environmental degradation and is spending considerable sums inenvironmental repair. Land degradation costs in Australia have been estimated at $1150 millionannually, (45) and the CSIRO has classified some 52 per cent of the continent as degraded in one wayor another and in need of reclamation.(46) Salinity related problems in the Murrary-Darling Basin aloneare estimated to cost $35 million annually, and losses to agriculture in this region are in the order of$260 million each year. (47) These costs are those identified today. Currently, some $320 million hasbeen directed to the Decade of Landcare, much of which will be for the control of land degradation. ( 48)

Without remedial action degradation will inevitably increase and the costs of repair faced by thecommunity in the future will be much greater. These costs can be reduced by strategic and timelyconservation actions.

2.2 THE VALUE OF DIVERSITY

The sheer diversity of life is of inestimable value. It provides a foundation for the continued existence ofa healthy planet and our own well-being. Many biologists now believe that ecosystems rich in diversitygain greater resilience and are therefore able to recover more readily from stresses such as drought orhuman induced habitat degradation. When ecosystems are diverse, there is a range of pathways for

primary production and ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, so that if one is damaged ordestroyed, an alternative pathway may be used and the ecosystem can continue functioning at itsnormal level. If biological diversity is greatly diminished, the functioning of ecosystems is put at risk.

Possibly the greatest value of the variety of life may be the opportunities it gives us for adapting tochange. The unknown potential of genes, species and ecosystems is of inestimable but certainly highvalue. Genetic diversity will enable breeders to tailor crops to new climatic conditions, while the Earth'sbiota is likely to hold still undiscovered cures for known and emerging diseases. A multiplicity of genes,species, and ecosystems is a resource that can be tapped as human needs change.

There is possibly no single particular argument which on its own, provides sufficient grounds forattempting to maintain all existing biological diversity. A more general and pragmatic approach,

however, recognises that different but equally valid arguments - resource values, precautionary values,ethics and aesthetics, and simple self-interest -apply in different cases, and between them provide anoverwhelmingly powerful and convincing case for the conservation of biological diversity.

The many values of biological diversity and its importance for development indicate why biologicaldiversity conservation differs from traditional nature conservation. Biological diversity conservationentails a shift from a reactive posture - protecting nature from the impacts of development - to aproactive effort seeking to meet peoples' needs from biological resources while ensuring the long-termecological sustainability of Earth's biotic wealth. On a global level it thus involves not only the protectionof wild species and their habitats but also the safeguarding of the genetic diversity of cultivated anddomesticated species and their wild relatives.

The conservation of biological diversity seeks to maintain the life-support system provided by nature inall its variety, and the living resources essential for ecologically sustainable development.

GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS

Abiotic Non-living, eg. rocks or minerals.

Biological diversity The variety of life forms: the different plants, animals and microorganisms, thegenes they contain, and the ecosystems they form. It is usually considered at three levels: genetic




12/16

diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

Biogeography The scientific study of the geographic distribution of organisms

Biota All the organisms, including animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms in a given area.

Chromosome Body found in the nucleus of living cells, composed mainly of DNA and protein, in a

linear sequence of genes. Exchange of genes during sexual reproduction is facilitated by splitting ofchromosomes during fertilisation.

CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

DEST Commonwealth Department of Environment, Sport and Territories (formerly DASET)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) The genetic material of most living organisms, which is a majorconstituent of the chromosomes within the cell nucleus and plays a central role in the determination ofhereditary characteristics by controlling protein synthesis in cells.

Homology The condition of being homologous. Homologous refers to organs or structures deriving

from the same evolutionary origins. For example, the forelimb of a quadruped, the human arm and thewing of a bird are said to be homologous.

Ecological processes Processes which play an essential part in maintaining ecosystem integrity. Fourfundamental ecological processes are the cycling of water, the cycling of nutrients, the flow of energy,and biodiversity (as an expression of the process of evolution).

Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal, fungal and microorganism communities andassociated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit

Endemic Restricted to a specified region or locality.

Fauna All of the animals found in a given area.

Flora All of the plants found in a given area.

Gene The functional unit of heredity; the part of the DNA molecule that encodes a single enzyme orstructural protein unit.

Genus (genera) A category used in the classification of organisms that consists of a number of closelyrelated species.

Habitat The place or type of site where an organism naturally occurs.

Heterozygous Having two different alleles or gene-forms at a given locus of a pair of chromosomes.

Hydrological cycle Water cycle, involving the exchange of waterbetween the atmosphere, water-bodies, the Earth's crust and living organisms. Operates on a global to microcosm level.

In-situ In its original place or environment.

Mutualism An interaction between two species in which both species benefit.




13/16

Phylogenetic Pertaining to the evolutionary history of a particular group of organisms.

Phylum In taxonomy, a high-level category just beneath the kingdom and above the class; a group ofrelated, similar classes.

Recombination The rearrangement of genes that occurs when reproductive cells (gametes) areformed. Recomination results in offspring that have a combination of characteristics different from that

of their parents.

Selection Natural selection is the differential contribution of offspring to the next generation by variousgenetic types belonging to the same populations.

Species A group of organisms capable of interbreeding freely with each other but not with members ofother species.

Taxon (pl. taxa) The named classification unit to which individuals, or sets of species, are assigned,such as species, genus, order etc.

REFERENCES

1. Burne, R.V. (1991/1992). Lilliput's Castles: stromatolites of Hamelin Pool, Landscope. 7(2):34-41.

2. Moran, G.F. and Hopper, S.D. (1987). Conservation of the Genetic Resources of Rare andWidespread Eucalypts in Remnant Vegetation. In: Saunders, D.A. et al(eds.). Nature Conservation:The Role of Remnants of Native Vegetation. Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd and others, Norton, NSW.

3. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) (comp.). (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of theEarth's Living Resources. In collaboration with the Nat. History Museum, London; in assoc. with IUCN,UNEP, WWF & WRI, Chapman & Hall, London. pp1-3.

4. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) (comp.). (1992). Global Biodiversity Status of theEarth's Living Resources. pg. xiii.

5. Magurran, A.E. (1988). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Croom-Helm, London.

6. Melbourne, B. (1993). Insect biodiversity and its assessment in terrestrial ecosystems: a review ofthe literature.Unpublished paper. Division of Botany and Zoology, The Australian National University.

7. Faith, D. (1992). Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity. Biological Conservation61:1-10.

8. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) (comp.). (1992). Global Biodiversity Status of the

Earth's Living Resources. pp.11-12.

9. World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) (comp.). (1992). Global Biodiversity Status of theEarth's Living Resources. pp.xiii,17.

10. Nielsen, E.S. and Halliday, B. (1993). CSIRO. Personal Communication.

11. based on Margulis, L. and Schwartz, K.V. (1988). Five Kingdoms - An Illustrated Guide to the Phylaof Life on Earth. Second Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York NY.




14/16

12. Grassle, J.F., Lasserre, P.A., McIntyre, A.D., and Ray, G.C. (1991). Marine biodiversity andecosystem function. Biol. Int. Special issue 23: i-iv, 1-19. Cited in Ray, G.C. and Grassle, J.F. (1991).Marine Biological Diversity. BioScience41 (7): 453-457.

13. Polunin, N.U.C. (1983). Marine "genetic" resources and the potential role of protected areas inconserving this. Environmental Conservation10(1):31-41.

14. Read, Sturgess and Associates. (1982). Evaluation of Economic Values of Wood and Water for theThomson Catchment. Report prepared for Melbourne Water.

15. Attiwill, P.M. and Leeper, G.W. (1987). Forest Soils and Nutrient Cycles, Melbourne UniversityPress, Melbourne.

16. based on World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) (comp.). (1992). Global BiodiversityStatus of the Earth's Living Resources. pp.47-54.

17. Margulis, L. and Schwartz, K.V. (1988). Five Kingdoms - An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life onEarth. Second Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York NY.

18. Margulis, L. and Fester, R. (eds.) (1991). Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation,Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, Mass.

19. Read, D.J. (1991). Mycorrhizas in ecosystems - nature's response to the "Law of the Minimum". In:Hawksworth, D.L. (ed.), Frontiers in Mycology. CAB International, Wallingford. pp. 101-130.

20. Anderson, R.A. (1992). The diversity of eukaryotic algae. Biodiversity and Conservation. 1(4):267-292.

21. Round, F.E. (1981). The Ecology of Algae. Cambridge University Press, New York.

22. Lal, R. (1991). Soil conservation and biodiversity. In: Hawksworth, D.L. (ed.), The Biodiversity of

Microorganisms and Invertebrates: its role in sustainable agriculture. CAB International, Wallingford.pp. 89-104.

23. McKinnell, F.H., Hopkins, E.R. and Fox, J.E.D. (eds). (1991). Forest Management in Australia.Surrey Beatty and Sons Pty Ltd, Chipping Norton, NSW.

24. Plotkin, M.J. (1988). The outlook for new agricultural and industrial products from the tropics. In:E.O. Wilson (ed) Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington DC. pp.106-116.

25. Reid, W.V. and Miller, K.R. (1989). Keeping Options Alive: The Scientific Basis for ConservingBiological Diversity. World Resources Institute, Washington DC.

26. House, A.P.N. and Harwood, C.E. (Eds) (1992). Australian Dry-Zone Acacias for Human Food.Proceedings of a workshop held at Glen Helen NT, 7-10 August 1991. CSIRO, Canberra

27. Ralph, W. (1993). From bush tucker to beans. Ecos75 (Autumn):14-18.

28.Brand, J.C. and Cherikoff, V. (1985). Australian aboriginal bushfoods: The nutritional composition ofplants from arid and semi-arid areas. Australian Aboriginal Studies2:38-46.

29. Isaacs, J. (1987). Bush Food. Weldons Pty Ltd., Sydney.




15/16

30. Latz, P.K. (1982). Bushfires and bushtucker: Aborigines and plants in Central Australia.Unpublished MA thesis, University of New England, Armidale, NSW.

31. Reid, E.J. and Betts, T.J. (1979). Records of Western Australian plants used by Aboriginals asmedicinal agents. Planta Medica36: 164-173.

32. Kalotas, A.C. (1993). Recording and applying Aboriginal Botanical Knowledge in Western Australia:

Some recent examples and future prospects. In: Williams, N.M. and Baines, G. (eds). TraditionalEcological Knowledge: Wisdom for Sustainable Development. Based on the Traditional EcologicalKnowledge Workshop. CRES, ANU, 18-29 April 1988. CRES ANU, Canberra.

33. Low, T. (1987). Cures from the canopy. Australian Natural History22(4):185-188.

34. Meier, L. and Figgis, P. (eds). (1985). Rainforests of Australia. Weldon Pty Ltd, Sydney.

35. Beattie, A. (1993). Macquarie University. Personal Communication.

36. Tyler, M.J. (1989). Australian Frogs. Viking O'Neil, Melbourne.

37. Olsen, H.F. (1977). Great Sandy Strait fisheries habitat reserves. In: P. Lauer (ed) OccasionalPapers in Anthropology No.8, 223-230. University of Qld, Australia.

38. Ivanovici A.M. (ed). (1983). Inventory of Declared Marine and Estuarine Protected Areas inAustralian Waters. ANPWS, Canberra.

39. Iltis, H.H., (1988). Serendipity in the exploration of biodiversity: what good are weedy tomatoes? In:E.O. Wilson (ed) Biodiversity. National Academy Press, Washington D.C. pp.98-105.

40. Beattie, A. (1991). Biodiversity and Bioresources - The Forgotten Connection. Search, Vol 22, No 2,March 1991.

41. McNeely, J.A. (1988). Economics and Biological Diversity. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

42. Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) Working Group on Tourism. (1991). EcologicallySustainable Development Working Groups: Final Report - Tourism. AGPS, Canberra.

43. DASETT. (1991). Environmental Tourism. Draft Internal Document, Tourism Policy Branch.DASETT, Canberra.

44. Coombs, H.C., Brandl, M.M. and Snowdon, W.E. (1983). A Certain Heritage. CRES MonographNo.9. ANU, Canberra.

45. CSIRO. (1990). Australia's Environment and its Natural Resources: an outlook. CSIRO, Canberra.pg.14.

46. CSIRO. (1990). Australia's Environment and its Natural Resources: an outlook. CSIRO, Canberra.pg.2

47. Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council (MDBMC). (1990). Natural Resources ManagementStrategy, MDBMC, Canberra.

48. Hawke, R.J.L. (1989). Our Country, Our Future, Statement on the Environment by the Hon RJL




16/16

Hawke, AC. Prime Minister of Australia. AGPS, Canberra.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper was prepared by the Biodiversity Unit within the Commonwealth Department of theEnvironment, Sport and Territories (DEST). Input from members of the Biological Diversity AdvisoryCommittee, and agencies and relevant areas of the Environment, Sport and Territories Portfolio isacknowledged. The paper was refereed by Professor Barry Richardson of the University of Western

Sydney.

The paper is based on materials prepared for the Biological Diversity Advisory Committee in the contextof the development of a draft National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity.

Photograph credits

Front Cover: Background: Great Barrier Reef; Matt Jones/AUSCAPE International. Gouldian Finch; B& B Wells/NPIAW. South West Botanical Province, WA; Colin Totterdell/Australian HeritageCommission (AHC). Macadamia nut products; Macadamia Nuts Pty Ltd. Paddle Steamer; J P & E SBaker/ANT Photo Library. Green Alga, Kakadu, NT; J Pickett-Heaps/School of Botany, University ofMelbourne.

Back Cover: Spinifex grassland; Colin Totterdell/AHC

Text: Page 4: Gammon Ranges NP, SA; T Mead/ANT. Photo Library. Page 5: Blowfly chromosome(Luciliasp); D Bedo/CSIRO Division of Etomology. Lizard; J C Wombey. Mallee; D Eastburn/MurrayDarling Basin Commission (MDBC). Page 6: map; F.Sheard/CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology.Page 7: Moth (Fraus minima); Australian National Insect Collection/ CSIRO Division of Entomology.Page 8: Beetle (Stethhomelasp); C B & D W Frith/ANT Photo Library. Page 8: Green Alga; J Pickett-Heaps/School of Botany, University of Melbourne. Page 9: C Totterdell/AHC. Page 9: R & VTaylor/ANT Photo Library. Page 12: Mason Falls,Vic; J P & E S Baker/ANT Photo Library. Page 15:M.Kage/The Photo Library. Page 16: D Eastburn/MDBC. Page 17: Macadamia Nuts Pty Ltd. Page 19:K.Aitken/A.N.T. Photo Library. Page 20: K Atkinson. Page 21: R Hotchkiss/Australian National Botanic

Gardens (ANBG). Page 22: CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology. Page 23: B Bachman/ANT PhotoLibrary.

ACCESSIBILITY | DISCLAIMER | PRIVACY Commonwealth of Australia

WHAT'S NEW | CONTACTS | COMMENTS | PUBLICATIONS | SITE INDEX | SEARCH ToEA Home Last Updated: Wednesday, 05-Sep-2001 12:39:00 ES


biodiversity and its value

Documents